ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

13th KM Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore - 570 028

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

NOTES

SUBJECT: POWER ELECTRONICS

SUB CODE: 18EE53

SEMESTER: V

Prepared by

Department of EEE,
ATME College of Engineering

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 INSTITUTIONAL VISION AND MISSION

VISION:
Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and
globally competent human resources.

MISSION:
To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive
and capable at the global level.
To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torchbearers of tomorrow's society.
To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.

Department Vision and Mission

Vision:

To create Electrical & Electronics Engineers who excel to be technically competant

and fulfill the cultural and social aspirations of the society.

Mission:

To provide knowledge to students that builds a strong foundation in the basic

principles of electrical engineering, problem solving abilities, analytical skills, soft
skills and communication skills for their overall development.
To offer outcome based technical education.
To encourage faculty in training & development and to offer consultancy through
research & industry interaction.

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 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PEO1:
To produce Electrical and Electronics Engineers who will exhibit the technical and
managerial skills with professional ethics for the societal progress.
PEO2:
To make students continuously acquire, enhance their technical and socio-economic skills
and also to be globally competent.
PEO3:
To impart the experience of research and development to students so that they develop
abilities in offering solutions to relevant diverse career path.
PEO4:
To produce quality engineers with a team leading capabilities, also show good coordination
to contribute towards real time application of projects

Program Outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PO1: Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design / Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

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PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

The students will develop an ability to produce the following engineering traits:

PSO1: Apply the concepts of Electrical & Electronics Engineering to evaluate the
performance of power systems and also to control industrial drives using power electronics.

PSO 2: Demonstrate the concepts of process control for Industrial Automation , design
models for environmental and social concerns and also exhibit continuous self- learning

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION
Structure

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Power Electronics Applications
1.3 Power Semiconductor devices
1.4 Control Characteristics Of power Devices
1.5 Types Of Power Converters
1.6 Periphral Effects
1.7 Power Diodes
1.8 Reverse recovery characteristics
1.9 Rectifiers
1.10 Assignment Questions
1.11 Outcomes
1.12 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

Power Electronics is a field which combines Power (electric power), Electronics and
Control systems.
Power engineering deals with the static and rotating power equipment for the generation,
transmission and distribution of electric power.
Electronics deals with the study of solid state semiconductor power devices and circuits for
Power conversion to meet the desired control objectives (to control the output voltage and
output power).
Power electronics may be defined as the subject of applications of solid state power
semiconductor devices (Thyristors) for the control and conversion of electric power.

1.1 Objectives:

 To give an overview of applications power electronics, different types of power

semiconductor devices, their switching characteristics.
 To explain power diode characteristics, types, their operation and the effects of
power diodes on RL circuits.
 To explain the techniques for design and analysis of single phase diode rectifier
circuits.

1.2 Power Electronic Applications

1. COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
Heating Systems Ventilating, Air Conditioners, Central Refrigeration, Lighting,
Computers and Office equipments, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Elevators, and

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2. AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
Space shuttle power supply systems, satellite power systems, aircraft power systems.
3. TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Battery chargers, power supplies (DC and UPS), mobile cell phone battery chargers.
4. TRANSPORTATION
Traction control of electric vehicles, battery chargers for electric vehicles, electric
locomotives, street cars, trolley buses, automobile electronics including engine controls.

1.3 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The power semiconductor devices are used as on/off switches in power control circuit. These
devices are classified as follows.

A. POWER DIODES

Power diodes are made of silicon p-n junction with two terminals, anode and cathode.
Diode is forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to the cathode. Diode
conducts fully when the diode voltage is more than the cut-in voltage (0.7 V for Si).
Conducting diode will have a small voltage drop across it.

Diode is reverse biased when cathode is made positive with respect to anode. When reverse
biased, a small reverse current known as leakage current flows. This leakage current
increases with increase in magnitude of reverse voltage until avalanche voltage is reached
(breakdown voltage).

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Fig.1.1 V-I Characteristics of diode.

POWER DIODES TYPES
Power diodes can be classified as
1. General purpose diodes.
2. High speed (fast recovery) diodes.
3. Schottky diode.
General Purpose Diodes
The diodes have high reverse recovery time of about 25 microsecs ( sec). They are
used in low speed (frequency) applications. e.g., line commutated converters, diode rectifiers
and converters for a low input frequency upto 1 KHz. Diode ratings cover a very wide range
with current ratings less than 1 A to several thousand amps (2000 A) and with voltage ratings
from 50 V to 5 KV. These diodes are generally manufactured by diffusion process. Alloyed
type rectifier diodes are used in welding power supplies. They are most cost effective and
rugged and their ratings can go upto 300A and 1KV.
Fast Recovery Diodes
The diodes have low recovery time, generally less than 5 s. The major field of
applications is in electrical power conversion i.e., in free-wheeling ac-dc and dc-ac converter
circuits. Their current ratings is from less than 1 A to hundreds of amperes with voltage
ratings from 50 V to about 3 KV. Use of fast recovery diodes are preferable for free-wheeling
in SCR circuits because of low recovery loss, lower junction temperature and reduced di dt .
For high voltage ratings greater than 400 V they are manufactured by diffusion process and
the recovery time is controlled by platinum or gold diffusion. For less than 400 V rating
epitaxial diodes provide faster switching speeds than diffused diodes. Epitaxial diodes have a
very narrow base width resulting in a fast recovery time of about 50 ns.
Schottky Diodes
A Schottky diode has metal (aluminium) and semi-conductor junction. A layer of
metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of the n-type silicon. In Schottky diode there is a
larger barrier for electron flow from metal to semi-conductor. Figure shows the schotty diode.

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When Schottky diode is forward biased free electrons on n-side gain enough energy to flow
into the metal causing forward current. Since the metal does not have any holes there is no
charge storage, decreasing the recovery time. Therefore a Schottky diode can switch-off
faster than an ordinary p-n junction diode. A Schottky diode has a relatively low forward
voltage drop and reverse recovery losses. The leakage current is higher than a p-n junction
diode. The maximum allowable voltage is about 100 V. Current ratings vary from about 1 to
300 A. They are mostly used in low voltage and high current dc power supplies. The
operating frequency may be as high 100-300 kHz as the device is suitable for high frequency
application.
Comparison Between Different Types Of Diodes

General Purpose Diodes Fast Recovery Diodes Schottky Diodes

Upto 5000V & 3500A Upto 3000V and 1000A Upto 100V and 300A
Reverse recovery time – Reverse recovery time – Reverse recovery time –
High Low Extremely low.
Turn off time - High Turn off time - Low Turn off time – Extremely
Low
Switching frequency – Switching frequency – Switching frequency –
Low High Very high.
VF = 0.7V to 1.2V VF = 0.8V to 1.5V VF ≈ 0.4V to 0.6V

B. Thyristors
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR):
The SCR has 3- terminals namely:
Anode (A), Cathode (k) and Gate(G).
Internally it is having 4-layers p-n-p-n as shown in figure (b).

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Fig.1.2 (a). Symbol Fig.1.2 (b). Structure of SCR

The word thyristor is coined from thyratron and transistor. It was invented in the year 1957 at
Bell Labs.
The Thyristors can be subdivided into different types
Forced-commutated Thyristors (Inverter grade Thyristors)
Line-commutated Thyristors (converter-grade Thyristors)
Gate-turn off Thyristors (GTO).
Reverse conducting Thyristors (RCT’s).
Static Induction Thyristors (SITH).
Gate assisted turn-off Thyristors (GATT).
Light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR) or Photo SCR’s.
MOS-Controlled Thyristors (MCT’s).

C. POWER TRANSISTORS

Transistors which have high voltage and high current rating are called power
transistors. Power transistors used as switching elements, are operated in saturation region
resulting in a low - on state voltage drop. Switching speed of transistors is much higher than
the thyristors. And they are extensively used in dc-dc and dc-ac converters with inverse
parallel connected diodes to provide bi-directional current flow. However, voltage and
current ratings of power transistor are much lower than the thyristors. Transistors are used in
low to medium power applications. Transistors are current controlled device and to keep it in
the conducting state, a continuous base current is required.
Power transistors are classified as follows
Bi-Polar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Metal-Oxide Semi-Conductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
Insulated Gate Bi-Polar Transistors (IGBTs)

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Static Induction Transistors (SITs)

1.4 CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DEVICES

The power semiconductor devices are used as switches. Depending on power requirements,
ratings, fastness & control circuits for different devices can be selected. The required output
is obtained by varying conduction time of these switching devices.

Control characteristics of Thyristors:

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Fig1.3: Control Characteristics of Power Switching Devices

Classification of power semiconductor devices:

Uncontrolled turn on and turn off (e.g.: diode).

Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off (e.g. SCR)

Controlled turn on and off characteristics (e.g. BJT, MOSFET, GTO, SITH,
IGBT, SIT, MCT).

Continuous gate signal requirement (e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT).

Pulse gate requirement (e.g. SCR, GTO, MCT).

Bipolar voltage withstanding capability (e.g. SCR, GTO).

Unipolar voltage withstanding capability (e.g. BJT, MOSFET, GTO, IGBT,

MCT).

Bidirectional current capability (e.g.: Triac, RCT).

Unidirectional current capability (e.g. SCR, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, MCT,

IGBT, SITH, SIT & Diode).

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1.5 Types of Power Converters or Types of Power Electronic Circuits

For the control of electric power supplied to the load or the equipment/machinery or
for power conditioning the conversion of electric power from one form to other is necessary
and the switching characteristic of power semiconductor devices (Thyristors) facilitate these
conversions.
The thyristorised power converters are referred to as the static power converters and
they perform the function of power conversion by converting the available input power
supply in to output power of desired form.
The different types of thyristor power converters are
Diode rectifiers (uncontrolled rectifiers).
Line commutated converters or AC to DC converters (controlled rectifiers)
AC voltage (RMS voltage) controllers (AC to AC converters).
Cyclo converters (AC to AC converters at low output frequency).
DC choppers (DC to DC converters).
Inverters (DC to AC converters).

1. AC TO DC Converters (Rectifiers)

+
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(QC)
Voltage Converter
-

These are AC to DC converters. The line commutated converters are AC to DC power

converters. These are also referred to as controlled rectifiers. The line commutated converters
(controlled rectifiers) are used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency AC power supply
to obtain a variable DC output voltage. They use natural or AC line commutation of the
Thyristors.

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Fig1.4: A Single Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier Circuit (Diode Full Wave Rectifier) using a
Center Tapped Transformer

Fig: 1.5 A Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier Circuit (using SCRs) using a Center Tapped
Transformer

Different types of line commutated AC to DC converters circuits are

Diode rectifiers – Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Controlled rectifiers using SCR’s.
o Single phase controlled rectifier.
o Three phase controlled rectifiers.
Applications of Ac To Dc Converters
AC to DC power converters are widely used in
Speed control of DC motor in DC drives.

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UPS.
HVDC transmission.
Battery Chargers.

2. a. AC TO AC Converters or AC regulators.

V0(RMS)
AC Vs AC Variable AC
Input Voltage RMSO/P Voltage
Voltage fs Controller
fs fS

The AC voltage controllers convert the constant frequency, fixed voltage AC supply into
variable AC voltage at the same frequency using line commutation.
AC regulators (RMS voltage controllers) are mainly used for
Speed control of AC motor.
Speed control of fans (domestic and industrial fans).
AC pumps.

Fig.1.6: A Single Phase AC voltage Controller Circuit (AC-AC Converter using a TRIAC)

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2. b. AC TO AC Converters with Low Output Frequency or CYCLO CONVERTERS

V0 , f0
AC Vs Variable Frequency
Cyclo
Input
Converters AC Output
Voltage fs
f0< fS

The cyclo converters convert power from a fixed voltage fixed frequency AC supply to a
variable frequency and variable AC voltage at the output.
The cyclo converters generally produce output AC voltage at a lower output frequency. That
is output frequency of the AC output is less than input AC supply frequency.
Applications of cyclo converters are traction vehicles and gearless rotary kilns.

3. CHOPPERS or DC TO DC Converters

+ V0(dc)
+
DC Variable DC
Vs
Chopper Output Voltage
-
-

The choppers are power circuits which obtain power from a fixed voltage DC supply and
convert it into a variable DC voltage. They are also called as DC choppers or DC to DC
converters. Choppers employ forced commutation to turn off the Thyristors. DC choppers are
further classified into several types depending on the direction of power flow and the type of
commutation. DC choppers are widely used in
Speed control of DC motors from a DC supply.
DC drives for sub-urban traction.
Switching power supplies.

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Fig.1.7: A DC Chopper Circuit (DC-DC Converter) using IGBT

4. INVERTERS or DC TO AC Converters

+ Inverter
DC AC
Supply (Forced Output Voltage
- Commutation)

The inverters are used for converting DC power from a fixed voltage DC supply into an AC
output voltage of variable frequency and fixed or variable output AC voltage. The inverters
also employ force commutation method to turn off the Thyristors.
Applications of inverters are in
Industrial AC drives using induction and synchronous motors.
Uninterrupted power supplies (UPS system) used for computers, computer labs.

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Fig.1.8: Single Phase DC-AC Converter (Inverter) using MOSFETS

1.6 Peripheral Effects

The power converter operations are based mainly on the switching of power
semiconductor devices and as a result the power converters introduce current and voltage
harmonics (unwanted AC signal components) into the supply system and on the output of the
converters.

