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Chapter 14
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Introduction

Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state
electronic devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc. Lattice structure and the
atomic structure of constituent elements decide whether a particular
material will be insulator, metal or semiconductor.

Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors

On the basis of conductivity:
On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity
(ρ = 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as:

(i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ~ 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m
σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1
(ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate
to metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m
σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1
(iii) Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ~ 1011 – 1019 Ω m
σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
Semiconductors which could be:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are:
• Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
• Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
• Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.
Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on
elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic semiconductors.

Energy Bands In Solids

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▪ Inside the crystal each electron will have a different energy level.
These different energy levels with continuous energy variation form
energy bands.
▪ The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence
electrons is called the valence band.
▪ The energy band which includes the energy levels of conduction
electrons is called the conduction band.
▪ The conduction band is above the valence band .Normally the
conduction band is empty and valence band is occupied.
▪ The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg ).
It is measured in electron volt.

Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors

On the basis of energy bands
(i) metals

In some metals, the conduction band is partially filled and the valence band
is partially empty with small energy gap and in some others the conduction
and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap electrons from valence band
can easily move into the conduction band. Therefore, the resistance of such
materials is low or the conductivity is high.

(ii)Insulators
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In insulators a large band gap , Eg > 3 eV. There are no electrons in the
conduction band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. The
energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band
to the conduction band by thermal excitation.

(iii)Semiconductors

In semiconductors a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because of
the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band
can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction
band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the
conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is lower than that
of insulators.

When the electrons from valence band move to the conduction band vacant
energy levels will be created in the valence band . This vacancy of electrons
is called hole. Other valence electrons can move to this hole thereby
producing hole current.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’.
Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In a pure Si or Ge crystal ,each atom
make covalent bond with four neighbouring atoms and share the four
valence electrons.
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As the temperature increases, these electrons get more thermal energy ,
break–away the covalent bonds and become free electrons contributing to
conduction. These free electrons (with charge –q) leaves a vacancy with an
effective charge (+q ). This vacancy with the effective positive electronic
charge is called a hole.

In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons, ne is equal to the

number of holes, nh.
ne = nh = ni
where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

The free electrons move as conduction electron and gives rise to an electron
current, Ie under an applied electric field. Under the action of an electric
field, the holes move towards negative potential giving the hole current, Ih.
The total current, I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and the hole
current Ih:
I = Ie + Ih

Energy-Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor at T=0K

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K .
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Energy-Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor at T > 0K
At temperatures (T > 0K), some electrons are excited from the valence
band to the conduction band, leaving equal number of holes there.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased . Such
materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors.
The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the
impurity atoms are called dopants. Such a material is also called a doped
semiconductor.

There are two types of dopants used in doping Si or Ge:

(i)Pentavalent (valency 5)
Eg: Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.
(ii)Trivalent (valency 3)
Eg: Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (A𝒍), etc.

Depending on the type of impurities added, there are two types of

semiconductors –
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii) p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping Si or Ge with pentavalent atoms
(donors) like As, Sb, P, etc. The four valence electrons of pendavalent
impurity atom bond with the four silicon neighbours ,while the fifth one is
free to move in the lattice of the semiconductor ,at room temperature. Thus,
the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and
hence is known as donor impurity.
For n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh
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Here electrons become the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers.
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium is given by
nenh = ni 2
Energy bands of n-type semiconductor at T > 0K

For n-type Si semiconductor ,the donor energy level ED ,is slightly below the
bottom EC of the conduction band .The electrons from this level move into
the conduction band with very small supply of energy.

p-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent
impurity like A𝑙, B, In, etc. The dopant has only 3 valence electrons and can
form covalent bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have
any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom. This vacancy of electron creates a
hole. As the pendavalent impurities creates holes ,which can accept
electrons from neighbouring atom, these impurities are called acceptor
impurities.
For p-type semiconductors, nh >> ne
Here holes become the majority carriers and electrons the minority carriers.
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium is given by
nenh = ni 2
Energy bands of p-type semiconductor at T > 0K
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For p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the
top EV of the valence band . With very small supply of energy an electron
from the valence band can jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor .
negatively.

p-n junction

A p-n junction can be formed by adding a small quantity of

pendavalent impurity to a p-type semiconductor or by adding a small
quantity of trivalent impurity to an n-type semiconductor.

Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:

diffusion and drift.

1.Diffusion
The holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-
side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carriers give rise to Diffusion
current across the junction.
Due to diffusion, a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge region)
is developed on n-side of the junction and a layer of negative charge (or
negative space-charge region) is developed on the p-side of the junction .

Depletion region (Depletion layer)

The space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as
depletion region. The depletion layer consist of immobile ion-cores and no
free electrons or holes. This is responsible for a junction potential barrier.

