MURANG’A UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Lecture Notes: Topic I

EES210

PHYSICAL ELECTRONICS II

Lecturer: Mr. B.K WAMUKOYA

Room: GF2

Email: [email protected]

Semester II: MAY – AUG 2021

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Topic I: The pn Junction Diode

Preview

Recall

In the last topic under Physical Electronics I, we discussed the electrostatics of the pn
junction in thermal equilibrium and under reverse bias. We determined the built-in
potential barrier at thermal equilibrium and calculated the electric field in the space charge
region. We also considered the junction capacitance.

Under this topic, we consider the pn junction with a forward-bias voltage applied and
determine the current–voltage characteristics. The potential barrier of the pn junction is
lowered when a forward-bias voltage is applied, allowing electrons and holes to flow
across the space charge region. When holes flow from the p region across the space charge
region into the n region, they become excess minority carrier holes and are subject to the
excess minority carrier diffusion, drift, and recombination processes. Likewise, when
electrons from the n region flow across the space charge region into the p region, they
become excess minority carrier electrons and are subject to these same processes.

1.1 Pn Junction Current

When a forward-bias voltage is applied to a pn junction, a current will be induced in the

device. We initially consider a qualitative discussion of how charges flow in the pn
junction and then consider the mathematical derivation of the current–voltage
relationship.

1.11 Qualitative Description of Charge Flow in a pn Junction

To qualitatively investigate the mechanism of the current in a pn junction we consider the

energy-band diagrams. Figure 1.1a shows the energy-band diagram of a pn junction in
thermal equilibrium that was developed in the last topic under Physical Electronics I- EES
205.
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Figure 1.1: A pn junction and its associated energy-band diagram for (a) zero bias, (b) reverse bias, and
(c) forward bias.

It was stated that the potential barrier seen by the electrons, for instance, holds back the
large concentration of electrons in the n region and keeps them from flowing into the p
region. Similarly, the potential barrier seen by the holes holds back the large concentration
of holes in the p region and keeps them from flowing into the n region. The potential
barrier, then, maintains thermal equilibrium.

Figure 1.1b shows the energy-band diagram of a reverse-biased pn junction. The potential
of the n region is positive with respect to the p region so the Fermi energy in the n region
is lower than that in the p region. The total potential barrier is now larger than that for
the zero-bias case. The increased potential barrier continues to hold back the electrons and
holes so that there is still essentially no charge flow and hence essentially no current.

Figure 1.1c shows the energy-band diagram for the case when a positive voltage is applied
to the p region with respect to the n region. The Fermi level in the p region is now lower
than that in the n region. The total potential barrier is now reduced. The smaller potential
barrier means that the electric field in the depletion region is also reduced. The smaller
electric field means that the electrons and holes are no longer held back in the n and p
regions, respectively. There will be a diffusion of holes from the p region across the space
charge region where they will flow into the n region. Similarly, there will be a diffusion of
electrons from the n region across the space charge region where they will flow into the p
region. The flow of charge generates a current through the pn junction.
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The injection of holes into the n region means that these holes are minority carriers.
Likewise, the injection of electrons into the p region means that these electrons are minority
carriers. The behavior of these minority carriers is described by the ambipolar transport
equations. There will be diffusion as well as recombination of excess carriers in these
regions. The diffusion of carriers implies that there will be diffusion currents. The
mathematical derivation of the pn junction current–voltage relationship is considered in
the next section.

1.12 Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship

The ideal current–voltage relationship of a pn junction is derived on the basis of four

assumptions. (The last assumption has three parts, but each part deals with current.)
They are:
1. The abrupt depletion layer approximation applies. The space charge regions have
abrupt boundaries, and the semiconductor is neutral outside of the depletion
region.
2. The Maxwell–Boltzmann approximation applies to carrier statistics.
3. The concepts of low injection and complete ionization apply.
4a. The total current is a constant throughout the entire pn structure.
4b. The individual electron and hole currents are continuous functions through the pn
structure.
4c. The individual electron and hole currents are constant throughout the depletion
region.

The commonly used terms and notations under this topic are shown in the table below:
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1.13 Boundary Conditions

Figure 1.2 shows the conduction-band energy through the pn junction in thermal
equilibrium.

Figure 1.2: Conduction-band energy through a pn junction

The n region contains many more electrons in the conduction band than the p region; the
built-in potential barrier prevents this large density of electrons from flowing into the p
region. The built-in potential barrier maintains equilibrium between the carrier
distributions on either side of the junction.