Fig.1.9: A General Power Converter System

These induced harmonics can cause problems of distortion of the output voltage, harmonic
generation into the supply system, and interference with the communication and signaling
circuits. It is normally necessary to introduce filters on the input side and output side of a
power converter system so as to reduce the harmonic level to an acceptable magnitude. The
figure below shows the block diagram of a generalized power converter with filters added.
The application of power electronics to supply the sensitive electronic loads poses a
challenge on the power quality issues and raises the problems and concerns to be resolved by
the researchers. The input and output quantities of power converters could be either AC or
DC. Factors such as total harmonic distortion (THD), displacement factor or harmonic factor

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(HF), and input power factor (IPF), are measures of the quality of the waveforms. To
determine these factors it is required to find the harmonic content of the waveforms. To
evaluate the performance of a converter, the input and output voltages/currents of a converter
are expressed in Fourier series. The quality of a power converter is judged by the quality of
its voltage and current waveforms.

The control strategy for the power converters plays an important part on the harmonic
generation and the output waveform distortion and can be aimed to minimize or reduce these
problems. The power converters can cause radio frequency interference due to
electromagnetic radiation and the gating circuits may generate erroneous signals. This
interference can be avoided by proper grounding and shielding.

1.7POWER DIODES
Introduction : Power diodes are made of silicon p-n junction with two terminals, anode and
cathode. Diode is forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to the cathode.
Diode conducts fully when the diode voltage is more than the cut-in voltage (0.7 V for Si).
Conducting diode will have a small voltage drop across it. Diode is reverse biased when cathode
is made positive with respect to anode. When reverse biased, a small reverse current known as
leakage current flows. This leakage current increases with increase in magnitude of reverse
voltage until avalanche voltage is reached (breakdown voltage).
Fig shows V-I Characteristics of diode.

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Forward Voltage Drop:

Is the forward-conducting junction level

The forward voltage drop is due to the forward resistance of the junction.
forward volt drop is across the junction

Reverse Leakage Current:

Thermal agitation does break some of the bonds in the crystal, resulting in minority carriers,
Which permit a small reverse current flow, i.e. leakage current.

1.8 Reverse Recovery Characteristics

When a diode is in forward conduction mode, a sudden reversal of the polarity of the applied
voltage would not stop the diode current at once. But the diode continues to conduct in the
opposite direction due to minority carriers that remain stored in pn-junction and the bulk
semiconductor material. Fig.2 shows the effect of minority carriers on the turn off characteristics
of the power diode.

The charge carriers (holes & electrons) require a certain time to recombine with opposite n
charges and to be neutralized; this time is called the reverse recovery time trr of the diode.
From Fig.2, one can found the following relationships:

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For Fast recovery :

Hence,

The fast decay of negative current creates an inductive drop that adds with the reverse blocking
voltage VR as illustrate in Fig.3.There are two types of reverse recovery characteristics of
junction diodes: Soft recovery and Fast recovery where, the softness factor, SF is the ratio of
t2/t3.

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Hence, the blocking voltage across the diode increases to: where, Vrr is reverse

recovery voltage due to the fast decay in the negativecurrent and equal to:

Based on the diode reverse recovery characteristics power diode are classified into:
► Standard Recovery (General) Diodes
► Fast Recovery Diodes
► Schottky Diodes
► Silicon Carbide Diodes.
For high frequency rectifier applications, Fast recovery and Schottky Diodes are generally used
because of their short reverse recovery time and low voltage drop in their forward bias condition

General Purpose Diodes

The diodes have high reverse recovery time of about 25 microsecs (μsec). They are used in low
speed (frequency) applications. e.g., line commutated converters, diode rectifiers and converters
for a low input frequency upto 1 KHz. Diode ratings cover a very wide range with current
ratings less than 1 A to several thousand amps (2000 A) and with voltage ratings from 50 V to 5
KV. These diodes are generally manufactured by diffusion process. Alloyed type rectifier diodes
are used in welding power supplies. They are most cost effective and rugged and their ratings
can go up to 300A and 1KV.
Fast Recovery Diodes:
The diodes have low recovery time, generally less than 5μs. The major field of applications is in
electrical power conversion i.e., in free-wheeling ac-dc and dc-ac converter circuits. Their
current ratings is from less than 1 A to hundreds of amperes with voltage ratings from 50 V to
about 3 KV. Use of fast recovery diodes are preferable for freewheeling in SCR circuits because
of low recovery loss, lower junction temperature and reduced di/dt. For high voltage ratings
greater than 400V they are manufactured by diffusion process and the recovery time is controlled
by platinum or gold diffusion. For less than 400 V rating epitaxial diodes provide faster
switching speeds than diffused diodes. Epitaxial diodes have a very narrow base width resulting
in a fast recovery time of about 50 ns.

Schottky Diodes :
A Schottky diode has metal (aluminium) and semi-conductor junction. A layer of metal is
deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of the n-type silicon. In Schottky diode there is a larger barrier
for electron flow from metal to semi-conductor. Figure shows the Schottky diode.

When Schottky diode is forward biased free electrons on n-side gain enough energy to flow into

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the metal causing forward current. Since the metal does not have any holes there is no charge
storage, decreasing the recovery time. Therefore, a Schottky diode can switch-off faster than an
ordinary p-n junction diode. A Schottky diode has a relatively low forward voltage drop and
reverse recovery losses. The leakage current is higher than a p-n junction diode. The maximum
allowable voltage is about 100 V. Current ratings vary from about 1 to 300 A. They are mostly
used in low voltage and high current dc power supplies. The operating frequency may be as high
100-300 kHz as the device is suitable for high frequency application.

Silicon Carbide SiC Schottky Barrier Diode (SBD)

SiC (Silicon Carbide) is a compound semiconductor comprised of silicon (Si) and carbon (C).
Compared to Si, SiC has
 Ten times the dielectric breakdown field strength.
 Three times the bandgap.
 Three times the thermal conductivity.

Both p-type and n-type regions, which are necessary to fashion device structures in a
semiconductor materials, can be formed in SiC. These properties make SiC an attractive material
from which to manufacture power devices that can far exceed the performance of their Si
counterparts. SiC devices can withstand higher breakdown voltage, have lower resistivity, and
can operate at higher temperature. SiC SBDs (Schottky barrier diodes) with breakdown voltage
from 600V (which far exceeds the upper limit for silicon SBDs) and up are readily available.
Compared to silicon FRDs (fast recovery diodes),
 SiC SBDs have much lower reverse recovery current and recovery time, hence
dramatically lower recovery loss and noise emission. Furthermore, unlike silicon FRDs,
these characteristics do not change significantly over current and operating temperature
ranges.
 SiC SBDs allow system designers to improve efficiency, lower cost and size of heat sink,
increasing switching frequency to reduce size of magnetics and its cost, etc.

SiC-SBDs have similar threshold voltage as Si- FRDs, i.e., a little less than 1V.

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Reverse recovery characteristics of SiC-SBD

Si fast P-N junction diodes (e.g. FRDs: fast recovery diodes) have high transient current at the
moment the junction voltage switches from the forward to the reverse direction, resulting in
significant switching loss. This is due to minority carriers stored in the drift layer during
conduction phase when forward voltage is applied. The higher the forward current (or
temperature), the longer the recovery time and the larger the recovery current.

In contrast, since SiC-SBDs are majority carrier (unipolar) devices that use no minority carriers
for electrical conduction, they do not store minority carrier s. The reverse recovery current in SiC
SBDs is only to discharge junction capacitance. Thus the switching loss is substantially lower
compared to that in Si-FRDs. The transient current is nearly independent of temperatures and
forward currents, and thereby achieves stable fast recovery in any environment. This also means
SiC-SBDs generate less noise from the recovery current.
A typical comparison between different types of diodes is shown in the table below:

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 1.10 DIODE RECTIFIER
Rectifier are used to convert A.C to D.C supply.

Rectifiers can be classified as single phase rectifier and three phase rectifier. Single phase
rectifier are classified as 1-Փ half wave and 1-Փ full wave rectifier. Three phase rectifier are
classified as 3-Փ half wave rectifier and 3-Փ full wave rectifier. 1-Փ Full wave rectifier are
classified as1-Փ mid point type and 1-Փ bridge type rectifier. 1-Փ bridge type rectifier are
classified as 1-Փ half controlled and 1-Փ full controlled rectifier. 3-Փ full wave rectifier are
again classified as 3-Փ mid point type and 3-Փ bridge type rectifier. 3-Փ bridge type rectifier
are again divided as 3-Փ half controlled rectifier and 3-Փ full controlled rectifier.

Single phase half wave circuit with R-L load

Output current 𝑖𝑜 rises gradually. After some time 𝑖𝑜 reaches a maximum value and then
begins to decrease.

At π, 𝑣𝑜 =0 but 𝑖𝑜 is not zero because of the load inductance L. After π interval SCR is reverse
biased but load current is not less then the holding current.

At β>π, 𝑖𝑜 reduces to zero and SCR is turned off.

At 2π+β SCR triggers again

α is the firing angle.

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β is the extinction angle.

v      conduction angle

Analysis for 𝑉𝑇 .

At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼,𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐼

During = 𝐼 𝑡𝑜 𝐼 , 𝑉𝑇 = 0;

When = 𝐼 , 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐼;

di0
Vm sin t  Ri0  L
dt

Vm
is  sin( t   )
R  X2
2

Where,

X
  tan 1
R

X  L

Where 𝐼 is the angle by which 𝐼𝑠 lags 𝑉𝑠 .

The transient component can be obtained as

di0
Rit  L 0
dt

So 𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑅𝑡⁄𝐿)

𝑖0 = 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑖𝑡

𝑉𝑚
sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐼) + 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑅𝑡⁄𝐿)
𝑧

Where 𝑧 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2

At 𝛼 = 𝜔𝑡, 𝑖𝑜 = 0;
𝑉𝑚
0= sin( 𝛼 − 𝐼) + 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑅𝛼⁄𝐿𝜔) ;
𝑧

−𝑉𝑚
𝐴= sin( 𝛼 − 𝐼)𝑒 (𝑅𝛼⁄𝐿𝜔)
𝑧
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑖𝑜 = sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐼) − sin( 𝛼 − 𝐼)𝑒 −𝑅(𝜔𝑡−𝛼)⁄𝐿𝜔
𝑧 𝑧

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)

Therefore,

𝜔𝑡 = 𝛽, 𝑖0 = 0;

So sin(𝛽 − 𝛼) = sin(𝛼 − 𝐼)𝑒 −(𝛽−𝛼)/(𝜔𝐿)

β can obtained from the above equation.

The average load voltage can be given by


1
2 
V0  Vm sin td (t )

𝑉𝑚
(cos(𝛼) − cos(𝛽))
2𝜋

Average load current

Vm
I0  (cos   cos  )
2 R

Single phase full converter

 
1
V0 
 V

m sin(t )d (t )

2Vm
 cos 

T₁,T₂ triggered at α and π radian latter T₃, T₄ are triggered.

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)

Single phase half wave circuit with RLE load

The minimum value of firing angle is

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)

Vm sin(t )  E

So,

E
1  sin 1
Vm

Maximum value of firing angle

2    2

The voltage differential equation is

di0
Vm sin(t )  Ri0  L E
dt

is  is1  is 2

Due to source volt

Vm
is1  sin(t   )
Z

Due to DC counter emf

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)

is 2  ( E / R)

it  Ae ( R / L )t

Thus the total current is given by

is1  is 2  it

Vm E
 sin(t   )   Ae (R/L) t
Z R

Vm E
is 0  sin(t   )   Ae (R/L) t
Z R

At t    i0  0

E Vm
A [  sin(   )]e R  L
R Z
So

R R
Vm { (t  )} E { (t  
i0  [sin(t   )  sin(   )e L
 [1  e L
]
Z R
Average voltage across the inductance is zero. Average value of load current is

1 

2 R 
I0  (Vm sin t  E ) d(t )

1
 [Vm (cos   cos        )]
2 R

Conduction angle     

   v

1
I0  [Vm (cos   cos(  v)    v)]
2 R

A B A B
cos A  cosB  2sin sin
2 2

So

1 v v
I0  [2Vm sin(  )sin  E. ]
2 R 2 2

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  E  I0 R

1 v v
 E [2Vm sin(  )sin  E. ]
2 2 2

v V v v
 E(1  )  [ m sin(  )sin ]
2  2 2

If load inductance L is zero then

  2

And
v      2  

But
2    1

So
  2    1

v    1  
And

So average current will be

1
I0  [Vm (cos   cos(  1 ))  E (  1   )]
2 R

So V0=E+I0R

Vm E  
 (cos   cos 1 )  (1  1 )
2 2 
For no inductance rms value of load current

1  
I0  [  (Vm sin(t )  E ) 2 d t ]1/2
2 R 2

Power delivered to load

P  I or2 R  I 0 E

Supply power factor

I or2 R  I 0 E
Pf 
Vs I or

Single phase full wave converter:

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)
 1  
V0 
  Vm sin(t )d (t )

2Vm
 sin 


Single phase semi converter:

1 
V0 
  V m sin(t )d (t )

Vm
 cos 


full converter:

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)

steady state analysis

di0
Vs  Rio  L E
dt

V0  RI 0  E

2Vm
V0  cos 


So in case of DC motor load

V0  ra I a   mm

2Vm
cos   ra I a
m  
So
m

T  m Ia

Te
 Ia 
m

Te
Ia 
Put
m

2Vm
( ) cos 
m   
raTe
So
m  m2

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

1.7 Recommended questions:

1. State important applications of power electronics

2. What is a static power converter? Name the different types of power converters and
mention their functions.
3. Give the list of power electronic circuits of different input / output requirements.
4. What are the peripheral effects of power electronic equipments? What are the remedies
for them?
5. What are the peripheral effects of power electronic equipments? What are the remedies
for them?