2.Drift
The positive charge on n-side of the junction and negative charge on p-side
of the junction develops an electric field. Due to this field, an
electron(minority carrier) on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a
hole(minority carrier) on n- side of the junction moves to p-side. The motion
of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.
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Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion
process continues, the electric field strength increases and hence drift
current also increases. This process continues until the diffusion current
equals the drift current.. Thus in a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no
net current. .

Barrier Potential

The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-
region causes a difference of potential across the junction of the two regions.
Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n
region into the p region, it is often called a barrier potential.
The barrier potential of a Ge diode is 0.2Vand that of a Si diode is 0.7V.

Semiconductor Diode

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts

provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two
terminal device.

Symbol of a p-n junction Diode

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p-n junction diode under forward bias

If p-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and n-side to the
negative terminal of the battery, it is said to be forward biased.
▪ The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is opposite to barrier potential
V0. As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the barrier
height is reduced.
▪ The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 – V ).
▪ At high applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion
region and reach p-side . Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction
and reach the n-side.
▪ This motion of majority carriers on either side gives rise to diffusion
current.
▪ The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.

p-n junction diode under reverse bias

If n-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and p-side to the
negative terminal of the battery, it is said to be reverse biased.

▪ The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is same as barrier potential V0.

As a result, the depletion layer width increases and the barrier height is
incresaed.
▪ The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V ).
▪ The flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n is suppressed.
Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared to the diode
under forward bias.
▪ The electricfield of the junction is such that the minority carriers are
drifted to majority zone which gives rise to drift current.
▪ The drift current is of the order of a few μA.
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V-I characteristics of a silicon diode.

▪ In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, till the voltage
across the diode crosses a certain value. . This voltage is called the
threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (0.2V for germanium diode and 0.7
V for silicon diode).
▪ After threshold voltage, the diode current increases significantly , even
for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage.
▪ For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~μA) and
almost remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse
saturation current. However, at very high reverse bias called break
down voltage Vbr, the current suddenly increases. The general purpose
diode are not used beyond the reverse saturation current region.

Threshold Voltage
The forward voltage beyond which the diode current increases significantly
is called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage.

Break down Voltage

The reverse voltage at which the reverse current increases suddenly is
called break down voltage.

Dynamic Resistance(rd)
Dynamic resistance is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV to a
small change in current ΔI.
𝚫𝐕
rd =
𝚫𝐈
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Example
The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown in the Figure. Calculate the
resistance of the diode at (a) ID = 15 mA and (b) VD = –10 V.

(a) From the curve, at I = 20 mA, V = 0.8 V

I = 10 mA, V = 0.7 V
ΔV 0.1
rforwrd bias = = = 10 Ω
ΔI 10x10−3
(b) From the curve at V = –10 V, I = –1 μA,
10
rreverse bias = = 1.0 × 107 Ω
1x10−6

Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier

The diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in
that part of the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property is
used to rectify alternating voltages .
Rectifier
The process of conversion of ac voltage to dc voltage is called rectification
and the circuit used for rectification is called rectifier.
Half wave Rectifier
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In the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor 𝑅𝐿
and we get an output voltage, whereas there is no current in the negative
half cycle. Since the rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input
ac wave it is called as half-wave rectifier.
Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.

Full wave rectifier

▪ For a full-wave rectifier the secondary of the transformer is provided

with a centre tapping and so it is called centre-tap transformer.
▪ During this positive half cycle, diode 𝐷1 gets forward biased and
conducts ,while 𝐷2 being reverse biased is not conducting. Hence we
get an output current and a output voltage across the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 .
▪ During negative half cycle, diode 𝐷1 would not conduct but diode 𝐷2
conducts, giving an output current and output voltage across 𝑅𝐿 in the
same directionas in positive half.
▪ Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the
negative half of the cycle. This is a more efficient circuit for getting
rectified voltage or current than the halfwave rectifier.
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Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.

Filters
To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage a capacitor is connected
parallel to the output terminals.
The cicuits that filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage are called
filters.

Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes

Zener diode
It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor C.
Zener.
Symbol
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The I-V characteristics of a Zener diode

▪ It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown region

and used as a voltage regulator.
▪ Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p, and n sides of the
junction.
▪ When the applied reverse bias voltage(V) reaches the breakdown
voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode, there is a large change in the current.
▪ After the breakdown voltage Vz , the Zener voltage remains constant,
even though current through the Zener diode varies over a wide range.
This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

In the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the
current through the Zener diode changes.
This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages.
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▪ The unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a rectifier) is connected
to the Zener diode through a series resistance Rs such that the Zener
diode is reverse biased.
▪ If the input voltage increases, the current through Rs increases . Then
current through Zener diode increases without any change in Zener
voltage.
▪ Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through Rs
decreases. Then current through Zener diode decreases without any
change in Zener voltage.
Thus any increase/ decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/
decrease of the voltage drop across Rs without any change in voltage across
the Zener diode. Thus the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator. We have to
select the Zener diode according to the required output voltage and
accordingly the series resistance Rs.