An expression for the built-in potential barrier derived in the last topic is given by
Equation (1.1) as

𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 ………………………………………………………………………… [1.1]
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝑉𝑡 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
𝑛𝑖
If we divide the equation by Vt =kT /e, take the exponential of both sides, and then take
the reciprocal, we obtain

𝑛𝑖2 −𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑖 ….………………………………………………………………. [1.2]

= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑘𝑇

If we assume complete ionization, we can write

………………………………………………………………………………… [1.3]
𝑛𝑛𝑂 = 𝑁𝑑

where nn0 is the thermal-equilibrium concentration of majority carrier electrons in the n

region. In the p region, we can write
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𝑛𝑖2 ………………………………………………………………………………… [1.4]

𝑛𝑝0 ≈
𝑁𝑎

where np0 is the thermal-equilibrium concentration of minority carrier electrons.

Substituting Equations (1.3) and (1.4) into Equation (1.2), we obtain

−𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑖
𝑛𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) …………………………………………………………………. [1.5]
𝑘𝑇
Equation [1.5] above relates the minority carrier electron concentration on the p side of
the junction to the majority carrier electron concentration on the n side of the junction in
thermal equilibrium.

When the pn junction is forward biased, the potential barrier is reduced. Figure 1.3a shows
a pn junction with an applied voltage Va. The electric field in the bulk p and n regions is
normally very small. Essentially all of the applied voltage is across the junction region. The
electric field Eapp induced by the applied voltage is in the opposite direction to the thermal-
equilibrium space charge electric field, so the net electric field in the space charge region is
reduced below the equilibrium value.

Figure 1.3: (a) A pn junction with an applied forward-bias voltage showing the directions of the electric
field induced by Va and the space charge electric field. (b) Energy-band diagram of the forward- biased pn
junction.

The delicate balance between diffusion and the E-field force achieved at thermal
equilibrium is upset. The electric field force that prevented majority carriers from crossing
the space charge region is reduced; majority carrier electrons from the n side are now
injected across the depletion region into the p material, and majority carrier holes from
the p side are injected across the depletion region into the n material. As long as the bias
Va is applied, the injection of carriers across the space charge region continues and a current
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is created in the pn junction. This bias condition is known as forward bias; the energy-band
diagram of the forward biased pn junction is shown in Figure 1.3b.

The potential barrier Vbi in Equation (1.5) can be replaced by (Vbi -Va) when the junction
is forward biased. Equation (1.5) becomes

−𝑒(𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝑎 ) −𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑖 +𝑒𝑉𝑎

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) ………….... [1.6]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

Assuming low injection, the majority carrier electron concentration nn0, for instance, does
not change significantly. However, the minority carrier concentration, np, can deviate from
its thermal-equilibrium value np0 by orders of magnitude. Using Equation (1.5), we can
write Equation (1.6) as

𝑒𝑉𝑎 .............................................................................................. [1.7]

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑘𝑇

When a forward-bias voltage is applied to the pn junction, the junction is no longer in

thermal equilibrium. The left side of Equation (1.7) is the total minority carrier electron
concentration in the p region, which is now greater than the thermal equilibrium value.
The forward-bias voltage lowers the potential barrier so that majority carrier electrons
from the n region are injected across the junction into the p region, thereby increasing the
minority carrier electron concentration. This produces excess minority carrier electrons in
the p region.

When the electrons are injected into the p region, these excess carriers are subject to the
diffusion and recombination processes. Equation (1.7), then, is the expression for the
minority carrier electron concentration at the edge of the space charge region in the p
region.

Exactly the same process occurs for majority carrier holes in the p region, which are injected
across the space charge region into the n region under a forward-bias voltage. Hence we
can write that

𝑒𝑉𝑎 ……………………………………………………………………… [1.8]

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑘𝑇
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where pn is the concentration of minority carrier holes at the edge of the space charge
region in the n region. Figure 1.4 shows these results. By applying a forward-bias voltage,
we create excess minority carriers in each region of the pn junction.

Figure 1.4: Excess minority carrier concentrations at the space charge edges generated by the
forward-bias voltage.

Exercise Problem

a). Calculate the minority carrier concentrations at the edge of the space charge regions
in a forward-biased pn junction.
Consider a silicon pn junction at T =300 K. Assume the doping concentration in the n
region is Nd =1016 cm-3 and the doping concentration in the p region is Na = 6 ×1015
cm-3, and assume that a forward bias of 0.60 V is applied to the pn junction.
b). Comment on the changes in minority carrier concentration at the edge of the space
charge region when the pn junction is reverse biased

1.14 Minority Carrier Distribution

The one-dimensional ambipolar transport equation for excess minority carrier holes in
the n region is given by
𝛿 2 (𝛿𝑃𝑛 ) 𝜕(𝛿𝑃𝑛 ) 𝛿𝑃𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑃𝑛 )
𝐷𝑃 2
− 𝜇𝑝 𝐸 + 𝑔′ − = ……………………………………………… [1.9]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑡

Where δPn =Pn -Pn0 is the excess minority carrier hole concentration and is the difference
between the total and thermal equilibrium minority carrier concentrations. The ambipolar
transport equation describes the behavior of excess carriers as a function of time and spatial
coordinates.
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Previously in Physical Electronics I, we calculated drift current densities in a semiconductor.