1.8 Generic Skills / Outcomes:

To get an overview of power electronics and its history of development.

Various applications of power converters such as UPS, Inverters, DC motor
control.

1.9 Further Redaing

1. http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Power_Electronics.html?id=-WqvjxMXClAC
2. http://www.flipkart.com/power-electronic-2ed/p/itmczynuyqnbvzzj
3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/36550374/Power-Electronics-Notes
4. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/EC42.html
5. http://www.onlinevideolecture.com/electrical-engineering/nptel-iit-bombay/power-
electronics/?course_id=510

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

MODULE-2
POWER TRANSISTORS
Structure

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.3 Transistor as switch
2.4 Switching Characterstics
2.5 Switching Limits
2.6 Power Mosfet
2.7 Assignment Questions
2.8 Outcomes
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 Introduction
Power transistors are devices that have controlled turn-on and turn-off characteristics.
These devices are used a switching devices and are operated in the saturation region resulting
in low on-state voltage drop. They are turned on when a current signal is given to base or
control terminal. The transistor remains on so long as the control signal is present.
Power transistors are classified as follows
Bipolar junction transistors(BJTs)
Metal-oxide semiconductor filed-effect transistors(MOSFETs)
Static Induction transistors(SITs)
Insulated-gate bipolar transistors(IGBTs)
2.1 Objectives:

 To explain different power transistors, their steady state and switching characteristics and
limitations.

2.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors

The need for a large blocking voltage in the off state and a high current carrying
capability in the on state means that a power BJT must have substantially different structure
than its small signal equivalent. The modified structure leads to significant differences in the
I-V characteristics and switching behavior between power transistors and its logic level
counterpart.

Basic Operating Principle of a Bipolar Junction Transistor

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A junction transistor consists of a semiconductor crystal in which a p type region is sandwiched

between two n type regions. This is called an n-p-n transistor. Alternatively an n type region may
be placed in between two p type regions to give a p-n-p transistor. Fig shows the circuit symbols
and schematic representations of an n-p-n and a p-n-p transistor. The terminals of a transistor are
called Emitter (E), Base (B) & Collector (C) as shown in the figure.

When a biasing voltage VBB of appropriate polarity is applied across the junction JBE the
potential barrier at this junction reduces and at one point the junction becomes forward biased.
The current crossing this junction is governed by the forward biased p-n junction equation for a
given collector emitter voltage. The base current iB is related to the recombination of minority
carriers injected into the base from the emitter. The rate of recombination is directly proportional
to the amount of excess minority carrier stored in the base. Since, in a normal transistor the
emitter is much more heavily doped compared to the base the current crossing J B BE is almost
entirely determined by the excess minority carrier distribution in the base. Thus, it can be
concluded that the relationship between iBB and VBE will be similar to the i-v characteristics of a
p-n junction diode. VCE, however have some effect on this characteristic. As VCE increases
reverse bias of JCB increases and the depletion region at JCB moves deeper into the base. The
effective base width thus reduces, reducing the rate of recombination in the base region and hence
the base current. Therefore iB for a given V B BE reduces with increasing VCE

Power Transistor Structure

If we recall the structure of conventional transistor we see a thin p-layer is

sandwiched between two n-layers or vice versa to form a three terminal device with the
terminals named as Emitter, Base and Collector. The structure of a power transistor is as
shown below.

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Collector Collector

Base npn BJT Base pnp BJT

Emitter Emitter

Base Emitter

10 m n+ 1019
cm-3

Base 5-20 m
Thickness
p 1016
c -3

n 10
50-200 m – 14
c -3

m
( C o l l e c t o r d ri ft
region) n 10

c
+ 19 -3
250 m
m

Collector

Fig.2.1: Structure of Power Transistor

The difference in the two structures is obvious.

A power transistor is a vertically oriented four layer structure of alternating p-type and n-
type. The vertical structure is preferred because it maximizes the cross sectional area and
through which the current in the device is flowing. This also minimizes on-state resistance
and thus power dissipation in the transistor.
The doping of emitter layer and collector layer is quite large typically 1019 cm-3. A special
layer called the collector drift region (n-) has a light doping level of 1014.
The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the transistor. The base
thickness is made as small as possible in order to have good amplification capabilities,
however if the base thickness is small the breakdown voltage capability of the transistor is
compromised.

Steady State Characteristics

Figure 3(a) shows the circuit to obtain the steady state characteristics. Fig 3(b) shows
the input characteristics of the transistor which is a plot of I B versus VBE . Fig 3(c) shows the
output characteristics of the transistor which is a plot I C versus VCE . The characteristics
shown are that for a signal level transistor.
The power transistor has steady state characteristics almost similar to signal level transistors
except that the V-I characteristics has a region of quasi saturation as shown by figure 4.

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Fig 2.2. Steady State Characteristics of Power Transistor

There are four regions clearly shown: Cutoff region, Active region, quasi saturation
and hard saturation. The cutoff region is the area where base current is almost zero. Hence no
collector current flows and transistor is off. In the quasi saturation and hard saturation, the
base drive is applied and transistor is said to be on. Hence collector current flows depending
upon the load.
Quasi-saturation

Hard - 1/Rd
Saturation
S e c o n d breakdown

iC
I B 5 > I B 4 ,etc.
I B5

I B4
Active re gio n Primary
I B3
breakdown

I B2

I B1
I B <0
I B=0 I B =0
0
BVC E O v CE
BVS U S BVC B O

Fig. 2.3: Characteristics of NPN Power Transistors

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

The power BJT is never operated in the active region (i.e. as an amplifier) it is always
operated between cutoff and saturation. The B VSUS is the maximum collector to emitter
voltage that can be sustained when BJT is carrying substantial collector current. The BVCEO is
the maximum collector to emitter breakdown voltage that can be sustained when base current
is zero and BVCBO is the collector base breakdown voltage when the emitter is open circuited.

The primary breakdown shown takes place because of avalanche breakdown of collector base
junction. Large power dissipation normally leads to primary breakdown.
The second breakdown shown is due to localized thermal runaway.
Transfer Characteristics

Fig. 2.4: Transfer Characteristics

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2.3 Transistor as a Switch

The transistor is used as a switch therefore it is used only between saturation and cutoff.
From fig. 5 we can write the following equations

\Fig. 2.5: Transistor Switch

Equation (1) shows that as long as VCE VBE the CBJ is reverse biased and transistor is in
active region, The maximum collector current in the active region, which can be obtained by
setting VCB 0 and VBE VCE is given as

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS
If the base current is increased above I BM ,VBE increases, the collector current increases and
VCE falls belowVBE . This continues until the CBJ is forward biased with VBC of about 0.4 to
0.5V, the transistor than goes into saturation. The transistor saturation may be defined as the
point above which any increase in the base current does not increase the collector current
significantly.
In saturation, the collector current remains almost constant. If the collector emitter voltage is
VCEsat the collector current is

Normally the circuit is designed so that I B is higher that I BS . The ratio of I B to I BS is called
to overdrive factor ODF.

The ratio of I CS to I B is called as forced β .

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

2.4 Switching Characteristics

A forward biased p-n junction exhibits two parallel capacitances; a depletion layer
capacitance and a diffusion capacitance. On the other hand, a reverse biased p-n junction has
only depletion capacitance. Under steady state the capacitances do not play any role.
However under transient conditions, they influence turn-on and turn-off behavior of the
transistor.

I BS 4.76mA

VB VBE sat 5 0.7

Fig. 2.6: Transient Model of BJT

The drift region in a power transistor is introduced in order to block large forward voltage.
However, one effect of introducing the drift region is the appearance of a “quasi saturation region”
in the output i-v characteristics of a power transistor. In the quasi saturation state the drift region is
not completely shorted out by “conductivity modulation” by excess carriers from the base region.
In offers a resistance which is a function of the base current. Although the base current retain some
control over collector current in this state the value of dc current gain reduces substantially due to
increased effective base width. Another effect of introducing the drift region is to make the VCE
saturation voltage depend linearly on the collector current in the hard saturation region due to the
ohmic resistance of the “conductivity modulated” drift region.

FBOSOA compactly represents the safe operating limits of a power transistor in terms of
maximum forward current, maximum forward voltage, maximum average & instantaneous power
dissipation and second break down limits. It is most useful in designing the switching trajectory of
a power transistor

For safe switching operation, however it is not sufficient to merely restrict the switching power
loss. It will be necessary to restrict the switching trajectory (an instantaneous plot of ic vs VCE
during switching with time as a parameter) within the FBSOA /RBSOA region corresponding to a
pulse width greater than TSW (ON) or TSW (OFF)

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Fig. 2.7: Switching Times of BJT

Due to internal capacitances, the transistor does not turn on instantly. As the voltage
VB rises from zero to V1 and the base current rises to IB1, the collector current does not
respond immediately. There is a delay known as delay time td, before any collector current
flows. The delay is due to the time required to charge up the BEJ to the forward bias voltage
VBE(0.7V). The collector current rises to the steady value of ICS and this time is called rise
time tr.
The base current is normally more than that required to saturate the transistor. As a result
excess minority carrier charge is stored in the base region. The higher the ODF, the greater is
the amount of extra charge stored in the base. This extra charge which is called the saturating
charge is proportional to the excess base drive.
This extra charge which is called the saturating charge is proportional to the excess base
drive and the corresponding current Ie.

When the input voltage is reversed from V1 to -V2, the reverse current –IB2 helps to discharge
the base. Without –IB2 the saturating charge has to be removed entirely due to recombination
and the storage time ts would be longer.
Once the extra charge is removed, BEJ charges to the input voltage –V2 and the base current
falls to zero. tf depends on the time constant which is determined by the reverse biased BEJ
capacitance.

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2.5Switching Limits
1. Second Breakdown
It is a destructive phenomenon that results from the current flow to a small portion of
the base, producing localized hot spots. If the energy in these hot spots is sufficient the
excessive localized heating may damage the transistor. Thus secondary breakdown is caused
by a localized thermal runaway. The SB occurs at certain combinations of voltage, current
and time. Since time is involved, the secondary breakdown is basically an energy dependent
phenomenon.
2. Forward Biased Safe Operating Area FBSOA
During turn-on and on-state conditions, the average junction temperature and second
breakdown limit the power handling capability of a transistor. The manufacturer usually
provides the FBSOA curves under specified test conditions. FBSOA indicates the
I c −Vce limits of the transistor and for reliable operation the transistor must not be subjected to
greater power dissipation than that shown by the FBSOA curve.

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The dc FBSOA is shown as shaded area and the expansion of the area for pulsed
operation of the BJT with shorter switching times which leads to larger FBSOA. The second
break down boundary represents the maximum permissible combinations of voltage and
current without getting into the region of ic − vce plane where second breakdown may occur.
The final portion of the boundary of the FBSOA is breakdown voltage limit BVCEO .

3. Reverse Biased Safe Operating Area RBSOA

During turn-off, a high current and high voltage must be sustained by the transistor, in
most cases with the base-emitter junction reverse biased. The collector emitter voltage must
be held to a safe level at or below a specified value of collector current. The manufacturer
provide I c −Vce limits during reverse-biased turn off as reverse biased safe area (RBSOA).

iC
ICM

VBE(off)<0

VBE(off)=0
vCE
BVCEO
BVCBO

Fig.2.8: RBSOA of a Power BJT

The area encompassed by the RBSOA is somewhat larger than FBSOA because of the
extension of the area of higher voltages than BVCEO upto BVCBO at low collector currents.

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

This operation of the transistor upto higher voltage is possible because the combination of
low collector current and reverse base current has made the beta so small that break down
voltage rises towards BVCBO .

4. Power Derating
The thermal equivalent is shown. If the total average power loss is P T,

The case temperature is Tc = Tj − P T jc .

The sink temperature is Ts = Tc − P T CS

The ambient temperature is TA TS − P TRSA and Tj − TA T

0
The maximum power dissipation in P is specified at TC 25 C .

Fig.2.9: Thermal Equivalent Circuit of Transistor

5. Breakdown Voltages
A break down voltage is defined as the absolute maximum voltage between two
terminals with the third terminal open, shorted or biased in either forward or reverse
direction.
BVSUS : The maximum voltage between the collector and emitter that can be sustained across
the transistor when it is carrying substantial collector current.
BVCEO : The maximum voltage between the collector and emitter terminal with base open
circuited.
BVCBO : This is the collector to base break down voltage when emitter is open circuited.

6. Base Drive Control

This is required to optimize the base drive of transistor. Optimization is required to
increase switching speeds. ton can be reduced by allowing base current peaking during turn-

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

be increased to a sufficiently high value to maintain the transistor in quasi-saturation region.

toff can be reduced by reversing base current and allowing base current peaking during turn
off since increasing I B2 decreases storage time.

A typical waveform for base current is shown.

IB
I B1

I BS

0 t

-I B2

Fig.2.10: Base Drive Current Waveform

Some common types of optimizing base drive of transistor are
Turn-on Control.
Turn-off Control.
Proportional Base Control.
Antisaturation Control

Turn-On Control

Fig. 2.11: Base current peaking during turn-on

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Turn-Off Control
If the input voltage is changed to during turn-off the capacitor voltage VC is added to
V2 as reverse voltage across the transistor. There will be base current peaking during turn off.
As the capacitor C1 discharges, the reverse voltage will be reduced to a steady state value,
V2 . If different turn-on and turn-off characteristics are required, a turn-off circuit using
C2 , R3 & R4 may be added. The diode D1 isolates the forward base drive circuit from the
reverse base drive circuit during turn off.

Fig: 2.12. Base current peaking during turn-on and turn-off

Proportional Base Control

This type of control has advantages over the constant drive circuit. If the collector
current changes due to change in load demand, the base drive current is changed in
proportion to collector current.
When switch S1 is turned on a pulse current of short duration would flow through the base of
transistor Q1 and Q1 is turned on into saturation. Once the collector current starts to flow, a
corresponding base current is induced due to transformer action. The transistor would latch
on itself and S1 can be turned off. The turns ratio is N2 IC
N1 IB
of the circuit, the magnetizing current which must be much smaller than the collector current
should be as small as possible. The switch S1 can be implemented by a small signal trans

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18EE53 POWER ELECTRONICS

and additional arrangement is necessary to discharge capacitor C1 and reset the transformer
core during turn-off of the power transistor.

Fig.2.13: Proportional base drive circuit

Antisaturation Control

Fig:2.14: Collector Clamping Circuit

If a transistor is driven hard, the storage time which is proportional to the base current
increases and the switching speed is reduced. The storage time can be reduced by operating
the transistor in soft saturation rather than hard saturation. This can be accomplished by
clamping CE voltage to a pre-determined level and the collector current is given by
I C VCC −V CM .
RC

Where VCM is the clamping voltage and VCM VCE .

The base current which is adequate to drive the transistor hard, can be found from
IB I 1 VB −V D1 −VBE and the corresponding collector current is I C I L I B .
RB

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The clamping action thus results a reduced collector current and almost elimination of
the storage time. At the same time, a fast turn-on is accomplished.

However, due to increased VCE , the on-state power dissipation in the transistor is
increased, whereas the switching power loss is decreased.

ADVANTAGES OF BJT’S
BJT’s have high switching frequencies since their turn-on and turn-off time is low.
The turn-on losses of a BJT are small.
BJT has controlled turn-on and turn-off characteristics since base drive control is
possible.
BJT does not require commutation circuits.
DEMERITS OF BJT
Drive circuit of BJT is complex.
It has the problem of charge storage which sets a limit on switching frequencies.
It cannot be used in parallel operation due to problems of negative temperature coefficient.

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POWER ELECTRONICS NOTES 10EC73

2.6 POWER MOSFETS

MOSFET stands for metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. There are two
types of MOSFET
Depletion type MOSFET
Enhancement type MOSFET

Depletion Type MOSFET

Construction

Fig.2.15 Symbol of n-channel depletion type MOSFET

It consists of a highly doped p-type substrate into which two blocks of heavily doped
n-type material are diffused to form a source and drain. A n-channel is formed by diffusing
between source and drain. A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the entire surface and holes are
cut in SiO2 to make contact with n-type blocks. The gate is also connected to a metal contact
surface but remains insulated from the n-channel by the SiO2 layer. SiO2 layer results in an
extremely high input impedance of the order of 1010 to 1015 Ω for this area.

Fig.2.16: Structure of n-channel depletion type MOSFET

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POWER ELECTRONICS NOTES 10EC73

Operation
When VGS 0V and VDS is applied and current flows from drain to source similar to
JFET. When VGS −1V , the negative potential will tend to pressure electrons towards the p-
type substrate and attracts hole from p-type substrate. Therefore recombination occurs and
will reduce the number of free electrons in the n-channel for conduction. Therefore with
increased negative gate voltage I D reduces.

For positive values,Vgs , additional electrons from p-substrate will flow into the channel and
establish new carriers which will result in an increase in drain current with positive gate
voltage.

Drain Characteristics

Transfer Characteristics

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Enhancement Type MOSFET

Here current control in an n-channel device is now affected by positive gate to source voltage
rather than the range of negative voltages of JFET’s and depletion type MOSFET.

Basic Construction
A slab of p-type material is formed and two n-regions are formed in the substrate. The source
and drain terminals are connected through metallic contacts to n-doped regions, but the
absence of a channel between the doped n-regions. The SiO2 layer is still present to isolate
the gate metallic platform from the region between drain and source, but now it is separated
by a section of p-type material.

Fig. 2.17: Structure of n-channel enhancement type MOSFET

Operation
If VGS 0V and a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the absence of a
n-channel will result in a current of effectively zero amperes. With VDS set at some positive
voltage and VGS set at 0V, there are two reverse biased p-n junction between the n-doped
regions and p substrate to oppose any significant flow between drain and source.

If both VDS and VGS have been set at some positive voltage, then positive potential at the gate
will pressure the holes in the p-substrate along the edge of SiO2 layer to leave the area and
enter deeper region of p-substrate. However the electrons in the p-substrate will be attracted
to the positive gate and accumulate in the region near the surface of the SiO2 layer. The
negative carriers will not be absorbed due to insulating SiO2 layer, forming an inversion
layer which results in current flow from drain to source.

The level of VGS that result in significant increase in drain current is called threshold
voltageVT . As VGS increases the density of free carriers will increase resulting in increased

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level of drain current. If VGS is constant VDS is increased; the drain current will eventually
reach a saturation level as occurred in JFET.

Drain Characteristics

Transfer Characteristics

Power MOSFET’S
Power MOSFET’s are generally of enhancement type only. This MOSFET is turned
‘ON’ when a voltage is applied between gate and source. The MOSFET can be turned ‘OFF’
by removing the gate to source voltage. Thus gate has control over the conduction of the
MOSFET. The turn-on and turn-off times of MOSFET’s are very small. Hence they operate
at very high frequencies; hence MOSFET’s are preferred in applications such as choppers
and inverters. Since only voltage drive (gate-source) is required, the drive circuits of
MOSFET are very simple. The paralleling of MOSFET’s is easier due to their positive

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temperature coefficient. But MOSFTS’s have high on-state resistance hence for higher
currents; losses in the MOSFET’s are substantially increased. Hence MOSFET’s are used for
low power applications.

VGS

Source Gate Source

Silicon
dioxide Metal

Load
+++++++
+
n
-
p p

VDD -
n
+ +
n n substrate

Current path Metal layer

Drain

Construction
Power MOSFET’s have additional features to handle larger powers. On the
n substrate high resistivity n layer is epitaxially grown. The thickness of n layer
determines the voltage blocking capability of the device. On the other side of n substrate, a
metal layer is deposited to form the drain terminal. Now p− regions are diffused in the
epitaxially grown n− layer. Further n regions are diffused in the p− regions as shown.
SiO2 layer is added, which is then etched so as to fit metallic source and gate terminals.

A power MOSFET actually consists of a parallel connection of thousands of basic MOSFET

cells on the same single chip of silicon.
−
When gate circuit voltage is zero and VDD is present, n − p junctions are reverse biased and
no current flows from drain to source. When gate terminal is made positive with respect to
source, an electric field is established and electrons from n− channel in the p− regions.
Therefore a current from drain to source is established.
Power MOSFET conduction is due to majority carriers therefore time delays caused by
removal of recombination of minority carriers is removed.
Because of the drift region the ON state drop of MOSFET increases. The thickness of the
drift region determines the breakdown voltage of MOSFET. As seen a parasitic BJT is
formed, since emitter base is shorted to source it does not conduct.
Switching Characteristics
The switching model of MOSFET’s is as shown in the figure 6(a). The various inter
electrode capacitance of the MOSFET which cannot be ignored during high frequency

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switching are represented by Cgs , Cgd & Cds . The switching waveforms are as shown in figure
7. The turn on time td is the time that is required to charge the input capacitance to the
threshold voltage level. The rise time tr is the gate charging time from this threshold level to
the full gate voltageVgsp . The turn off delay time tdoff is the time required for the input
capacitance to discharge from overdriving the voltage V1 to the pinch off region. The fall
time is the time required for the input capacitance to discharge from pinch off region to the
threshold voltage. Thus basically switching ON and OFF depend on the charging time of the
input gate capacitance.

Fig.2.18: Switching model of MOSFET

Fig2.19: Switching waveforms and times of Power MOSFET

Gate Drive

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The turn-on time can be reduced by connecting a RC circuit as shown to charge the
capacitance faster. When the gate voltage is turned on, the initial charging current of the
capacitance is

IG VG .
RS
The steady state value of gate voltage is
RGVG
VGS = .
RS + R1 / RG

Where RS is the internal resistance of gate drive force.

ID

RD
C1
Gate Signal
RS +
+ VDD -
R1
VG RG
-

Fig.2.20: Fast turn on gate drive circuit 1

C +VCC

ID
RD

NPN
M1
+ V DD +
V DS(on) -
- VD
Vi n
PNP
VS

Fig.2.21: Fast turn on gate drive circuit 2

The above circuit is used in order to achieve switching speeds of the order of 100nsec or
less. The above circuit as low output impedance and the ability to sink and source large
currents. A totem poll arrangement that is capable of sourcing and sinking a large current is
achieved by the PNP and NPN transistors. These transistors act as emitter followers and offer
a low output impedance. These transistors operate in the linear region therefore minimize the

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delay time. The gate signal of the power MOSFET may be generated by an op-amp. Let Vin
be a negative voltage and initially assume that the MOSFET is off therefore the non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp is at zero potential. The op-amp output is high therefore the NPN
transistor is on and is a source of a large current since it is an emitter follower. This enables
the gate-source capacitance Cgs to quickly charge upto the gate voltage required to turn-on the
power MOSFET. Thus high speeds are achieved. When Vin becomes positive the output of
op-amp becomes negative the PNP transistor turns-on and the gate-source capacitor quickly
discharges through the PNP transistor. Thus the PNP transistor acts as a current sink and the
MOSFET is quickly turned-off. The capacitor C helps in regulating the rate of rise and fall of
the gate voltage thereby controlling the rate of rise and fall of MOSFET drain current. This
can be explained as follows
The drain-source voltage VDS = VDD − I D RD .

If ID increases VDS reduces. Therefore the positive terminal of op-amp which is tied
to the source terminal of the MOSFET feels this reduction and this reduction is
transmitted to gate through the capacitor ‘C’ and the gate voltage reduces and the
drain current is regulated by this reduction.
Comparison of MOSFET with BJT
Power MOSFETS have lower switching losses but its on-resistance and conduction
losses are more. A BJT has higher switching loss bit lower conduction loss. So at high
frequency applications power MOSFET is the obvious choice. But at lower operating
frequencies BJT is superior.
MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient for resistance. This makes parallel
operation of MOSFET’s easy. If a MOSFET shares increased current initially, it heats
up faster, its resistance increases and this increased resistance causes this current to
shift to other devices in parallel. A BJT is a negative temperature coefficient, so
current shaving resistors are necessary during parallel operation of BJT’s.
In MOSFET secondary breakdown does not occur because it have positive
temperature coefficient. But BJT exhibits negative temperature coefficient which
results in secondary breakdown.
Power MOSFET’s in higher voltage ratings have more conduction losses.
Power MOSFET’s have lower ratings compared to BJT’s . Power MOSFET’s →
500V to 140A, BJT → 1200V, 800A.

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2.7Recommended questions:

1. Explain the control characteristics of the following semiconductor devices

1) Power BJT 3) MOSFET 4) IGBT
2. Give the comparison between MOSFET and BJT.
3. Draw the circuit symbol of IGBT. Compare its advantages over MOSFET

4. Draw the switching model and switching waveforms of a power MOSFET, define the
various switching applications.
5. With a circuit diagram and waveforms of base circuit voltage, base current and collector
current under saturation for a power transistor, show the delay that occurs during the turn-
ON and turn – OFF.
6. Explain the terms Overdrive factor (ODF) and forced beta for a power transistor for
switching applications?
7. Explain the switching characteristics of BJT.
8. Explain the steady and switching characteristics of MOSFET.

2.8 Generic Skills / Outcomes:

 Explain steady state, switching characteristics and gate control requirements of

different power transistors and their limitations.

2.9 Further Reading

1. http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Power_Electronics.html?id=-WqvjxMXClAC
2. http://www.flipkart.com/power-electronic-2ed/p/itmczynuyqnbvzzj
3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/36550374/Power-Electronics-Notes
4. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/EC42.html
5. http://www.onlinevideolecture.com/electrical-engineering/nptel-iit-bombay/power-
electronics/?course_id=510

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MODULE - 3
THYRISTORS

Structure

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
3.3 Thyristor Gate Characteristics
3.4 Quantitative Analysis
3.5 Switching Characteristics
3.6 Gate Trigger Methods
3.7 Assignment Questions
3.8 Outcomes
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 Introduction
A thyristor is the most important type of power semiconductor devices. They are extensively
used in power electronic circuits. They are operated as bi-stable switches from non-conducting to
conducting state.
A thyristor is a four layer, semiconductor of p-n-p-n structure with three p-n junctions. It has
three terminals, the anode, cathode and the gate.
The word thyristor is coined from thyratron and transistor. It was invented in the year 1957 at
Bell Labs. The Different types of Thyristors are
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).

TRIAC

DIAC

Gate Turn Off Thyristor

3.1Objectives:

To explain different types of Thyristors, their gate characteristics and gate control
requirements.