Optoelectronic Junction Devices

The semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by photons
(photo-excitation) are called optoelectronic junction devices. Some
examples are,
(i)Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal (photodetectors).
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into light.
(iii)Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into
electricity(solar cells).

(i)Photodiode

▪ A Photodiode is operated under reverse bias.

▪ When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy
(hν) greater than the energy gap (E g) of the semiconductor, then
electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
▪ When an external load is connected, current flows.
▪ The magnitude of the photocurrent depends on the intensity of
incident light (photocurrent is proportional to incident light intensity).
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(ii)Light emitting diode

▪ It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits
spontaneous radiation.
▪ When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p
(where they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p → n
(where they are minority carriers).
▪ At the junction boundary the concentration of minority carriers
increases and the excess minority carriers recombine with majority
carriers near the junction. On recombination, the energy is released
in the form of photons
The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a
band gap of 1.8 eV .

▪ The compound semiconductor Gallium Arsenide – Phosphide

(GaAs1–xPx) is used for making LEDs of different colours.
▪ GaAs0.6 P0.4 (E g ~ 1.9 eV) is used for red LED.
▪ GaAs (E g ~ 1.4 eV) is used for making infrared LED.
These LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar
alarm systems, optical communication, etc.
Extensive research is being done for developing white LEDs which can
replace incandescent lamps.
Advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent low power lamps:
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(iii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
(iv) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in
other words it is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
(v) Long life and ruggedness.
(vi) Fast on-off switching capability.

(iii)Solar cell
A typical p-n junction and its cross sectional view
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A p-Si wafer is taken and a thin layer of n-Si is grown on one-side of it by
diffusion process. The other side of p-Si is coated with a metal which acts as
back contact. On the top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic
grid) is deposited. This acts as a front contact.

▪ A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar
radiation falls on the p-n junction.
▪ It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode,
except that no external bias is applied .
▪ The junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident
because we are interested in more power.
▪ The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to the
following three basic processes: generation, separation and
collection—
a. generation of e-h pairs due to light (with hν > E g) close to the
junction;
b. separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of depletion
region. Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side.
c. the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact
and holes reaching p-side are collected by the back contact. Thus
p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise
to photovoltage.
Solar cells are made with semiconductors like
Si (Eg = 1.1 eV),
GaAs (Eg = 1.43 eV),
CdTe (Eg = 1.45 eV),
CuInSe2 (Eg = 1.04 eV), etc.

The criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are,
(i) band gap (~1.0 to 1.8 eV),
(ii) high optical absorption (~104 cm–1),
(iii) electrical conductivity,
(iv) availability of the raw material,
(v) cost.
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Note that sunlight is not always required for a solar cell. Any light with
photon energies greater than the bandgap will do. Solar cells are used to
power electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles and also as power
supply to some calculators. Production of low-cost photovoltaic cells for
large-scale solar energy is a topic for research.

Digital Electronics And Logic Gates

Analogue signals
Continuous, time-varying signals( voltage or current) are called continuous
or analogue signals.

Digital sinals
In digital sinals only two values (represented by 0 or 1) of the input and
output voltage are permissible.

Logic gates
A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows curtain logical relationship
between the input and output voltages.
The five common logic gates used are NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR.

NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates, since using these gates we
can realise other basic gates OR, AND and NOT gates.
Each logic gate is indicated by a symbol and its function is defined by a truth
table that shows all the possible input logic level combinations with their
respective output logic levels.
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(i) NOT gate

This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It produces a
‘1’ output if the input is ‘0’ and vice-versa. That is, it produces an inverted
version of the input at its output. This is why it is also known as an
inverter.
Symbol Truth Table

(ii) OR Gate
An OR gate has two or more inputs with one output. The output Y is
1 when either input A or input B or both are 1s. That is, if any of the
input is high, the output is high.
Symbol Truth Table

(iii) AND Gate

An AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output Y
of AND gate is 1 only when input A and input B are both 1. That is, if
all the input are high, the output is high.

Symbol Truth Table

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(iv) NOR Gate

It has two or more inputs and one output. OR- gate followed by a
NOT gate gives a NOT-OR gate (or simply NOR gate). Its output Y is
‘1’ only when both inputs A and B are ‘0’. The gate gets its name from
this NOT OR behaviour.
Symbol Truth Table

(v) NAND Gate

It has two or more inputs and one output. AND gate followed by a
NOT gate gives a NOT-AND gate (or simply NAND gate). If inputs A
and B are both ‘1’, the output Y is ‘0’. The gate gets its name from
this NOT AND behaviour.
Symbol Truth Table

Seema Elizabeth
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur