Dr.

Panjabrao Deshmukh Polytechnic,

Shivaji Nagar, Amravati
(Maharashtra Govt-Aided Institute)

Subject : Data Communication & Computer Network - 22414

Unit-3 :
Error Detection, Correction & Wireless Communication

Types of Errors:- Single Bit error & Burst error,

Redundancy code
By
Rajendra H. Rathod
Lecturer, Comp. Engg. Dept.
 3.1
Types of Error
Outcomes
1. What is error
2. Different types of errors
3. Working of given error
Error
A condition when the receiver’s information does not
match with the sender’s information. During
transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can
introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from
sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1
or a 1 bit may change to 0.
• Networks must be able to transfer data from one
device to another with acceptable accuracy.

• Any time data are transmitted from one node to the

next, they can become corrupted in passage.

• Many factors can alter one or more bits of a message.

• Some applications require a mechanism for detecting

and correcting errors.
• Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they
are subject to unpredictable changes because of
interference.

• This interference can change the shape of the signal.

• In a single-bit error, a 0 is changed to a 1 or a 1 to a 0.

• In a burst error, multiple bits are changed.

If the signal is carrying binary encoded data, changes

can alter the meaning of the data.
Types of errors:

1. Single bit error:

The term single bit error means that only one bit of
a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1.

2. Burst error:
The term burst error means that two or more bits in
the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1
Single-bit Error
The term single-bit error means that only one bit of
given data unit (such as a byte, character, or data unit)
is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1
Single bit errors are least likely type of errors in serial
data transmission.

Single-bit error can happen if we are having a parallel

data transmission.

For example, if 16 wires are used to send all 16 bits of a

word at the same time and one of the wires is noisy, one
bit is corrupted in each word.
Burst Error

The term burst error means that two or more bits in the
data unit have changed from 0 to 1 or vice-versa.
Note that burst error doesn’t necessary means that
error occurs in consecutive bits. The length of the burst
error is measured from the first corrupted bit to the last
corrupted bit. Some bits in between may not be
corrupted.
Burst errors are mostly likely to happen in serial
transmission.

The duration of the noise is normally longer than the

duration of a single bit, which means that the noise
affects data; it affects a set of bits.

The number of bits affected depends on the data rate

and duration of noise.
Redundancy Error Detection:
One error detection mechanism that would adds extra
bits for detecting errors at the destination.

Data 1100011111101010111001110

Generating Function

Coded Redundancy 11000110

Sender

1100011111101010111001110 11000110
 Checking Function

Accept Reject

Receiver
Errors occur to the data during data transmission as well as data processing
stages. The errors can occur due to various reasons such as electrostatic
interference from nearby circuits, attenuation due to cable or path resistance,
distortion due to inductance/capacitance, transmission loss due to leakages etc.
LAN and optical cables introduce less errors than wireless networks. The
errors can be of two types viz. single bit error and burst error.

Error Detection methods:

Following types of redundancy checks are used in data communications
Vertical redundancy check (VRC/parity check), longitudinal
redundancy check (LRC), cyclic redundancy check (CRC) and
checksum.
• When frame is transmitted from transmitter to the receiver. There are
two possibilities viz. frame is received without error, frame is
received in error (i.e. frame is bad).

• Error detection helps in detecting errors in a received block or frame

by the receiver.

• Once the error is detected receiver informs the transmitter to re-

transmit the same frame again.

• Error detection can be made possible by adding redundant bits in

each frame during transmission. Based on all the bits in the frame
(i.e. data + error check bits), receiver is capable of detecting errors in
the frame.
Error Detection modules
➤ Message (or data ) source : Source of information in bits (K bits)
➤ Encoding process : Process of converting block of k-bit information to
n-bit codeword. n = k .
➤ Channel : Medium in which n-bit codewords pass through.
➤ Decoding process : Process of converting n-bit received block to k-bit
message.
➤ Message sink : Destination for k-bit information in bits.
 Parity check or vertical redundancy check (VRC) method

• Vertical redundancy check is an error detecting technique used to

detect errors on an eight-bit ASCII character.
• To determine either the transmission is correct, a parity bit is linked
to every byte of data.
• Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check.
• In this method, a redundant bit also called parity bit is added to each
data unit.
• This method includes even parity and odd parity.
• Even parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be even and
odd parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be odd.
Vertical redundancy check is maintenance of parity bit. An additional
bit is added with original block to ensure that data transmitted correctly.
It is also known as parity check technique.
In VRC there are two types of parity bit “Even parity bit” and “Odd
parity bit“.
For example, if the source wants to transmit data unit 1100111 using
even parity to the destination. The source will have to pass through
Even Parity Generator.
Advantages :
VRC can detect all single bit error.