3.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

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The SCR is a four layer three terminal device with junctions as shown. The construction of SCR
shows that the gate terminal is kept nearer the cathode. The approximate thickness of each layer
and doping densities are as indicated in the figure. In terms of their lateral dimensions Thyristors
are the largest semiconductor devices made. A complete silicon wafer as large as ten centimeter
in diameter may be used to make a single high power thyristor.

Qualitative Analysis
When the anode is made positive with respect the cathode junctions 1 3 J & J are
forward biased and junction 2 J is reverse biased. With anode to cathode voltage AK V being
small, only leakage current flows through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the
forward blocking state. If AK V is further increased to a large value, the reverse biased junction
2 J will breakdown due to avalanche effect resulting in a large current through the device.
The voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is called the forward breakdown voltage BO V .

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Since the other junctions 1 3 J & J are already forward biased, there will be free movement of
carriers across all three junctions resulting in a large forward anode current. Once the SCR is
switched on, the voltage drop across it is very small, typically 1 to 1.5V. The anode current is
limited only by the external impedance present in the circuit.

Although an SCR can be turned on by increasing the forward voltage beyond BO V , in practice,
the forward voltage is maintained well below BO V and the SCR is turned on by applying a
positive voltage between gate and cathode.

With the application of positive gate voltage, theleakage current through the junction 2 J is
increased. This is because the resulting gate current consists mainly of electron flow from
cathode to gate. Since the bottom end layer is heavily doped as compared to the p-layer, due to
the applied voltage, some of these electrons reach junction 2 J and add to the minority carrier
concentration in the p-layer. This raises the reverse leakage current and results in breakdown of
junction 2 J even though the applied forward voltage is less than the breakdown voltage BO V .
With increase in gate current
breakdown occurs earlier.

V-I Characteristics

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A typical V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown above. In the reverse direction the thyristor
appears similar to a reverse biased diode which conducts very little current until avalanche
breakdown occurs. In the forward direction the thyristor has two stable states ormodes of
operation that are connected together by an unstable mode that appears as anegative resistance on
the V-I characteristics. The low current high voltage region is the 1forward blocking state or the
off state and the low voltage high current mode is the on state.

For the forward blocking state the quantity of interest is the forward blocking voltage BO V
which is defined for zero gate current. If a positive gate current is applied to a thyristor then
the transition or break over to the on state will occur at smaller values of anode to cathode
voltage as shown. Although not indicated the gate current does not have to be a dc current but
instead can be a pulse of current having some minimum time duration. This ability to switch
the thyristor by means of a current pulse is the reason for wide spread applications of the
device.

Holding Current H I
After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum value of anode
+current is required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the anode current
is reduced below the critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot maintain the current
through it and reverts to its off state usually I is associated with turn off the device.
Latching Current L I
After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required to sustain conduction.
This current is called the latching current. L I associated with turn on and is usually greater
than holding current.

3.3 Thyristor Gate Characteristics

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The gate voltage is plotted with respect to gate current in the above characteristics. Ig(max) is the
maximum gate current that can flow through the thyristor without damaging it Similarly
Vg(max) is the maximum gate voltage to be applied. Similarly Vg (min) and Ig(min) are
minimum gate voltage and current, below which thyristor will not be turned-on. Hence to turn-on
the thyristor successfully the gate current and voltage should be

The characteristic of Fig. also shows the curve for constant gate power (Pg). Thus for reliable
turn-on, the (Vg, Ig) point must lie in the shaded area in Fig. 3.6. It turns-on thyristor
successfully. Note that any spurious voltage/current spikes at the gate must be less than Vg (min)
and Ig(min) to avoid false triggering of the thyristor. The gate characteristics shown in Fig. 3.6
are for DC values of gate voltage and current.

Instead of applying a continuous (DC) gate drive, the pulsed gate drive is used. The gate voltage
and current are applied in the form of high frequency pulses. The frequency of these pulses is
upto l0 kHz. Hence the width of the pulse can be upto 100 micro seconds. The pulsed gate drive
is applied for following reasons (advantages):

i) The thyristor
has small turn-on time i.e. upto 5 microseconds. Hence a pulse of gate drive is
sufficient to turn-on the thyristor.
ii) Once thyristor
turns-on, there is no need of gate drive. Hence gate drive in the form of pulses is
suitable.
iii) The DC gate
voltage and current increases losses in the thyristor. Pulsed gate drive has reduced
losses.
iv) The pulsed gate
drive can be easily passed through isolation transformers to isolate thyristor and
trigger circuit.

Requirement of Gate Drive

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The gate drive has to satisfy the following requirements

: i) The maximum gate power should not be exceeded by gate drive, otherwise thyristor will be
damaged

. ii) The gate voltage and current should be within the limits specified by gate characteristics
(Fig. 3.6) for successful turn-on

. iii) The gate drive should be preferably pulsed. In case of pulsed drive the following relation
must be satisfied: (Maximum gate power x pulse width) x (Pulse frequency) ≤ Allowable
average gate power

iv) The width of the pulse should be sufficient to turn-on the thyristor successfully.

v) The gate drive should be isolated electrically from the thyristor. This avoids any damage to
the trigger circuit if in case thyristor is damaged.

vi) The gate drive should not exceed permissible negative gate to cathode voltage, otherwise the
thyristor is damaged.

vii) The gate drive circuit should not sink current out of the thyristor after turn-on.

3.4 Quantitative Analysis

Two Transistor Model

The general transistor equations are,

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The SCR can be considered to be made up of two transistors as shown in above figure.
Considering PNP transistor of the equivalent circuit,

From the equivalent circuit, we see that

3.5 Switching Characteristics (Dynamic characteristics)

Thyristor Turn-ON Characteristics

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When the SCR is turned on with the application of the gate signal, the SCR does not conduct
fully at the instant of application of the gate trigger pulse. In the beginning, there is no
appreciable increase in the SCR anode current, which is because, only a small portion of the

silicon pellet in the immediate vicinity of the gate electrode starts conducting. The duration
between 90% of the peak gate trigger pulse and the instant the forward voltage has fallen to
90% of its initial value is called the gate controlled / trigger delay time gd t . It is also defined
as the duration between 90% of the gate trigger pulse and the instant at which the anode
current rises to 10% of its peak value. gd t is usually in the range of 1 sec.

Thyristor Turn OFF Characteristics

When an SCR is turned on by the gate signal, the gate loses control over the device and the
device can be brought back to the blocking state only by reducing the forward current to a level
below that of the holding current. In AC circuits, however, the current goes through a natural
zero value and the device will automatically switch off. But in DC circuits, where no neutral zero
value of current exists, the forward current is reduced by applying a reverse voltage across anode
and cathode and thus forcing the current through the SCR to zero.

As in the case of diodes, the SCR has a reverse recovery time rr t which is due to charge
storage in the junctions of the SCR. These excess carriers take some time for recombination
resulting in the gate recovery time or reverse recombination time gr t . Thus, the turn-off time
q t is the sum of the durations for which reverse recovery current flows after the application of
reverse voltage and the time required for the recombination of all excess carriers present. At
the end of the turn off time, a depletion layer develops across 2 J and the junction can now
withstand the forward voltage. The turn off time is dependent on the anode current, the
magnitude of reverse g V applied ad the magnitude and rate of application of the forward
voltage. The turn off time for converte grade SCR’s is 50 to 100 sec and that for inverter
grade SCR’s is 10 to 20 sec.

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To ensure that SCR has successfully turned off , it is required that the circuit off time c t be
greater than SCR turn off time q t .
Thyristor Turn ON
Thermal Turn on: If the temperature of the thyristor is high, there will be an increase
in charge carriers which would increase the leakage current. This would cause an
increase in 1 & 2 and the thyristor may turn on. This type of turn on many cause
thermal run away and is usually avoided.
Light: If light be allowed to fall on the junctions of a thyristor, charge carrier
concentration would increase which may turn on the SCR.
LASCR: Light activated SCRs are turned on by allowing light to strike the silicon
wafer.
High Voltage Triggering: This is triggering without application of gate voltage with
only application of a large voltage across the anode-cathode such that it is greater than
the forward breakdown voltage BO V . This type of turn on is destructive and should be
avoided.
Gate Triggering: Gate triggering is the method practically employed to turn-on the
thyristor. Gate triggering will be discussed in detail later.
dv
dt
Triggering: Under transient conditions, the capacitances of the p-n junction will
influence the characteristics of a thyristor. If the thyristor is in the blocking state, a
rapidly rising voltage applied across the device would cause a high current to flow
through the device resulting in turn-on. If
j2 i is the current throught the junction 2 j and
j2 C is the junction capacitance and
j2 V is the voltage across 2 j , then

Thyristor Ratings

VOLTAGE RATINGS

VDWM : This specifies the peak off state working forward voltage of the device. This specifies
the maximum forward off state voltage which the thyristor can withstand during its working.

VDRM : This is the peak repetitive off state forward voltage that the thyristor can block
repeatedly in the forward direction (transient).

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VDSM : This is the peak off state surge / non-repetitive forward voltage that will occur across
the thyristor.

VRWM : This the peak reverse working voltage that the thyristor can withstand in the reverse
direction.

VRRM : It is the peak repetitive reverse voltage. It is defined as the maximum permissible
instantaneous value of repetitive applied reverse voltage that the thyristor can block in
reverse direction.

VRSM : Peak surge reverse voltage. This rating occurs for transient conditions for a specified
time duration.

VT : On state voltage drop and is dependent on junction temperature.

VTM : Peak on state voltage. This is specified for a particular anode current and junction
temperature.

dv
rating: This is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that the SCR has to withstand
dt
dv
and which will not trigger the device without gate signal (refer

Current Rating

I Taverage : This is the on state average current which is specified at a particular temperature.

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I TRMS : This is the on-state RMS current.

Latching current, I L : After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required to
sustain conduction. This current is called the latching current. I L associated with turn on and
is usually greater than holding current

Holding current, I H : After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum
value of anode current is required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the
anode current is reduced below the critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot
maintain the current through it and reverts to its off state usually I is associated with turn off
the device.

di
rating: This is a non repetitive rate of rise of on-state current. This maximum value of rate
dt
of rise of current is which the thyristor can withstand without destruction. When thyristor is
switched on, conduction starts at a place near the gate. This small area of conduction spreads
di
rapidly and if rate of rise of anode current

carriers, local hotspots will be formed near the gate due to high current density

Gate Specifications

I GT : This is the required gate current to trigger the SCR. This is usually specified as a DC
value.

VGT : This is the specified value of gate voltage to turn on the SCR (dc value).

VGD : This is the value of gate voltage, to switch from off state to on state. A value below this
will keep the SCR in off state.

QRR : Amount of charge carriers which have to be recovered during the turn off process.

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Rthjc : Thermal resistance between junction and outer case of the device.

3.6 Gate Triggering Methods

Types
The different methods of gate triggering are the following
R-triggering.
RC triggering.

UJT triggering

Resistance Triggering
A simple resistance triggering circuit is as shown. The resistor 1 R limits the current through
the gate of the SCR. 2 R is the variable resistance added to the circuit to achieve control over
the triggering angle of SCR. Resistor ‘R’ is a stabilizing resistor. The diode D is required to
ensure that no negative voltage reaches the gate of the

SC R.

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Resistance Capacitance Triggering

RC Half Wave
Capacitor ‘C’ in the circuit is connected to shift the phase of the gate voltage. 1 D is used to
prevent negative voltage from reaching the gate cathode of SCR.
In the negative half cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak negative voltage of the supply
m V through the diode 2 D . The capacitor maintains this voltage across it, till the supply
voltage crosses zero. As the supply becomes positive, the capacitor charges through resistor
‘R’ from initial voltage of m V , to a positive value.
When the capacitor voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, the SCR is fired
and the capacitor voltage is clamped to a small positive value.

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Case 1: R Large.
When the resistor ‘R’ is large, the time taken for the capacitance to charge from m V to gt V is
large, resulting in larger firing angle and lower load voltage.
Case 2: R Small
When ‘R’ is set to a smaller value, the capacitor charges at a faster rate towards gt V resulting
in early triggering of SCR and hence L V is more. When the SCR triggers, the voltage drop
across it falls to 1 – 1.5V. This in turn lowers, the voltage across R & C. Low voltage across
the SCR during conduction period keeps the capacitor discharge during the positive half
cycle.

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UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

UJT is an n-type silicon bar in which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three terminals
base1, base2 and emitter ‘E’. Between 1 B and 2 B UJT behaves like ordinary resistor and the
internal resistances are given as B1 R and B2 R with emitter open BB B1 B2 R R R . Usually the
p-region is heavily doped and n-region is lightly doped. The equivalent circuit of UJT is as
shown. When BB V is applied across 1 B and 2 B , we find that potential at A is

Operation
When voltage BB V is applied between emitter ‘E’ with base 1 1 B as reference and the emitter
voltage E V is less than D BE V V the UJT does not conduct. D BB V V is designated as
P V which is the value of voltage required to turn on the UJT. Once E V is equal to
P BE D V V V , then UJT is forward biased and it conducts.
The peak point is the point at which peak current P I flows and the peak voltage P V is across
the UJT. After peak point the current increases but voltage across device drops, this is due to
the fact that emitter starts to inject holes into the lower doped n-region. Since p-region is
heavily doped compared to n-region. Also holes have a longer life time, therefore number of
carriers in the base region increases rapidly. Thus potential at ‘A’ falls but current E I
increases rapidly. B1 R acts as a decreasing resistance.
The negative resistance region of UJT is between peak point and valley point. After valley
point, the device acts as a normal diode since the base region is saturated and B1 R does not
decrease again.