We determined that relatively large currents could be created with fairly small electric
fields. As a first approximation, we assume that the electric field is zero in both the neutral
p and n regions. In the n region for x >xn, we have that E = 0 and g’=0. If we also assume
steady state so ∂(δPn)/∂t = 0, then Equation (1.9) reduces to

𝑑 2 (𝛿𝑃𝑛 ) 𝛿𝑃𝑛 …………………………………………………………….. [1.10]

− 2 =0 (x<xn)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿𝑝

Where 𝐿2𝑃 = 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝0 For the same set of conditions, excess minority carrier electron
concentration in the p region is determined from

𝑑 2 (𝛿𝑛𝑝 ) 𝛿𝑛𝑝 ………………………………………………………………. [1.11]

− 2 = 0 (x<xp)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿𝑛

Where 𝐿2𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛0

The boundary conditions for the total minority carrier concentrations are

𝑒𝑉𝑎 ………………………… [1.12a]

𝑃𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑃𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑘𝑇
𝑒𝑉𝑎 ……........................... [1.12b]
𝑛𝑃 (−𝑥𝑝 ) = 𝑛𝑃0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑘𝑇

𝑃𝑛 (𝑥 → +∞) = 𝑃𝑛0 …………………………. [1.12c]

𝑛𝑃 (𝑥 → −∞) = 𝑛𝑝0 …………………………… [1.12d]

As minority carriers diffuse from the space charge edge into the neutral semiconductor
regions, they recombine with majority carriers. We assume that the lengths Wn and Wp
shown in Figure 1.3a are very long, meaning in particular that Wn >>Lp and Wp >>Ln.
The excess minority carrier concentrations must approach zero at distances far from the
space charge region. The structure is referred to as a long pn junction.

The general solution to Equation (1.10) is

𝛿𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛0 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥⁄𝐿𝑃 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑥⁄𝐿𝑃 (𝑥 ≥ 𝑥𝑛 ) …………………………. [1.13]

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And the general solution to Equation (1.11) is

𝛿𝑛𝑝 (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑃 (𝑥) − 𝑛𝑃0 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑥⁄𝐿𝑛 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑥⁄𝐿𝑛 (𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑃 ) ………… [1.14]

Applying the boundary conditions from Equations (1.12c) and (1.12d), the coefficients A
and D must be zero. The coefficients B and C may be determined from the boundary
conditions given by Equations (1.12a) and (1.12b). The excess carrier concentrations are
then found to be, for (x ≥ xn),

𝑒𝑉𝑎 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥
𝛿𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛0 = 𝑃𝑛0 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) …………… [1.15]
𝑘𝑇 𝐿𝑝

and for 𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑃

𝑒𝑉𝑎 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥
𝛿𝑛𝑝 (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑃 (𝑥) − 𝑛𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑝0 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) ………….. [1.16]
𝑘𝑇 𝐿𝑛

The minority carrier concentrations decay exponentially with distance away from the
junction to their thermal-equilibrium values. Figure 1.5 shows these results. Again, we have
assumed that both the n-region and the p-region lengths are long compared to the minority
carrier diffusion lengths.
In Physical Electronics I, we discussed the concept of quasi-Fermi levels, which apply to
excess carriers in a non-equilibrium condition. Since excess electrons exist in the neutral p
region and excess holes exist in the neutral n region, we can apply quasi-Fermi levels to
these regions. We had defined quasi-Fermi levels in terms of carrier concentrations as
𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝛿𝑃 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) ………….………… [1.17]
𝑘𝑇

Figure 1.5: Steady-state minority carrier concentrations in a pn junction under forward bias.
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Figure 1.6: Quasi-Fermi levels through a forward-biased pn junction.

and

𝐸𝐹𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 …………………….. [1.18]

𝑛 = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑘𝑇

Figure 1.6 shows the quasi-Fermi levels through the pn junction. From Equations (1.15) and
(1.16), the carrier concentrations are exponential functions of distance, and from Equations
(1.17) and (1.18), the carrier concentrations are exponential functions of the quasi-Fermi
levels. The quasi-Fermi levels are then linear functions of distance in the neutral p and n
regions as shown in Figure 1.6.