It can also detect burst errors but only in those cases where number of
bits changed is odd, i.e. 1, 3, 5, 7, …….etc.

Disadvantages :
The major disadvantage of using this method for error detection is that it
is not able to detect burst error if the number of bits changed is even, i.e.
2, 4, 6, 8, …….etc.
Example –
If the original data is 1100111. After adding VRC, data unit that will be transmitted is 11001111.
Suppose on the way 2 bits are changed, 01011111. When this data will reach the destination,
parity checker will count number of 1s in data and that comes out to be even i.e. 8. So, in this
case, parity is not changed, it is still even. Destination will assume that there is no error in data
even though data is erroneous.
 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
In this method, data which the user want to send is organized into
tables of rows and columns.

A block of bit is divided into table or matrix of rows and columns.

In order to detect an error, a redundant bit is added to the whole block

and this block is transmitted to receiver.

The receiver uses this redundant row to detect error.

After checking the data for errors, receiver accepts the data and
discards the redundant row of bits.
 Example
If a block of 32 bits is to be transmitted, it is divided into matrix of four rows
and eight columns which as shown in the following figure :

In this matrix of bits, a

parity bit (odd or even)
is calculated for each
column. It means 32
bits data plus 8
redundant bits are
transmitted to receiver.
Whenever data reaches
at the destination,
receiver uses LRC to
detect error in data.
Advantage :
LRC is used to detect burst errors.
Example : Suppose 32 bit data plus LRC that was being transmitted is
hit by a burst error of length 5 and some bits are corrupted as shown in
the following figure :
Disadvantage

The main problem with LRC is that, it is not able to detect error if two
bits in a data unit are damaged and two bits in exactly the same position
in other data unit are also damaged.

Example : If data 110011 010101 is changed to 010010 110100.

 Dr.Panjabrao Deshmukh Polytechnic,
Shivaji Nagar, Amravati
(Maharashtra Govt-Aided Institute)

Subject : Data Communication & Computer Network - 22414

Unit-3 :
Error Detection, Correction & Wireless Communication

3.2 Error Detection:- Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

(Part-2)
Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC)
• It is commonly used to detect accidental changes to data
transmitted via telecommunications networks and storage
devices.
• CRC involves binary division of the data bits being sent by a
predetermined divisor agreed upon by the communicating
system.
• The divisor is generated using polynomials. So, CRC is also
called polynomial code checksum.
• When the CRC code or polynomial code method is
employed, the sender and receiver must agree upon a
generator polynomial.
• CRC is based on binary division

• In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic

redundancy check bits, are appended to the end of data
unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible
by a second, predetermined binary number.

• At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the

same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data
unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.

• A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged

in transit and therefore must be rejected.
Encoding using CRC

• The communicating parties agrees upon the size of message

block and the CRC divisor.

• The sender performs binary division of the data segment by the

divisor.

• It then appends the remainder called CRC bits to the end of

data segment. This makes the resulting data unit exactly
divisible by the divisor.
Decoding using CRC

• The receiver divides the incoming data unit by the divisor.

• If there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be

correct and is accepted.

• Otherwise, it is understood that the data is corrupted and is

therefore rejected. The receiver may then send an erroneous
acknowledgement back to the sender for retransmission.
Steps for computing the checksum is as follows:

1. Let r be the degree of generator polynomial, a string of r 0s is

appended to the data unit m so it now contains m+r bits.

2. The newly enlarged data unit is divided by the divisor i.e. by

generator using the process called binary division i.e. modulo
2 division. The remainder resulting from this division is the
CRC.

3. The CRC of n bits derived in step2 subtracted from the bit

string using modulo 2 subtraction. The result is the
checksummed frame to be transmitted.
EX.1: Write the steps to compute the checksum in CRC code.
Calculate CRC for a frame 1 0 0 1 0 0 and generator
polynomial (divisor) x3+x2+1 and write the transmitted frame.

Frame : 1 0 0 1 0 0

Generator : 1.x3+1.x2+0.x1+1.x0 1101

Message after appending 3 zero bits : 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

 1111 01
1101 100100000 Data plus extra zero

⊕1 1 0 1
01000 When the leftmost bit of the
⊕1 1 0 1 remainder is zero, we must
use 0 0 0 0 instead of the
01010 original
⊕1 1 0 1
01110
⊕1 1 0 1
00110
⊕0 0 0 0
01100 Remainder (CRC)
⊕1 1 0 1
0001
CRC : 0 0 1
Transmitted frame : 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Ex.2: Write the steps to compute the checksum in CRC code.
Calculate CRC for a frame 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 and generator
polynomial (divisor) x4+x+1 and write the transmitted frame.

Frame: 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

Generator: 1 0 0 1 1

Message after appending 4 zero bits: 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

 Dr.Panjabrao Deshmukh Polytechnic,
Shivaji Nagar, Amravati
(Maharashtra Govt-Aided Institute)

Subject : Data Communication & Computer Network - 22414

Unit-3 :
Error Detection, Correction & Wireless Communication
3.2 Error Detection:- Forward Error Correction (Hamming code)

Next Class will be conducted on Date : 30/03/2023

Time : 11:30AM (Extra class)
Forward error correction (FEC) is an error correction
technique to detect and correct a limited number of errors in
transmitted data without the need for retransmission.
In this method, the sender sends a redundant error-correcting
code along with the data frame.

The receiver performs necessary checks based upon the

additional redundant bits.

If it finds that the data is free from errors, it executes error-

correcting code that generates the actual frame. It then
removes the redundant bits before passing the message to the
upper layers.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Because FEC does not require handshaking between the source

and the destination, it can be used for broadcasting of data to
many destinations simultaneously from a single source.

Another advantage is that FEC saves bandwidth required for

retransmission. So, it is used in real time systems.

Its main limitation is that if there are too many errors, the
frames need to be retransmitted.
Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be
used to detect and correct the errors that can occur when the
data is moved or stored from the sender to the receiver.

It is technique developed by R.W. Hamming for error

correction.
 The Hamming code can be applied to data units of any length
and uses the relationship between data and redundancy bits.

For seven-bit ASCII code requires four redundancy bits that

can be added to the end of the data unit or interspersed with
the original data bits
Redundant bits –
Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are generated and added to the
information-carrying bits of data transfer to ensure that no bits were lost
during the data transfer.

Redundancy bits are placed at the positions which correspond to the power of 2.
General Algorithm of Hamming code
The Hamming Code is simply the use of extra parity bits to allow the
identification of an error.
1. Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form.
2. All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits
(1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
20=1  r1,
21=2  r2,
22=4  r3,
23=8  r4,
24=16  r4 and so on
3. All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its
bit position in binary form

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
d d d r4 d d d r3 d r2 r1
20=1  r1,
21=2  r2,
22=4  r3,
23=8  r4 Redundancy Bits

a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the least significant position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc)
b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit
(2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc)
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit
position in binary form

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
d d d r4 d d d r3 d r2 r1

Redundancy Bits

c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit
(4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc)
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit
position in binary form

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
d d d r4 d d d r3 d r2 r1

Redundancy Bits

d. Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least significant bit bits
(8–15, 24–31, 40–47, etc)
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit
position in binary form

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
d d d r4 d d d r3 d r2 r1

Redundancy Bits

e. In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the
parity position and the bit position is non-zero
5. Since we check for even parity set a parity bit to 1 if the total
number of ones in the positions it checks is odd.

6. Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions

it checks is even.
Suppose the data to be transmitted is 1011001, the bits will be placed as
follows:

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 0 1 R8 1 0 0 R4 1 R2 R1
 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 0 1 R8 1 0 0 R4 1 R2 R1

Determining the Parity bits

R1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the least significant position.
R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11

To find the redundant bit R1,

we check for even parity. 1010 1000 0110 0100 0010
Since the total number of 1’s
in all the bit positions
corresponding to R1 is an
even number the value of R1
(parity bit’s value) = 0
R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant
bit.R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11

To find the redundant

bit R2, we check for
even parity. Since the 1001 1000 0101 0100 0001

total number of 1’s in

all the bit positions
corresponding to R2
is odd the value of
R2(parity bit’s
value)=1
R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit.
R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7

1011 1010 1001 1000 0011 0010 0001

To find the redundant bit R4, we check for even parity. Since the total number
of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R4 is odd the value of R4(parity
bit’s value) = 1
R8 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least significant
bit.R8: bit 8,9,10,11

0111 0110 0101 0100 0011 0010 0001

To find the redundant bit R8, we check for even parity. Since the total number
of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R8 is an even number the value
of R8(parity bit’s value)=0.
 Thus, the data transferred is

And, the data received is

1
Error detection and correction –
Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is changed from 0 to 1 during data
transmission, then it gives new parity values in the binary number:

The bits give the

binary number as
0110 whose
decimal
representation is
6. Thus, the bit 6
contains an error.
To correct the
error the 6th bit is
changed from 1 to
0.
Once the bit is identified, the receiver can
reverse its value and correct the error.
Ex.1 Write the steps to generate the Hamming code.
Prepare Hamming code for bit pattern 1 0 0 1 1 0 1.
Suppose, while transmitting error occurs in 7th bit.
Write the bit pattern at the receiver.
Using Hamming code, explain how will you detect and
correct the error.
Ex.2 Write the steps to generate the Hamming code.
Prepare Hamming code for bit pattern 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1.
Suppose, while transmitting error occurs in 5th bit.
Write the bit pattern at the receiver.
 Dr.Panjabrao Deshmukh Polytechnic,
Shivaji Nagar, Amravati
(Maharashtra Govt-Aided Institute)

Subject : Data Communication & Computer Network - 22414

Unit-3 :
3.3 The IEEE Standards (802.1, 802.2, 802.3, 802.4, 802.5)

Date : 01/04/2023 (Saturday)

Time : 10:00AM
• A Local area Network is the data communication system that allows a
number of independent devices to communicate directly with each other
in a limited geographical area.
• LANs are dominated by four architecture:
• Ethernet
• Token Bus
• Token Ring
• Fiber distributed data interface
• Token Bus, Token Ring and Ethernet are standards of IEEE and a part of
project 802.
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has
developed a series of networking standards to ensure that networking
technologies developed by manufacturers are compatible.
• These standards describe the cabling, physical topology, electrical
topology and access schemes of network products.
• These standards describe the protocols used in the lower two layers of
the OSI model:
1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer.
They don’t go above those layers.
IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards
• Dealing with local area network and metropolitan area network.
• Restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets.
• Specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers
Data link layer
Physical layer
The most widely used standards
802.1 (Internetworking) 802.4 (Token Bus)
802.2 (LLC/MAC) 802.5 (Token Ring)
802.3 Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
Compared with OSI model
Project 802
 IEEE 802.1

• IEEE 802.1 is the section of Project 802 devoted to internetworking

issues in LANs and MANs.
• It seeks to resolve the incompatibilities between network architectures
without requiring modifications in existing addressing access and error
recovery mechanisms, among others.
 802.2 Logical Link Control
• The IEEE project 802 model takes the structure of an (High Level Data
Link Control) HDLC frame and divides it into two sets functions.
• One set contains the end user portions of the frame:
• The logical address
• Control Information
• Data
• These functions are handled by the IEEE 802.2 logical link control
protocol.
• IEEE 802.2 logical link control is the upper sub layer of the data link layer.
 Medium Access Control
• The second set of functions, the MAC sub layer, resolves the contention for
the shared media.
• It contains the synchronization, flag, flow, and error control specifications
necessary to move information from one place to another as well as the
physical address of the next station to receive and route packet.
• MAC is the lower sub layer of the data link layer.
 802.3 Ethernet (CSMA/CD)

• The IEEE 802.3 standard defines the characteristics for

Ethernet networks.
• The Ethernet specification served as the basis for the IEEE
802.3 standard
• Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data
transfer rates of 10 Mbps.
 The features for 802.3
• Speed: The original IEEE 802.3 standard specified a network transfer
rate of 10Mbps.
• There have been modifications to the standard, the result being Fast
Ethernet (802.3u), which can transmit network data up to 100Mbps and
higher, as well as Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z), which can transmit at speeds
up to 1000Mbps.
• 802.3ae is a very fast 803.3 standard. Known as 10-Gigabit Ethernet.
 IEEE 802.4

• The IEEE 802.4 standard specifies the characteristics for Token Bus
networks.
 IEEE 802.5

• The IEEE 802.5 standard specifies the characteristics for Token Ring
networks.
• Token ring LAN technology is a local area network protocol which resides at
the data link layer (DLL) of the OSI model.
• Stations on a token ring LAN are logically organized in a ring topology with
data being transmitted sequentially from one ring station to the next with a
token travelling around the ring.
• This standard describes a token passing protocol which means that a machine
can only use the network when it has control of the “token”
• This ensures that there are no collisions because only one machine can use the
network at any given time.
 Characteristics specified in the 802.5 standard
• Speed: The 802.5 Token Ring specifies network speeds of 4 and 16Mbps.
• Topology: Token Ring networks use a logical ring topology and most often a physical
star.
• Media: Token Ring networks use unshielded twisted pair cabling or shielded twisted
pair.
• Access method: 802.5 specify an access method known as token passing. The token
travels around the network looking for computers with data to send. The computer's
data is passed along with the token until it gets to the destination computer at which
point, the data is removed from the token and the empty token placed back on the
ring.
 IEEE 802 Categories
Specification Description
802.1 Sets Internetworking standards related to network management.
Defines the general standard for the data-link layer. The IEEE divides this layer
802.2 into two su-blayers: the LLC and MAC layers. The MAC layer varies with
different network types and is defined by standard IEEE 802.3
Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use Carrier-Sense Multiple Access
802.3
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). This is the Ethernet Standard.
Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token-passing mechanism
802.4
(Token Bus LAN).
802.5 Defines the MAC layer for token ring networks (Token Ring LAN).
 Dr.Panjabrao Deshmukh Polytechnic,
Shivaji Nagar, Amravati
(Maharashtra Govt-Aided Institute)

Subject : Data Communication & Computer Network - 22414

Unit-3 :
Error Detection, Correction & Wireless Communication
3.3 The IEEE Standards 802.11 Addressing
By
Date : Rajendra H. Rathod
Time : Lecturer, Comp. Engg. Dept.
IEEE 802.11
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE
802.11, which covers the physical and data link layers.

Architecture
The standard defines two kinds of services:
• The basic service set (BSS) and
• The extended service set (ESS).
Basic Service Set

• IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building
block of a wireless LAN.
• A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations
and an optional central base station, known as the access point
(AP).
• Figure shows two sets in this standard.
• The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone
network and cannot send data to other
BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture.
• In this architecture, stations can form a
network without the need of an AP; they
can locate one another and agree to be part
of a BSS.

A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred

to as an infrastructure network.
Extended Service Set
• An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with
APs.
• In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system,
which is usually a wired LAN.
• The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
• IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any
IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet.
• Extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and
stationary.
• The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
• The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
When BSSs are
connected, the
stations within reach
of one another can
communicate without
the use of an AP.
However,
communication
between two stations
in two different BSSs
usually occurs via
two APs.
Station Types
• IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their
mobility in a wireless LAN:
no-transition,
BSS-transition, and
ESS-transition mobility.
• A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not
moving) or moving only inside a BSS.
• A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to
another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS.
• A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to
another.
MAC Sublayer

There are two different MAC sublayers in this protocol, however;

the one that is used most of the time is based on CSMA/CA (carrier
sense multiple access with collision avoidance).
NAV (Network Allocation Vector) How do other stations defer
sending their data if one station acquires access
1. Before sending a frame, the source
station senses the medium by
checking the energy level at the
carrier frequency.
a. The channel uses a persistence
strategy with back-off until the
channel is idle.
b. b. After the station is found to be
idle, the station waits for a period
of time called the distributed
interframe space (DIFS); then the
station sends a control frame
called the request to send (RTS).
2. After receiving the RTS and
waiting a period of time called the
short interframe space (SIFS), the
destination station sends a control
frame, called the clear to send (CTS),
to the source station. This control
frame indicates that the destination
station is ready to receive data.
3. The source station sends data after
waiting an amount of time equal
to SIFS.
4. The destination station, after waiting an
amount of time equal to SIFS, sends an
acknowledgment to show that the frame
has been received. Acknowledgment is
needed in this protocol because the
station does not have any means to check
for the successful arrival of its data at the
destination. On the other hand, the lack
of collision in CSMA/CD is a kind of
indication to the source that data have
arrived.
Fragmentation
The wireless environment is very noisy; a corrupt frame has to be retransmitted.
The protocol, therefore, recommends fragmentation—the division of a large
frame into smaller ones. It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large
one.
Frame Format
The MAC layer frame consists of nine fields, as shown in Figure
Frame control (FC)
The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some
control information.
Frame control (FC)
The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some
control information.
D
In all frame types except one, this field defines the duration of the
transmission that is used to set the value of NAV. In one control frame, this
field defines the ID of the frame.
Addresses
There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long. The meaning of each
address field depends on the value of the To DS and From DS subfields
Sequence control
This field defines the sequence number of the frame to be used in flow
control.
Frame body
This field, which can be between 0 and 2312 bytes, contains information
based on the type and the subtype defined in the FC field
FCS
The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error detection
sequence.
Frame Types

A wireless LAN defined by IEEE 802.11 has three categories of frames:

management frames, control frames, and data frames.
Management Frames
Management frames are used for the initial communication between stations and
access points.
Control Frames
Control frames are used for accessing the channel and acknowledging frames.
Data Frames
Data frames are used for carrying data and control information.
Addressing Mechanism
• The IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases, defined by the
value of the two flags in the FC field, To DS and From DS.
• Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations.
• The interpretation of the four addresses (address 1 to address 4) in the MAC
frame depends on the value of these flags, as shown in Table
• Address 1 is always the address of the next device.
• Address 2 is always the address of the previous device.
• Address 3 is the address of the final destination station if it is not defined
by address 1.
• Address 4 is the address of the original source station if it is not the same
as address 2.