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(i) Expression for period of oscillation„t‟

The period of oscillation of the UJT can be derived based on the voltage across the capacitor. Here
we assume that the period of charging of the capacitor is lot larger than than the discharging time.
Using initial and final value theorem for voltage across a capacitor, we get

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3.7 Assignment Questions

1 Distinguish between latching current and holding current.

2. Converter grade and inverter grade thyristors
3. Thyristor turn off and circuit turn off time
4. Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage i2 t rating
5. Explain the turn on and turn of dynamic characteristics of thyristor
6. A string of series connected thyristors is to withstand a DC voltage of 12 KV. The
maximum leakage current and recovery charge differences of a thyristors are 12 mA and
120 µC respectively. A de-rating factor of 20% is applied for the steady state and
dynamic (transient) voltage sharing of the thyristors. If the maximum steady sate voltage
is 1000V, determine 1) the steady voltage sharing resistor R for each thyristor. 2) the
transient voltage capacitor C1 for each thryristor
7. A SCR is to operate in a circuit where the supply voltage is 200 VDC. The dv/dt should
be limited to 100 V/ µs. Series R and C are connected across the SCR for limiting dv/dt.
The maximum discharge current from C into the SCR, if and when it is turned ON is to
be limited to 100 A. Using an approximate expression, obtain the values of R and C.
8. With the circuit diagram and relevant waveforms,

3.8 Generic Skills / Outcomes:

 Discuss different types of Thyristors, their operation, gate characteristics and

gate control requirements.

3.9 Further Reading

1. http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Power_Electronics.html?id=-WqvjxMXClAC
2. http://www.flipkart.com/power-electronic-2ed/p/itmczynuyqnbvzzj
3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/36550374/Power-Electronics-Notes
4. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/EC42.html
5. http://www.onlinevideolecture.com/electrical-engineering/nptel-iit-bombay/power-
electronics/?course_id=510

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Module 4(a)
CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Structure

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Line Commutated AC to DC Converters
4.3 Application Of Phase Controlled Rectifiers
4.4 Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier
4.5 Assignment Questions
4.6 Outcomes
4.7 Further Reading

4.0Introduction

Thyristors are semicontrolled devices which can be turned ON by applying a current pulse at its
gate terminal at a desired instance. However, they cannot be turned off from the gate terminals.
Therefore, the fully controlled converter continues to exhibit load dependent output voltage /
current waveforms as in the case of their uncontrolled counterpart. However, since the thyristor
can block forward voltage, the output voltage / current magnitude can be controlled by
controlling the turn on instants of the thyristors. Working principle of thyristors based single
phase fully controlled converters will be explained first in the case of a single thyristor halfwave
rectifier circuit supplying an R or R-L load. However, such converters are rarely used in
practice.
Full bridge is the most popular configuration used with single phase fully controlled rectifiers.
Analysis and performance of this rectifier supplying an R-L-E load (which may represent a dc
motor) will be studied in detail in this

4.1 Objectives:

 To explain the design, analysis techniques, performance parameters and

characteristics of controlled rectifiers

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4.2 Line Commutated AC to DC converters

Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply.

• Type of output: Variable dc output voltage
• Type of commutation: Natural / AC line commutation
Different types of Line Commutated Converters
• AC to DC Converters (Phase controlled rectifiers)
• AC to AC converters (AC voltage controllers)
• AC to AC converters (Cyclo converters) at low output frequency

Differences Between Diode Rectifiers & Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• The diode rectifiers are referred to as uncontrolled rectifiers .
• The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc output voltage .
• Each diode conducts for one half cycle.
• Diode conduction angle = 1800 or radians.
• We cannot control the dc output voltage or the average dc load current in a diode rectifier
circuit

4.3 Applications of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills employing dc motor drives.
• AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
• Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes.
• Magnet power supplies.
• Portable hand tool drives

Classification of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers.
• Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers

4.3.1 Different types of Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers.

• Half wave controlled rectifiers.
• Full wave controlled rectifiers.
• Using a center tapped transformer.
• Full wave bridge circuit.

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• Semi converter.
• Full converter.

Different Types of Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• Half wave controlled rectifiers.
• Full wave controlled rectifiers.
• Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter).
• Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).

4.4 Principle of Phase Controlled Rectifier Operation Single Phase Half-Wave Thyristor

Converter with a Resistive Load

Fig. shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled halfwave rectifier supplying a
purely resistive load. At t = 0 when the input supply voltage becomes positive the thyristor T becomes
forward biased. However, unlike a diode, it does not turn ON till a gate pulse is applied at t = .
During the period 0 < t , the thyristor blocks the supply voltage and the load voltage remains zero as
shown in Consequently, no load current flows during this interval. As soon as a gate pulse is
applied to the thyristor at t = it turns ON. The voltage across the thyristor collapses to almost
zero and the full supply voltage appears across the load. From this point onwards the load
voltage follows the supply voltage. The load being purely resistive the load current io is
proportional to the load voltage. At t = as the supply voltage passes through the negative going
zero crossing the load voltage and hence the load current becomes zero and tries to reverse
direction. In the process the thyristor undergoes reverse recovery and starts blocking the negative
supply voltage. Therefore, the load voltage and the load current remains clamped at zero till the
thyristor is fired again at t = 2 + . The same process repeats there after.

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Equations:

To Derive an Expression for the Average (DC) Output Voltage across the Load

Maximum average (dc) o/p voltage is obtained when 0 and the maximum dc output voltage

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To Derive an Expression for the RMS Value of Output Voltage of a Single Phase Half
Wave Controlled Rectifier with Resistive Load

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Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Output dc power (avg. or dc o/p power delivered to the load)

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The Ripple Factor (RF) w.r.t output voltage waveform

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Harmonic Factor (HF) or Total Harmonic Distortion Factor

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4.5 Recommended questions:

1. Give the classification of converters, based on: a) Quadrant operation b) Number of current pulse
c) supply input. Give examples in each case.
2. With neat circuit diagram and wave forms, explain the working of 1 phase HWR using SCR for R-
load. Derive the expressions for Vdc and Idc.

4.6 Generic Skills / Outcomes:

Explain designing, analysis techniques and characteristics of thyristor

controlled rectifiers.

4.7 Further Readings

1. http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Power_Electronics.html?id=-WqvjxMXClAC
2. http://www.flipkart.com/power-electronic-2ed/p/itmczynuyqnbvzzj
3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/36550374/Power-Electronics-Notes
4. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/EC42.html
5. http://www.onlinevideolecture.com/electrical-engineering/nptel-iit-bombay/power-
electronics/?course_id=510

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MODULE 4(b)

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

Structure

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Phase Control
4.3 Type of Ac Voltage Controllers
4.4 Principle of On-Off Control Technique
4.5 Principle of AC Phase Control
4.6 Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage Controller
4.7 Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage Controller(Bidirectional)
4.8 Recommended Questions
4.9 Outcomes
4.10 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION
AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS value of the
alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing Thyristors between the load and a
constant voltage ac source. The RMS value of alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is
controlled by controlling the triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller
circuits.
In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor power converter which is used to convert a
fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a variable voltage ac output. The RMS
value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the load is controlled by varying
(adjusting) the trigger angle ‘α’.
There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the ac power flow.

On-Off control
Phase control

These are the two ac output voltage control techniques.

In On-Off control technique Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to the ac
supply (source) for a few cycles of the input ac supply and then to disconnect it for few input
cycles. The Thyristors thus act as a high speed contactor (or high speed ac switch).

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4.1OBJECTIVES
To explain the design, analysis techniques, performance parameters and
characteristics of AC Voltage controllers

4.2 Phase Control

In phase control the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to the input ac
supply, for a part of every input cycle. That is the ac supply voltage is chopped using Thyristors
during a part of each input cycle.
The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that input supply voltage
appears across the load and then turned off during the remaining part of input half cycle to
disconnect the ac supply from the load.
By controlling the phase angle or the trigger angle ‘’ (delay angle), the output RMS voltage
across the load can be controlled. The trigger delay angle ‘’ is defined as the phase angle (the
value of t) at which the thyristor turns on and the load current begins to flow.
Thyristor ac voltage controllers use ac line commutation or ac phase commutation. Thyristors in
ac voltage controllers are line commutated (phase commutated) since the input supply is ac.
When the input ac voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half cycle the
current flowing through the conducting thyristor decreases and falls to zero. Thus the ON
thyristor naturally turns off, when the device current falls to zero.
Phase control Thyristors which are relatively inexpensive, converter grade Thyristors which are
slower than fast switching inverter grade Thyristors are normally used.
For applications upto 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet the voltage and current ratings of a
particular application, Triacs are more commonly used.
Due to ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra commutation
circuitry or components and the circuits for ac voltage controllers are very simple.
Due to the nature of the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of expressions for
performance parameters are not simple, especially for the phase controlled ac voltage controllers
with RL load. But however most of the practical loads are of the RL type and hence RL load
should be considered in the analysis and design of ac voltage controller circuits.

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4.3 Type of Ac Voltage Controllers

The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac supply
applied to the circuit.
Single Phase AC Controllers.
Three Phase AC Controllers.
Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of 230V RMS at 50Hz in
our country. Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of 400V RMS at 50Hz
supply frequency.
Each type of controller may be sub divided into Uni-directional or half wave ac controller.
Bi-directional or full wave ac controller.

In brief different types of ac voltage controllers are

Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).

Applications of Ac Voltage Controllers

Lighting / Illumination control in ac power circuits.
Induction heating.
Industrial heating & Domestic heating.
Transformer tap changing (on load transformer tap changing).
Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac induction motor
control).
AC magnet controls.

4.4 Principle of On-Off Control Technique (Integral Cycle Control)

The basic principle of on-off control technique is explained with reference to a single phase full
wave ac voltage controller circuit shown below. The thyristor switches 1 T and 2 T are turned on
by applying appropriate gate trigger pulses to connect the input ac supply to the load for ‘n’
number of input cycles during the time interval ON t . The thyristor switches 1 T and 2 T are
turned off by blocking the gate trigger pulses for ‘m’ number of input cycles during the time
interval OFF t . The ac controller ON time ON t usually consists of an integral number of input
cycles.

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Example
Referring to the waveforms of ON-OFF control technique in the above diagram, Two input
cycles. Thyristors are turned ON during for two input cycles. n ON t One input cycle. Thyristors
are turned OFF during for one input cycle m OFF t Thyristors are turned ON precisely at the zero
voltage crossings of the input supply.
The thyristor 1 T is turned on at the beginning of each positive half cycle by applying the gate
trigger pulses to 1 T as shown, during the ON time ON t . The load current flows in the positive
direction, which is the downward direction as shown in the circuit diagram when 1 T conducts.
The thyristor 2 T is turned on at the beginning of each negative half cycle, by applying gating
signal to the gate of 2 T , during ON t . The load current flows in the reverse direction, which is
the upward direction when 2 T conducts. Thus we obtain a bi-directional load current flow
(alternating load current flow) in a ac voltage controller circuit, by triggering the thyristors
alternately. This type of control is used in applications which have high mechanical inertia and
high thermal time constant (Industrial heating and speed control of ac motors). Due to zero
voltage and zero current switching of Thyristors, the harmonics generated by switching actions
are reduced.

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(i) To derive an expression for the rms value of output voltage, for on-off control
method.

4.5 Principle of AC Phase Control

The basic principle of ac phase control technique is explained with reference to a single phase
half wave ac voltage controller (unidirectional controller) circuit shown in the below figure. The
half wave ac controller uses one thyristor and one diode connected in parallel across each other
in opposite direction that is anode of thyristor 1 T is connected to the cathode of diode 1 D and
the cathode of 1 T is connected to the anode of 1 D . The output voltage across the load esistor
‘R’ and hence the ac power flow to the load is controlled by varying the trigger angle. The
trigger angle or the delay angle ‘ ’ refers to the value of t or the instant at which the thyristor 1 T
is triggered to turn it ON, by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse between the gate and cathode
lead. The thyristor 1 T is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input ac supply. It can
be triggered and made to conduct by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse only during the
positive half cycle of input supply. When 1 T is triggered it conducts and the load current flows
through the thyristor 1 T , the load and through the transformer secondary winding.

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Disadvantages of single phase half wave ac voltage controller

The output load voltage has a DC component because the two halves of the output voltage
waveform are not symmetrical with respect to ‘0’ level. The input supply current waveform also
has a DC component (average value) which can result in the problem of core saturation of the
input supply transformer. The half wave ac voltage controller using a single thyristor and a single
diode provides control on the thyristor only in one half cycle of the input supply. Hence ac power
flow to the load can be controlled only in one half cycle. Half wave ac voltage controller gives

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limited range of RMS output voltage control. Because the RMS value of ac output voltage can be
varied from a maximum of 100% of S V at a trigger angle 0 to a low of 70.7% of S V at Radians .
These drawbacks of single phase half wave ac voltage controller can be over come by using a
single phase full wave ac voltage controller.