Its important note that close to the space charge edge in the p region, EFn-EFi >0 which
means that δn >ni. Further from the space charge edge, EFn - EFi <0 which means that δn
<ni and the excess electron concentration is approaching zero. The same discussion applies
to the excess hole concentration in the n region.
At the space charge edge at x=xn, we have, for low injection

𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎
𝑛0 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑛0 𝑃𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) = 𝑛𝑖2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) …………………… [1.19]
𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑡

Combining Equations (1.17) and (1.18), we can write

𝐸𝐹𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹𝑃
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) …………………………. [1.20]
𝑘𝑇
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Comparing Equations (1.19) and (1.20), the difference in quasi-Fermi levels is related to the
applied bias Va and represents the deviation from thermal equilibrium. The difference
between EFn and EFp is nearly constant through the depletion region.

Recap: a forward-bias voltage lowers the built-in potential barrier of a pn junction so that
electrons from the n region are injected across the space charge region, creating excess
minority carriers in the p region. These excess electrons begin diffusing into the bulk p
region where they can recombine with majority carrier holes. The excess minority carrier
electron concentration then decreases with distance from the junction. The same discussion
applies to holes injected across the space charge region into the n region.

1.15 Ideal pn Junction Current

The approach used to determine the current in a pn junction is based on the three parts of
the fourth assumption stated earlier in this section. The total current in the junction is the
sum of the individual electron and hole currents that are constant through the depletion
region. Since the electron and hole currents are continuous functions through the pn
junction, the total pn junction current will be the minority carrier hole diffusion current at
X =Xn plus the minority carrier electron diffusion current at X =Xp. The gradients in the
minority carrier concentrations produce diffusion currents, and since assuming the electric
field to be zero at the space charge edges, the minority carrier drift current component can
be neglected. This approach in determining the pn junction current is shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Electron and hole current densities through the space charge region of a pn junction.

The minority carrier hole diffusion current density can be calculated at X =Xn from the
relation
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𝑑𝑃𝑛 (𝑋) …………………………………………………… [1.21]

𝐽𝑝 (𝑋𝑛 ) = −𝑒𝐷𝑝 |𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛
𝑑𝑋

Assuming uniformly doped regions, the thermal-equilibrium carrier concentration is

constant, so the hole diffusion current density may be written as

𝑑(𝛿𝑃𝑛 (𝑥))
𝐽𝑝 (𝑥𝑛 ) = −𝑒𝐷𝑝 |𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 ……………………………………………... [1.22]
𝑑𝑥

Taking the derivative of Equation (1.15) and substituting into Equation (1.22), we obtain

𝑒𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑛0 𝑒𝑉𝑎

𝐽𝑝 (𝑥𝑛 ) = [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1] ………………………………………………. [1.23]
𝐿𝑝 𝑘𝑇

The hole current density for this forward-bias condition is in the +x direction, which is
from the p to the n region.
Similarly, we may calculate the electron diffusion current density at x =-xp. This may
be written as

𝑑 (𝛿𝑛𝑝 (𝑥))
𝐽𝑛 (−𝑥𝑝 ) = 𝑒𝐷𝑛 |𝑥 = −𝑥𝑝 ………………………………….………….. [1.24]
𝑑𝑥

Using Equation 1.16 we obtain

𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝0 𝑒𝑉𝑎 ………………………………………………….. [1.25]

𝐽𝑛 (−𝑥𝑝 ) = [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1]
𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇
The electron current density is also in the +x direction.
An assumption we made at the beginning was that the individual electron and hole currents
were continuous functions and constant through the space charge region. The total current
is the sum of the electron and hole currents and is constant through the entire junction.
Figure 1.7 again shows a plot of the magnitudes of these currents.

The total current density in the pn junction is then

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𝑒𝐷𝑃 𝑃𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝0 𝑒𝑉𝑎 ....................... [1.26]

𝐽 = 𝐽𝑝 (𝑥𝑛 ) + 𝐽𝑛 (−𝑥𝑝 ) = [ + ] [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1]
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇

Equation (1.26) is the ideal current–voltage relationship of a pn junction. We may define

a parameter Js as

𝑒𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑛0 𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝0

𝐽𝑠 = [ + ] …………………..…………………………………..……….….. [1.27]
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛

Figure 1.8: Ideal V-J Characteristics of a pn junction diode

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so that Equation (1.26) may be written as

𝑒𝑉𝑎 …………………………… [1.28]

𝐽 = 𝐽𝑠 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1]
𝑘𝑇

Equation (1.28), known as the ideal-diode equation, gives a proper description of the V–I
characteristics of the pn junction over a wide range of currents and voltages. Although
Equation (1.28) was derived assuming a forward-bias voltage (Va >0), there is nothing to
prevent Va from being negative (reverse bias). Equation (1.28) is plotted in Figure 1.8 as a
function of forward-bias voltage Va. If the voltage Va becomes negative (reverse bias) by
a few kT/eV, then the reverse-biased current density becomes independent of the reverse-
biased voltage. The parameter Js is then referred to as the reverse-saturation current
density. The V–I characteristics of the pn junction diode are obviously not bilateral.

