FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & BUILT

ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY & GEOPHYSICS LABORATORY

REPORT

COURSE NAME ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

COURSE CODE BFC 21303
TEST CODE & TITLE LAB 4 – ROCK SLOPE STABILITY [4(a), 4(b) & 4(c)]
SECTION 5

NAMES AND MATRIC NURUL HUDA HAYATI BT ROSLI (CF230092)

NUMBER
LECTURER/ INSTRUCTOR/ Prof. Ts. Dr. Aziman Bin Madun
TUTOR NAME
REPORT RECEIVED DATE 12 DECEMBER 2023
CLO 1: Classify and characterize rock testing based on its categories (3.99 %)
Knowledge &
comprehension (C1) Describe the rock slope
Knowledge &
comprehension (C2) Classify the type of rock slope
Illustrate and examine the rock
Application (C3) slope based on stereonet
CLO 3: Reporting lab findings in a team and satisfy all assessment
requirements (3.01 %)
MARKS
Receiving, responding and
valuing phenomena (A1) Name the rock slope
Receiving, responding and
valuing phenomena (A2) Discuss the rock slope
Receiving, responding and
valuing phenomena (A3) Report the rock slope

TOTAL (CLO 1 & CLO 3) /7%

EXAMINER COMMENT RECEIVED
STAMP
LAB 4A
Questin and discussion

Describe two graphical methods for showing structural geology data and explain when
each method is best used.

1. Stereonets:

Stereonets are graphical representations of three-dimensional orientations of geological

structures projected onto a two-dimensional circular plot. They are commonly used to
analyze and display the distribution of planes and lines in structural geology.

Usage:
Stereonets are particularly useful for visualizing and interpreting structural data related to
planar features such as bedding planes, faults, and joints. They help geologists understand the
spatial relationships, orientations, and patterns of these structures in three dimensions.
Stereonets are especially effective for analyzing data collected in the field through geological
mapping or structural measurements.

When to Use:
- Understanding the orientation and distribution of planar features.
- Analyzing the geometry of faults and joints.
- Determining the intersection lines and angles between different geological structures.
- Assessing the stress and strain history of a region.

2. Rose Diagrams

Rose diagrams, also known as polar plots, are circular diagrams used to represent the
distribution of linear features' orientations in structural geology. Each line or structural
element is represented by a segment of the circle, and the density of segments in each
direction indicates the prevalence of structures in that orientation.

Usage:
Rose diagrams are ideal for displaying data related to linear features such as fractures,
cleavage, and mineral lineations. They provide a quick visualization of the dominant trends in
the distribution of linear structures within a given area.

When to Use:
- Analyzing the preferred orientation of mineral lineations.
- Assessing the distribution of fractures or fault lineations.
- Identifying patterns in the orientation of foliation or cleavage.
- Comparing different datasets to understand regional structural trends.

In summary, stereonets and rose diagrams are complementary graphical methods that serve
different purposes in structural geology, depending on the type of structural data being
analyzed. Stereonets are valuable for planar features, while rose diagrams are effective for
linear features. Geologists often use a combination of these methods to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the structural characteristics in a given geological setting.
Use a diagram to illustrate the geological structures that can be represented on a
stereonet
Explain the field methodology for gathering discontinuity data in detail.

1. Preliminary Research and Planning:

- Study Area Selection: Choose a study area that is representative of the larger geological
context and has accessible outcrops.
- Literature Review: Review existing geological maps, publications, and any available data
to understand the geological context and previous work in the area.

2. Equipment Preparation:

- Compass and Clinometer: Ensure that a high-quality geological compass with a clinometer is
available for measuring strike and dip of discontinuities accurately.
- Notebook and Pencils: Carry a field notebook and pencils for recording observations,
sketches, and data.
- Camera: Use a camera for capturing photographs of outcrops, structures, and specific
discontinuities.

3. Field Reconnaissance:

-General Observations: Begin with a broad-scale observation of the area, noting the lithology,
overall structure, and any obvious discontinuities.
- Outcrop Mapping Create a detailed geological map of the study area, marking the locations
of outcrops and significant geological features.

4. Discontinuity Data Collection:

-Identification: Systematically identify and document different types of discontinuities,
including fractures, faults, joints, and cleavage.
-Orientation Measurements: Use the geological compass to measure the strike and dip of
bedding planes, faults, and joints and record the sense of movement for faults

5. Sampling and Analysis:

- Sample Collection: Collect rock samples from areas with well-exposed discontinuities for
further laboratory analysis.
- Orientation Analysis: In the laboratory, analyse the orientation of discontinuities using tools
such as a stereonet or GIS software for a more detailed assessment.
6. Data Recording:
- Field Notes: Maintain detailed field notes, including sketches, descriptions of
discontinuities, and any relevant geological information.
- Photographic Documentation: Take photographs of key outcrops, structures, and specific
discontinuities, and annotate them in the field notes.

7. Additional Measurements:

- Spacing and Aperture: Measure the spacing between discontinuities and the aperture
(width) of fractures or joints.
- Roughness and Fillings: Note the roughness of fracture surfaces and any infillings or
mineralizations.

8. Data Quality Assurance:

- Consistency Checks:Regularly cross-check orientation measurements to ensure accuracy

and consistency in data collection.
- Repeat Measurements: If possible, take multiple measurements of the same feature to verify
reliability.

9. Safety Considerations:

-Site Safety:Prioritize safety while working in the field, especially when dealing with
potentially hazardous terrain or weather conditions.
- Navigation:Ensure that the team has proper navigation tools and knows the location of
emergency exits.

10. Post-Field Analysis:

- Integration of Data: Integrate field data with laboratory analyses and any pre-existing
geological information for a comprehensive understanding of the area.
- Report Preparation: Compile all collected data, observations, and analyses into a detailed
geological report.

Field methodologies for gathering discontinuity data may vary based on the specific
objectives of the study, geological setting, and available resources. It's essential to adapt the
methodology to the unique characteristics of the study area while maintaining a systematic
and rigorous approach to data collection.
CONCLUSION

This experiment is about plotting poles and countering of structural geology data. From this
experiment student should be able to measure the dip angle and dip direction of any plotting
poles of structural geology data. In this experiment have using equal area for plotting poles
and great circles, equal-area for polar net, Kalsbeek counting net ,tracing paper and pencil to
came to the experiment objective.
LAB 4B

Explain the mode of failure for rock slope for each type.

Rock slopes can fail through various modes, and understanding these failure mechanisms is
crucial for assessing and mitigating the risks associated with such failures. The primary
modes of failure for rock slopes include:

1. Rock Falls:
- Description: Rock falls occur when individual rock blocks detach from a slope and free-fall
or bounce down the slope.
- Mode of Failure:
- Weathering and Erosion: Physical weathering or erosion weakens the rock, making it more
susceptible to detachment.
- Jointing and Bedding: Weakness along joints or bedding planes can contribute to the
detachment of rock blocks.
- Human Activities: Excavation, construction, or other human activities can destabilize rock
slopes, leading to rock falls.

2.Rock Slides:
- Description: Rock slides involve the sliding or gliding movement of large rock masses
along well-defined failure surfaces.
- Mode of Failure:
- Shear Failure: Failure surfaces develop along zones of weakness, such as bedding planes,
faults, or joints, where shear forces overcome the rock's strength.
- Rainfall or Saturation: Increased water infiltration can reduce friction along failure surfaces,
triggering slides.
- Slope Oversteepening: Excessive steepening of a slope can surpass the angle of repose,
initiating sliding.

3. Rock Avalanches:
- Description: Rock avalanches are rapid downslope movements of large volumes of
fragmented rock debris.
- Mode of Failure:
Failure of Intact Rock Mass:The entire rock mass fails, often due to a combination of
geological factors like steep slopes, weak layers, and human activities.
Triggering Events: Earthquakes, volcanic activity, or heavy rainfall can act as triggers for
rock avalanches.

4.Rock Toppling:
- Description: Rock toppling occurs when blocks of rock rotate outward from a slope due to a
loss of support at the base.
- Mode of Failure:
- Jointing and Weathering: Weakening of joints, fractures, or weathered material at the base
of the rock mass can lead to loss of support, causing blocks to topple.
- Slope Undercutting: Erosion or excavation at the base of the slope can undercut the rock,
promoting toppling.

5. Creep or Slow Deformation:

- Description:Creep involves the slow downslope movement of rock particles due to gravity.
- Mode of Failure:
- Creep Mechanisms:This can result from the expansion and contraction of minerals with
temperature changes, freeze-thaw cycles, or the gradual breakdown of rock particles.

Understanding the specific geological and environmental conditions that contribute to each
mode of failure is essential for assessing the stability of rock slopes. Geotechnical
investigations, monitoring, and the implementation of appropriate stabilization measures are
commonly employed to manage and mitigate the risks associated with potential rock slope
failures.
Identify which discontinuities sets that have some potential to fail and what are their
failure modes.

Several discontinuity sets in rock masses have the potential to contribute to slope instability,
and each set may exhibit specific failure modes. Understanding these discontinuity sets and
their failure modes is crucial for assessing and mitigating the risk of slope failures. Here are
common discontinuity sets and their associated failure modes:

1. Bedding Planes:

Potential for Failure:

- Bedding planes represent weak planes of separation between different rock layers.
Failure Modes:
-Sliding: Failure can occur along bedding planes, leading to sliding or slumping of entire
rock layers.
-Erosion: Weathering and erosion along bedding planes can weaken the material,
contributing to mass wasting.

2. Joint Sets:

Potential for Failure:

- Joints are fractures or zones of separation within a rock mass that do not show
significant movement.

Failure Modes:
- Shear Failure: Movement along joint surfaces can lead to shear failure, especially
when the joint surfaces are not well mineralized or altered.
-Opening: Tensional forces can cause joints to open, potentially leading to block
detachment.

3. Faults:

Potential for Failure:

- Faults are fractures along which there has been relative movement of rock masses.

Failure Modes
- Slip Along Fault Planes: Displacement along fault planes can result in sliding or
movement of rock masses along these planes.
- Rupture: Rupture along faults may cause abrupt failure, particularly during seismic
events.

4. Cleavage and Foliation:

Potential for Failure:

- Cleavage and foliation represent planes of weakness associated with the alignment of
mineral grains.

Failure Modes:
- Cleavage Plane Failure:Failure can occur along cleavage planes, leading to the
detachment and movement of rock blocks.
 - Foliation Sliding: Movement along foliation planes may contribute to sliding or
slumping.

5. Fractures and Fracture Sets:

Potential for Failure:

- Fractures represent zones of weakness and may occur as isolated fractures or within
fracture sets.

Failure Modes:
- Shear Failure: Movement along fractures can result in shear failure, particularly when
the fractures are well-developed and oriented favorably.
- Block Detachment: Failure along fracture sets may cause the detachment of blocks from
the rock mass.

6. Mineral Veins and Intrusions:

Potential for Failure:

- Veins and intrusions represent zones of material that differ from the host rock.
Failure Modes:
-Displacement: Movement along the boundaries of veins or intrusions can lead to
displacement and failure of the surrounding rock.

Understanding the characteristics, orientations, and interactions of these discontinuity sets is

essential for assessing the stability of a rock slope. Geotechnical investigations, field
mapping, and monitoring are commonly employed to evaluate the potential for failure
associated with specific discontinuity sets and to implement appropriate slope stabilization
measures.
What are the others criteria that must be met in order to promote the slope failure?

Slope stability is influenced by a combination of geological, geomorphological, hydrological,

and environmental factors. In addition to discontinuity sets, several other criteria play a
crucial role in promoting slope failure. Here are some key factors:

1. Slope Angle:
- Criteria:Steeper slope angles increase the gravitational driving force and may exceed the
resisting forces, leading to instability.
- Influence: Slopes approaching or exceeding their angle of repose are more prone to
failure.

2. Material Strength and Cohesion

-Criteria: Weaker or poorly cohesive materials are more susceptible to failure.
- Influence: Rocks and soils with low cohesion and shear strength are more prone to mass
wasting.

3. Weathering and Erosion:

- Criteria: The degree of weathering and erosion can weaken rock or soil, reducing its
stability.
- Influence: Intense weathering, freeze-thaw cycles, or erosion can compromise the
integrity of a slope.

4. Water Content and Saturation:

- Criteria: Increased water content can reduce the internal strength of materials and
contribute to failure.
- Influence: Saturation from rainfall, snowmelt, or groundwater can trigger landslides and
slope failures.

5. Vegetation Cover:
- Criteria: Vegetation helps stabilize slopes by adding root cohesion and reducing surface
erosion.
- Influence: Deforestation, land clearing, or loss of vegetation cover can increase the risk of
slope instability.

6. Seismic Activity:
- Criteria: Seismic events can induce slope failure by adding dynamic forces and altering
the stress conditions.
- Influence: Earthquakes can trigger landslides and rockfall, especially in seismically active
regions.

7. Human Activities:
- Criteria: Excavation, construction, mining, and other human activities can alter slope
stability.
- Influence: Poorly planned or executed human activities can destabilize slopes, leading to
failures.

8. Topography and Geomorphology:

 - Criteria: The overall landscape and landform characteristics can influence slope stability.
- Influence: Steeper slopes, concave landforms, and areas with multiple drainage channels
may be more susceptible to failure.

9. Drainage Conditions:
-Criteria: Poor drainage can lead to increased water infiltration and reduced shear strength.
- Influence: Proper drainage management is crucial to minimize the risk of slope instability.

10. Previous Failures:

-Criteria: The history of slope failures in an area can indicate potential instability.
-Influence: Areas with a history of landslides or rockfalls may be more prone to future
failures.

11. Time and Rate of Loading:

- Criteria:The rate at which loads are applied can influence the stability of slopes.
- Influence: Rapid changes in loading conditions, such as heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt,
can trigger slope failures.

It's important to conduct thorough site investigations and analyses that consider these factors
collectively to assess and predict slope stability accurately. Geotechnical engineers use a
combination of field assessments, laboratory testing, and numerical modeling to evaluate the
potential for slope failure and design appropriate stabilization measures.
Conclusion

In conclusion, a though understanding of discontinuity sets and failure modes in structural

geology data pertaining to slopes is fundamental for conducting peruse slope stability
assessments. This knowledge forms the basis for implementing apocopate engineering
measures and risk mitigation strategies to ensure the safety and longevity of structure built on
or near slope. Modes of failure such as wedges,plannar and toppling can be determine by plot
the great circle of discontinuities. This will identify the objective that analysis the major and
minor discontinuities set, plot the great circle of discontinuities and analyse the failure
modes.
LAB 4C

Provide the recommended safety factor values for rock slopes in civil engineering.

Safety factor values for rock slopes in civil engineering can vary depending on the specific
project, site conditions, and governing design standards. Safety factor is a ratio of the
resisting forces to the driving forces acting on a slope. A safety factor greater than 1 indicates
stability, while a safety factor less than 1 suggests instability. The recommended safety factor
values for rock slopes typically depend on factors such as the nature of the rock, the slope
geometry, and the level of uncertainty in the data.

Here are general guidelines for safety factor values for rock slopes:

1. Low Risk Environments:

- Safety Factor: 1.5 to 2.0
- Conditions:Stable rock slopes with minimal geological and hydrological risks.

2. Moderate Risk Environments:

- Safety Factor: 1.3 to 1.5
- Conditions: Areas where moderate geological or hydrological risks are present, and where
there is a relatively good understanding of site conditions.

3. High Risk Environments:

- Safety Factor: 1.2 to 1.3
- Conditions:Unstable rock slopes with significant geological or hydrological risks, or
where uncertainties in the data are high.

4. Dynamic Loading or Seismic Conditions:

- Safety Factor:1.2 or higher
- Conditions: Areas prone to dynamic loading, such as seismic activity, may require higher
safety factors.
It's important to note that these values are general guidelines, and specific projects may have
different safety factor requirements based on project-specific considerations and regulatory
standards. Additionally, some design codes or agencies might provide specific safety factor
requirements for rock slope stability.

The safety factor is typically determined through geotechnical analysis, which considers
factors such as the geological and geotechnical properties of the rock, slope geometry,
groundwater conditions, and potential seismic activity. Geotechnical engineers use methods
such as limit equilibrium analysis and numerical modeling to assess slope stability and
calculate safety factors.

Designers and engineers should always refer to local building codes, geological assessments,
and project-specific considerations to determine appropriate safety factor values for rock
slopes in a given location.

Explain the primary differences between the assessment of rock slopes and soil slopes

The assessment of rock slopes and soil slopes involves different considerations due to the
distinct mechanical and geological properties of rocks and soils. Here are the primary
differences between the assessment of rock slopes and soil slopes:

1. Material Properties:
Rock Slopes:
- Properties: Rocks are generally characterized by higher strength and stiffness compared
to soils. The mechanical behavior of rocks is influenced by factors such as intact rock
strength, jointing, and geological structures.
- Assessment: Rock slope assessments often involve analyzing the orientation and
persistence of discontinuities, understanding the rock mass properties, and evaluating the
potential for sliding or failure along geological features.
Soil Slopes:
- Properties: Soils are typically weaker and more deformable than rocks. The behavior of
soils depends on factors such as grain size, moisture content, and compaction.
- Assessment: Soil slope assessments focus on properties like cohesion, internal friction,
and pore pressure. Stability analyses often consider factors such as soil type, compaction, and
shear strength.

2. Failure Modes:
 Rock Slopes:
-Modes: Failure modes in rock slopes often involve sliding along discontinuities, block
detachment, or the collapse of rock masses. Failure can occur along pre-existing planes of
weakness, such as joints, faults, or bedding planes.
-Assessment: Understanding the orientation and condition of discontinuities is crucial in
assessing potential failure modes in rock slopes.
Soil Slopes:
- Modes:Failure modes in soil slopes may include sliding, slumping, or flow, depending
on the type of soil and its moisture content. Soil slopes are more prone to gradual
deformations and settlement.
-Assessment: Soil slope assessments focus on factors such as shear strength, slope
geometry, and groundwater conditions to evaluate potential failure modes.

3. Analysis Methods:
Rock Slopes:
- Methods: Analytical methods for rock slope stability often involve limit equilibrium
analyses, numerical modeling (e.g., Finite Element Analysis), and kinematic analyses to
assess the potential for sliding along discontinuities.
- Challenges: Modeling the complex geometry and behavior of jointed rock masses
requires specialized software and expertise.
Soil Slopes:
- Methods: Methods for soil slope stability analysis include limit equilibrium methods
(e.g., Bishop's method), shear strength reduction techniques, and numerical modeling. These
methods consider factors like cohesion, internal friction, and pore pressure.
- Challenges: Accurate modeling of pore pressure, especially in saturated soils, is
crucial for reliable stability assessments.

4. Water Influence:
Rock Slopes:
- Water Influence:The presence of water in joints or fractures can influence the stability of
rock slopes, but the effects are often more localized compared to soil slopes.
Soil Slopes:
- Water Influence: Water significantly affects the stability of soil slopes, with factors like
pore water pressure, rainfall, and drainage conditions playing a critical role in slope behavior.
Saturated soils are particularly prone to instability.
5. Mitigation Measures:
Rock Slopes:
- Mitigation: Rock slope stabilization may involve rock bolting, meshing, rock anchors,
and slope reinforcement techniques. Geological mapping and monitoring are essential for
identifying and managing potential instabilities.
Soil Slopes:
- Mitigation: Mitigation measures for soil slopes may include drainage systems, retaining
walls, geotextiles, and vegetation cover to enhance slope stability. Soil improvement
techniques, such as compaction, may also be employed.

In summary, while both rock slopes and soil slopes require stability assessments, the distinct
material properties, failure modes, and analysis methods necessitate tailored approaches for
each. Engineers and geologists must consider the specific characteristics of the geological
formations and use appropriate methods to ensure accurate assessments and effective
mitigation measures.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the laboratory examining the factor of safety for planes and wedges,the result
indicate crucial insight into the stability of materials under different condition.For factor of
safety,it will be calculated using criteria such as cohension value,unit weight of rock,unit
weight of water,height of plane,friction angle and so on.In both condition which is wet and
dry condition,tha factor of safety was assessed to understand the material response to varying
moisture levels.To summmaries, the laboratory finding clarify clearly on the material
performance under different conditions,as well as the factor of safety forwedges,contribute to
a holistic understanding of material stability and aids in making informed decisions for real-
world application.