Applications of rms Voltage Controller

Speed control of induction motor (polyphase ac induction motor).
Heater control circuits (industrial heating).
Welding power control.
Induction heating.
On load transformer tap changing.
Lighting control in ac circuits.
Ac magnet controls

4.6 Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage Controller (Ac Regulator) or Rms
Voltage Controller with Resistive Load

Single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit using two SCRs or a single triac is generally
used in most of the ac control applications. The ac power flow to the load can be controlled in
both the half cycles by varying the trigger angle' '.The RMS value of load voltage can be varied
by varying the trigger angle ' '. The input supply current is alternating i the case of a full wave ac
voltage controller and due to the symmetrical nature of the input supply current waveform there
is no dc component of input supply current i.e., the average value of the input supply current is
zero.
A single phase full wave ac voltage controller with a resistive load is shown in the figure below.
It is possible to control the ac power flow to the load in both the half cycles by adjusting the
trigger angle' '. Hence the full wave ac voltage controller is also referred to as to a bi-directional
controller.
The thyristor 1 T is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the input supply voltage. The
thyristor 1 T is triggered at a delay angle of ' ' 0 radians . Considering the ON thyristor 1 T as an
ideal closed switch the input supply voltage appears across the load resistor L R and the output
voltage O S v v during t to radians. The load current flows through the ON thyristor 1 T and
through the load resistor L R in the downward direction during the conduction time of 1 T from t
to radians.
At t , when the input voltage falls to zero the thyristor current (which is flowing through the load
resistor L R ) falls to zero and hence 1 T naturally turns off . No current flows in the circuit
during t to . The thyristor 2 T is forward biased during the negative cycle of input supply and

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when thyristor 2 T is triggered at a delay angle , the output voltage follows the negative halfcycle
of input from t to 2 . When 2 T is ON, the load current flows in the reverse direction (upward
direction) through 2 T during t to 2 radians. The time interval (spacing) between the gate trigger
pulses of 1 T and 2 T is kept at radians or 1800. At t 2 the input supply voltage falls to zero and
hence the load current also falls to zero and thyristor 2 T turn off naturally.

4.7 Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage Controller (Bidirectional Controller)

With RL Load

In this section we will discuss the operation and performance of a single phase full wave ac
voltage controller with RL load. In practice most of the loads are of RL type. For example if we
consider a single phase full wave ac voltage controller controlling the speed of a single phase ac
induction motor, the load which is the induction motor winding is an RL type of load, where R
represents the motor winding resistance and L represents the motor winding inductance. A single
phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit (bidirectional controller) with an RL load using two
thyristors 1 T and 2 T ( 1 T and 2 T are two SCRs) connected in parallel is shown in the figure
below. In place of two thyristors a single Triac can be used to implement a full wave ac
controller, if a suitable Traic is available for the desired RMS load current and the RMS output
voltage ratings.
The thyristor 1 T is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. Let us assume
that 1 T is triggered at t , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to 1 T during the positive half
cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage when 1
T is ON. The load current O i flows through the thyristor 1 T and through the load in the
downward direction. This load current pulse flowing through 1 T can be considered as the
positive current pulse. Due to the inductance in the load, the load current O I flowing through 1 T
would not fall to zero at t , when the input supply voltage starts to become negative.

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The thyristor 1 T will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive energy stored in
the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through 1 T falls to zero at t ,
where is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of t ) at which the load current falls to
zero. The extinction angle is measured from the point of the beginning of the positive half cycle
of input supply to the point where the load current falls to zero. The thyristor 1 T conducts from t
to . The conduction angle of 1 T is , which depends on the delay angle and the load impedance
angle . The waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulses of 1 T and 2 T , the
thyristor current, the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure
below

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Note
The RMS value of the output voltage and the load current may be varied by varying the trigger
angle . This circuit, AC RMS voltage controller can be used to regulate the RMS voltage across
the terminals of an ac motor (induction motor). It can be used to control the temperature of a
furnace by varying the RMS output voltage.
For very large load inductance ‘L’ the SCR may fail to commutate, after it is triggered and the
load voltage will be a full sine wave (similar to the applied input supply voltage and the output
control will be lost) as long as the gating signals are applied to the thyristors 1 T and 2 T . The
load current waveform will appear as a full continuous sine wave and the load current waveform
lags behind the output sine wave by the load power factor angle.

4.8 Recommended questions

1. Discuss the operation of a single phase controller supplying a resistive load, and controlled by the
on-off method of control. Also highlight the advantages and disadvantages of such a control. Draw
the relevant waveforms.
2. What phase angle control is as applied to single phase controllers? Highlight the advantages and
disadvantages of such a method of control. Draw all the wave forms.
3. What are the effects of load inductance on the performance of voltage controllers?
4. Explain the meaning of extinction angle as applied to single phase controllers supplying inductive
load with the help of waveforms.
5. What are unidirectional controllers? Explain the operation of the same with the help of waveforms
and obtain the expression for the RMS value of the output voltage. What are the advantage and
disadvantages of unidirectional controllers?
6. What are bi-directional controllers explain the operation of the same with the help of waveforms
and obtain the expression for the R<S value of the output voltage. RMS value of thyristor current.
What are the advantages of bi-directional controllers?

7. The AC Voltage controller shown below is used for heating a resistive load of 5 Ω and the input
voltage Vs = 120 V (rms). The thyristor switch is on for n=125 cycles and is off for m = 75 cycles.
Determine the RMS output voltage Vo, the input factor and the average and RMS thyristor current

4.9 Generic Skills / Outcomes

Discuss the principle of operation of single phase and three phase AC voltage controllers.

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4.10 Further Reading

1. “Thyristorized Power Controllers” - G. K. Dubey S. R. Doradla, A. Joshi and Rmk Sinha
New age international (P) ltd reprint 1999.

2. “Power Electronics” - Cynil W. Lander 3rd edition, MGH 2003.

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MODULE-5(a)
DC-DC COVERTER

STRUCTURE

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Principle of Step-down Chopper
5.3 Principle of Step-up Chopper
5.4 Classification of Choppers
5.5 Impulse Commutated Chopper
5.6 Recommended questions
5.7 Outcomes
5.8 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

Chopper is a static device.

• A variable dc voltage is obtained from a constant dc voltage source.
• Also known as dc-to-dc converter.
• Widely used for motor control.
• Also used in regenerative braking.
• Thyristor converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size
and smooth control.

Choppers are of Two Types

Step-down choppers.
Step-up choppers.
In step down chopper output voltage is less than input voltage.
In step up chopper output voltage is more than input voltage

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5.1OBJECTIVES

 To explain the design, analysis techniques, performance parameters

and characteristics of DC-DC converters,operation of various chopper
commutation circuits.

5.2 Principle of Step-down Chopper

A step-down chopper with resistive load.

• The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch.
• When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load
• When thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero.

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Methods of Control
• The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.
– Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
– Variable frequency control.

Pulse Width Modulation

• tON is varied keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ & chopping period ‘T’ constant.
• Output voltage is varied by varying the ON time tON

Variable Frequency Control

• Chopping frequency ‘f’ is varied keeping either tON or tOFF constant.
• To obtain full output voltage range, frequency has to be varied over a wide range.
• This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load current may become
discontinuous

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5.2.1 Step-down Chopper with R-L Load

When chopper is ON, supply is connected across load.

Current flows from supply to load.

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When chopper is OFF, load current continues to flow in the same direction through FWD due to
energy stored in inductor ‘L’.
Load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of ‘L’ and duty cycle
‘d’
For a continuous current operation, load current varies between two limits Imax and Imin
When current becomes equal to Imax the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when current
reduces to Imin.

5.3 Principle of Step-up Chopper

Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load voltage higher than the input voltage V.
The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage and current.
When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply.
The inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper,
Ton. When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and
load for a period, tOFF.

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The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L.
Therefore voltage across load is given by

A large capacitor ‘C’ connected across the load, will provide a continuous output voltage.
• Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the source.
• Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.

(i) Expression For Output Voltage

Performance Parameters
• The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF.
• Duty cycle d can be varied only between a min. & max. value, limiting the min. and max. value
of the output voltage.
• Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the chopping frequency, f.
• To reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as high as possible.

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5.4 Classification of Choppers

Choppers are classified as

• Class A Chopper
• Class B Chopper
• Class C Chopper
• Class D Chopper
• Class E Chopper

1. Class A Chopper

When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load.

• When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the same direction
through the FWD.
• The average values of output voltage and current are always positive.
• Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper .
• Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows form source to load.
• It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
• The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to study
the performance of Class A Chopper.

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2. Class B Chopper

When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in
figure.
• During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy.
• When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy stored in inductor L is
returned to the supply.
• Average output voltage is positive.
• Average output current is negative.

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• Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant.

• In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
• Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor.
• Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper

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(i) Expression for Output Current

3. Class C Chopper

Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.

• For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts.
• For second quadrant operation, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts.
• When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive.

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• The output voltage is equal to ‘V’ & the load receives power from the source.
• When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the
diode D2 and the output voltage is zero.
• Current continues to flow in positive direction.
• When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite direction through L and
CH2 .
• The output voltage is zero.
• On turning OFF CH2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and
the supply
• Output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
• Average output voltage is positive
• Average output current can take both positive and negative values.
• Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short
circuiting the supply.
• Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor.
• Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper

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4. Class D Chopper

Class D is a two quadrant chopper.

• When both CH1 and CH2 are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V and output
current flows through the load.
• When CH1 and CH2 are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in the same direction
through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor L.
• Output voltage vO = - V .
• Average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is more than the OFF time
• Average output voltage becomes negative if tON < tOFF .
• Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be positive or
negative

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5. Class E Chopper

Class E is a four quadrant chopper

• When CH1 and CH4 are triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction through CH1
and CH4, and with output voltage vO = V.
• This gives the first quadrant operation.
• When both CH1 and CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D2
and D3 in the same direction, but output voltage vO = -V.
• Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant.
• When CH2 and CH3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction & output
voltage vO = -V.
• Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant.
• When both CH2 and CH3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction
D1 and D4 and the output voltage vO = V.
• Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative.

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Effect Of Source & Load Inductance

• The source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient voltage.
• Also source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper.
• Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance.
• The load ripple current is inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency.
• Peak load current depends on load inductance.
• To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is connected in series with the load.

5.6 Recommended questions

1. Explain the principle of operation of a chopper. Briefly explain time-ratio control and PWM as
applied to chopper
2. Explain the working of step down shopper. Determine its performance factors, VA, Vo rms,
efficiency and Ri the effective input resistane
3. Explain the working of step done chopper for RLE load. Obtain the expressions for minimum
load current I1max load current I2, peak – peak load ripple current di avg value of load current
Ia, the rms load current Io and Ri.
4. Give the classification of stem down converters. Explain with the help of circuit diagram one-
quadrant and four quadrant converters.
5. The step down chopper has a resistive load of R=10ohm and the input voltage is Vs=220V.
When the converter switch remain ON its voltage drop is Vch=2V and the chopping frequency is
1 KHz. If the duty cycle is 50% determine a) the avg output voltage VA, b) the rms output
voltage Vo c) the converter efficiency d) the effective input resistance Ri of the converter.

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6. Explain the working of step-up chopper. Determine its performance factors

5.7 Generic Skills / Outcomes

 Discuss the principle of operation of single phase and three phase DC –DC
converters

5.8 Further Reading

1. “Power Electronics” - M. H. Rashid 3rd edition, PHI / Pearson publisher 2004.

2. “Power Electronics” - M. D. Singh and Kanchandani K.B. TMH publisher, 2nd Ed. 2007.

3. “Thyristorized Power Controllers” - G. K. Dubey S. R. Doradla, A. Joshi and Rmk Sinha

New age international (P) ltd reprint 1999.

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MODULE- 5(b)
DC-AC CONVERTERS
Structure

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Classification of Inverters
5.3 Principle of Operation
5.4 Half bridge inverter with Inductive load
5.5 Fourier analysis of the Load Voltage Waveform
5.6 Performance parameters of inverters
5.7 Single Phase Bridge Inverter
5.8 Single Phase Bridge Inverter with RL Load
5.9 Comparison of half bridge and full bridge inverters
5.10 Principle of Operation of CSI
5.11 Variable DC link Inverter
5.12 Recommended questions
5.13 Outcomes
5.14 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

The converters which converts the power into ac power popularly known as the inverters. The
application areas for the inverters include the uninterrupted power supply (UPS), the ac motor
speed controllers, etc.
The inverters can be classified based on a number of factors like, the nature of output waveform
(sine, square, quasi square, PWM etc), the power devices being used (thyristor transistor,
MOSFETs IGBTs), the configuration being used, (series. parallel, half bridge, Full bridge), the
type of commutation circuit that is being employed and Voltage source and current source
inverters.
The Thyristorised inverters use SCRs as power switches. Because the input source of power is
pure de in nature, forced commutation circuit is an essential part of Thyristorised inverters. The
commutation circuits must be carefully designed to ensure a successful commutation of SCRs.
The addition of the commutation circuit makes the Thyristorised inverters bulky and costly. The
size and the cost of the circuit can be reduced to some extent if the operating frequency is
increased but then the inverter grade thyristors which are special thyristors manufactured to
operate at a higher frequency must be used, which are costly.

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5.1OBJECTIVES:
 To explain the design, analysis techniques, performance parameters and
characteristics of DC-AC converters

5.2 Classification of Inverters

There are different basis of classification of inverters. Inverters are broadly classified as current
source inverter and voltage source inverters. Moreover it can be classified on the basis of devices
used (SCR or gate commutation devices), circuit configuration (half bridge or full bridge), nature
of output voltage (square, quasi square or sine wave), type of circuit (switched mode PWM or
resonant converters) etc.