1.2 Pn Junction under illumination

When a p-n junction is illuminated the additional electron-hole pairs are generated in the
semiconductor. The concentration of minority carriers (electrons in the p-type region and
holes in the n-type region) strongly increases. This increase in the concentration of minority
carriers leads to the flow of the minority carriers across the depletion region into the quasi-
neutral regions. Electrons flow from the p-type into the n-type region and holes from the
n-type into the p-type region. The flow of the photo-generated carriers causes the so-called
photo-generation current, Jph, which adds to the thermal-generation current, Jgen. When
no external contact between the n-type and the p-type regions is established, which means
that the junction is in the open-circuit condition, no net current can flow inside the p-n
junction. It means that the current resulting from the flux of photo-generated and thermally
generated carriers has to be balanced by the opposite recombination current. The
recombination current will increase through lowering of the electrostatic potential barrier
across the depletion region.

This situation of the illuminated p-n junction under open-circuit condition using the band
diagram is presented in Fig. 1.9(a). The electrostatic-potential barrier across the junction is
lowered by an amount of Voc. We refer to Voc as the open-circuit voltage. Under non-
equilibrium conditions the concentrations of electrons and holes are described by the quasi-
Fermi energy levels. It is illustrated in Fig. 1.9 (a) that the electrochemical potential of
electrons, denoted by EFC, is higher in the n-type region than in the p-type region by an
amount of eVoc. This means that a voltmeter will measure a voltage difference of Voc
between the contacts of the p-n junction. Under illumination, when the n-type and p-type
regions are short circuited, the photo-generated current will also flow through the external
circuit. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 1.9 (b). Under short-circuit condition the
electrostatic-potential barrier is not changed, but from a strong variation of the quasi-Fermi
levels inside the depletion region one can determine that the current is flowing inside the
semiconductor.
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Figure 1.9: Energy band diagram and electrostatic-potential (in red colour) of an illuminated p-
n junction under the (a) open-circuit and (b) short-circuit conditions.

When a load is connected between the electrodes of the illuminated p-n junction, only a
fraction of the photogenerated current will flow through the external circuit. The electro-
chemical potential difference between the n-type and p-type regions will be lowered by a
voltage drop over the load. This in turn lowers the electrostatic potential over the
depletion region which results in an increase of the recombination current. In the
superposition approximation, the net current flowing through the load is determined as
the sum of the photo- and thermal generation currents and the recombination current. The
voltage drop at the load can be simulated by applying a forward-bias voltage to the
junction, therefore Eq. (1.28), which describes the behaviour of the junction under applied
voltage, is included to describe the net current of the illuminated p-n junction.
𝐽(𝑉𝑎) = 𝐽𝑟𝑒𝑐 (𝑉𝑎) − 𝐽𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑉𝑎) − 𝐽𝑝ℎ

𝑒𝑉𝑎
= 𝐽𝑠 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1] − 𝐽𝑝ℎ ………………………… [1.29]
𝑘𝑇

Both the dark and illuminated J-V characteristics of the p-n junction are represented in Fig.
1.10.
B. K WAMUKOYA 2021 EES210

Figure 1.10: J-V characteristics of a p-n junction in the dark and under illumination.

Note, that in the figure the superposition principle is reflected. The illuminated J-V
characteristic of the p-n junction is the same as the dark J-V characteristic, but it is shifted
down by the photo-generated current density Jph. The detailed derivation of the photo-
generated current density of the p-n junction is carried out at advanced level and its value
under uniform generation rate, G, is
………………………… [1.30]
𝐽𝑝ℎ = 𝑒𝐺(𝐿𝑛 + 𝑊 + 𝐿𝑝 )
where Ln and Lp is the minority-carrier-diffusion length for electrons and holes,
respectively, and W is the width of the depletion region. It means only carriers generated
in the depletion region and in the regions up to the minority-carrier-diffusion length from
the depletion region contribute to the photo-generated current. When designing the
thickness of a solar cell, Eq. (1.30) must be considered. The thickness of the absorber should
not be thicker than the region from which the carriers contribute to the photo-generated
current.