5.3 Principle of Operation

1. The principle of single phase transistorised inverters can be explained with the help of Fig.
The configuration is known as the half bridge configuration.
2. The transistor Q1 is turned on for a time T0/2, which makes the instantaneous voltage across
the load Vo = V12.
3. If transistor Q2 is turned on at the instant T0/2 by turning Q1 off then -V/2 appears across the
load.

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5.4 Half bridge inverter with Inductive load

Operation with inductive load:

Let us divide the operation into four intervals. We start explanation from the second lime interval
II to t2 because at the beginning of this interval transistor Q1 will start conducting.

Interval II (tl - t2): Q1 is turned on at instant tl, the load voltage is equal to + V/2 and the
positive load current increases gradually. At instant t2 the load current reaches the peak value.
The transistor Q1 is turned off at this instant. Due to the same polarity of load voltage and load

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current the energy is stored by the load. Refer Fig. 8.3(a).

Interval III (t2- t3): Due to inductive load, the load current direction will be maintained same
even after Q1 is turned off. The self induced voltage across the load will be negative. The load
current flows through lower half of the supply and D2 as shown in Fig. 8.3(b). In this interval the
stored energy in load is fed back to the lower half of the source and the load voltage is clamped
to -V/2.

Interval IV (t3 - t4):

At the instant t3, the load current goes to zero, indicating that all the stored energy has been
returned back to the lower half of supply. At instant t3 ' Q2 ‘is turned on. This will produce a
negative load voltage v0 = - V/2 and a negative load current. Load current reaches a negative
peak at the end of this interval. (See Fig. 8.4(a)).

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Interval I (t4 to t5) or (t0 to t1)

Conduction period of the transistors depends upon the load power, factor. For purely inductive
load, a transistor conducts only for T0/2 or 90 o. Depending on the load power factor, that
conduction period of the transistor will vary between 90 to 1800 ( 1800 for purely resistive load).

5.5 Fourier analysis of the Load Voltage Waveform of a Half Bridge Inverter

Assumptions:
• The load voltage waveform is a perfect square wave with a zero average value.
• The load voltage waveform does not depend on the type of load.
• an, bn and cn are the Fourier coefficients.
• өn is the displacement angle for the nth harmonic component of output voltage.
• Total dc input voltage to the inverter is V volts.

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RMS output voltage

RMS value of fundamental component of output voltage

5.6 Performance parameters of inverters

The output of practical inverters contains harmonics and the quality of an inverter is normally
evaluated in terms of following performance parameters:
• Harmonic factor of nth harmonic.
• Total harmonic distortion.
• Distortion factor.
• Lowest order harmonic.
Harmonic factor of nth harmonics HFn:
The harmonic factor is a measure of contribution of indivisual harmonics. It is defined as the
ratio of the rms voltage of a particular harmonic component to the rms value of fundamental
component.

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Total harmonic distortion, THD: It is a measure of closeness in shape between a waveform and
its fundamental component (sinusoidal waveform). THD = 0 means sinusoidal wave.

Distortion Factor, DF
DF indicates the amount of HD that remains in a particular waveform after the harmonics of that
waveform have been subjected to the second order attenuation (i.e. divided by n2)

Lowest-orderharmonic,LOH
LOH is that harmonic component whose frequency is closest to the fundamental one. Its
amplitude is normally > 3% of the fundamental component. High LOH is desired.

5.7 Single Phase Bridge Inverter

A single phase bridge inverter is shown in Fig.8.7. It consists of four transistors. These
transistors are turned on and off in pairs of Q1, Q2 and Q3 Q4.
In order to develop a positive voltage + V across the load, the transistors Q1, and O2 are turned
on simultaneously whereas to have a negative voltage - V across the load we need to turn on the
devices Q3 and Q4.
Diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 are known as the feedback diodes, because energy feedback takes
place through these diodes when the load is inductive.

Operation with resistive load

With the purely resistive load the bridge inverter operates in two different intervals In one cycle
of the output.

Mode I (0 - T0/2):

The transistors 01 and O2 conduct simultaneously in this mode. The load voltage is + V and load
current flows from A to B. The equivalent circuit for mode 1 is as shown in Fig. 8.8 (A). At t =
To/2 , 0, and Q2 are turned off and Q3 and Q4 are turned on.
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At t = T0/2, Q3 and Q4 are turned on and Q1 and Q2 are turned off. The load voltage is –V
and load current flows from B to A. The equivalent circuit for mode II is as shown in Fig.
9.5.1(b). At t = To, Q3 and Q4 are turned off and Q1 and Q2 are turned on again.
• As the load is resistive it does not store any energy. Therefore the feedback diodes are not
effective here.

• The voltage and current waveforms with resistive load are as shown in Fig.

The important observations from the waveforms of Fig as follows:

(i) The load current is in phase with the load voltage
(ii) The conduction period for each transistor is 1t radians or 1800
(iii) Peak current through each transistor = V/R.
(iv) Average current through each transistor = V/2R
(v) Peak forward voltage across each transistor = V volts.

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5.8 Single Phase Bridge Inverter with RL Load

The operation of the circuit can be divided into four intervals or modes. The waveforms are as
shown in Fig.
Interval I (t1 – t2):

At instant tl, the pair of transistors Q1 and Q2 is turned on. The transistors are assumed to be
ideal switches. Therefore point A gets connected to positive point of dc source V through Q, and
point B gets connected to negative point of input supply.

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The output voltage Vo == + V as shown in Fig 8.11(a). The load current starts increasing
exponentially due to the inductive nature of the load.
The instantaneous current through Q1 and Q2 is equal to the instantaneous load current. The
energy is stored into the inductive load during this interval of operation.

Interval II (t2 - t3) :

• At instant t2 both the transistors Q1 and Q2 are turned off. But the load current does not reduce
to 0 instantaneously, due to its inductive nature.
• So in order to maintain the flow of current in the same direction there is a self induced voltage
across the load. The polarity of this voltage is exactly opposite to that in the previous mode.
• Thus output voltage becomes negative equal to - V. But the load current continues to now in
the same direction, through D3 andD4 as shown in Fig. 8.11(b).
• Thus the stored energy in the load inductance is returned back to the source in this mode. The
diodes D1 to D4 are therefore known as the feedback diodes.
• The load current decreases exponentially and goes to 0 at instant t3 when all the energy stored
ill the load is returned back to supply. D3 and D4 are turned off at t3·

Interval III (t3 – t4)

• At instant t3 ' Q3 and Q4 are turned on simultaneously. The load voltage remains negative
equal to - V but the direction of load current will reverse and become negative.
• The current increases exponentially in the negative direction. And the load again stores energy)
in this mode of operation. This is as shown in Fig.

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Interval IV ( t4 to t5) or (t0 to t1)

• At instant t4 or to the transistors Q3 and Q4 are turned off. The load inductance tries to
maintain the load current in the same direction, by inducing a positive load voltage.
• This will forward bias the diodes D) and D2. The load stored energy is returned back to the
input dc supply. The load voltage Vo = + V but the load current remains negative and decrease
exponentially towards 0. This is as shown in Fig. 8.12(b).
• At t5 or t1 the load current goes to zero and transistors Q1 and Q2 can be turned on again.

Conduction period of devices:

• The conduction period with a very highly inductive load, will be T014 or 90 0 for all the
transistors as well as the diodes.
• The conduction period of transistors will increase towards To/2.or 1800 with increase in th1
load power factor. (i.e., as the load becomes more and more resistive).

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5.9 Comparison of half bridge and full bridge inverters

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5.10 Principle of Operation of CSI

The circuit diagram of current source inverter is shown in Fig. The variable dc voltage source is
converted into variable current source by using inductance L.

The current IL supplied to the single phase transistorised inverter is adjusted by the combination
of variable dc voltage and inductance L.
The waveforms of base currents and output current io are as shown in Fig. 8.15. When transistors
Q1 and Q2 conduct simultaneously, the output current is positive and equal to + IL. When
transistors Q3 and Q4 conduct simultaneously the output current io = - IL.
But io = 0 when the transistors from same arm i.e. Q( Q4 or Q2 Q3 conduct simultaneously.

The output current waveform of Fig.is a quasi-square waveform. But it is possible to

Obtain a square wave load current by changing the pattern of base driving signals. Such
waveforms are shown in Fig.

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Load Voltage:

• The load current waveform in CSI has a defined shape, as it is a square waveform in this case.
But the load voltage waveform will be dependent entirely on the nature of the load.
• The load voltage with the resistive load will be a square wave, whereas with a highly inductive
load it will be a triangular waveform. The load voltage will contain frequency components at the
inverter frequency f, equal to l/T and other components at multiples of inverter frequency.
• The load voltage waveforms for different types of loads are shown in Fig.

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5.11 Variable DC link Inverter

The circuit diagram of a variable DC-link inverter is shown in Fig. This circuit can be divided
into two parts namely a block giving a variable DC voltage and the second part being the bridge
inverter itself.

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The components Q, Dm, Land C give out a variable DC output. L and C are the filter
components. This variable DC voltage acts as the supply voltage for the bridge inverter.

The pulse width (conduction period) of the transistors is maintained constant and the variation in
output voltage is obtained by varying the DC voltage.
The output voltage waveforms with a resistive load for different dc input voltages are shown in
Fig.
We know that for a square wave inverter, the rms value of output voltage is given by,
V0 ( rms) = Vdc volts
Hence by varying Vdc, we can vary V0 (rms)
One important advantage of variable DC link inverters is that it is possible to eliminate or reduce
certain harmonic components from the output voltage waveform.
The disadvantage is that an extra converter stage is required to obtain a variable DC voltage from
a fixed DC. This converter can be a chopper
Three Phase DC-AC Inverters:
Three Phase DC-AC Converters Three phase inverters are normally used for high power
applications. The advantages of a three phase inverter are:
 The frequency of the output voltage waveform depends on the switching rate of the
switches and hence can be varied over a wide range.
 The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by changing the output phase
sequence of the inverter.
 The ac output voltage can be controlled by varying the dc link voltage.

The general configuration of a three phase DC-AC inverter is shown in Figure 1. Two types of
control signals can be applied to the switches:

 180o conduction

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 120o conduction

180-Degree Conduction with Star Connected Resistive Load

The configuration of the three phase inverter with star connected resistive load is shown in Figure 2.
The following convention is followed:
A current leaving a node point a, b or c and entering the neutral point n is assumed to be positive.
All the three resistances are equal, Ra= Rb= Rc= R
In this mode of operation each switch conducts for 180o. Hence, at any instant of time three switches
remain on. When is S1 on, the terminal a gets connected to the positive terminal of input DC source.
Similarly, when S4 is on, terminal a gets connected to the negative terminal of input DC source.
There are six possible modes of operation in a cycle and each mode is of 60 o duration and the
explanation of each mode is as follows:

Mode 1: In this mode the switches s5,s6 and s1 are turned on for time interval 0< ωt< π/3 As a result
of this the terminals a and c are connected to the positive terminal of the input DC source and the
terminal b is connected to the negative terminal of the DC source. The current flow through Ra,Rb
and Rc is shown in Figure 3a and the equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3b. The equivalent
resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 3b is

The current delivered by the DC input source is

The currents and are ia and ib

Keeping the current convention in mind, the current is ib

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Having determined the currents through each branch, the voltage across each branch is

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.
Mode 2: In this mode the switches s6,s1 and s2 are turned on for time interval π/3< ωt< 2π/3. The
current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 4a and Figure 4b respectively. Following
the reasoning given for mode 1, the currents through each branch and the voltage drops are given
by

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Mode 3: In this mode the switches s1,s2 and s3 are turned on for time interval 2π/3< ωt< π. . The
current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 5a and figure 5b respectively. The
magnitudes of currents and voltages are:

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For modes 4, 5 and 6 the equivalent circuits will be same as modes 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The
voltages and currents for each mode are:

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The plots of the phase voltages (Van ,Vbn and Vcn) and the currents (Ia , Ib and Ic ) are shown in Figure
6. Having known the phase voltages, the line voltages can also be determined as:

The plots of line voltages are also shown in Figure 6 and the phase and line voltages can be
expressed in terms of Fourier series as:

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5.12 Recommended questions

1. What are the differences between half and full bridge inverters?
2. What are the purposes of feedback diodes in inverters?
3. What are the arrangements for obtaining three phase output voltages?
4. What are the methods for voltage control within the inverters?
5. What are the methods of voltage control of I-phase inverters? Explain them briefly.
6. What are the main differences between VSI and CSI?
7. With a neat circuit diagram, explain single phase CSI?
8. The single phase half bridge inverter has a resistive load of R= 2.4 Ω and the dc input voltage
is Vs=48V Determine a) the rms output voltage at the fundamental frequency Vo1 b) The output
power Po c) the average and peak currents of each transistor d) the peak reverse blocking voltage
Vbr of each transistor e) the THD f) the DF g) the HF and DF of the LOH.

5.13 Generic Skills / Outcomes

 Discuss the principle of operation of single phase and three phase DC –AC
converters

5.14 Further Reading

1. “Power Electronics” - M. D. Singh and Kanchandani K.B. TMH publisher, 2nd Ed. 2007.

2. “Thyristorized Power Controllers” - G. K. Dubey S. R. Doradla, A. Joshi and Rmk Sinha

New age international (P) ltd reprint 1999.

3. “Power Electronics” - Cynil W. Lander 3rd edition, MGH 2003.

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