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G. Mazzola · Y. Pang
W. Heinze · K. Gkoudina
G. Afrisando Pujakusuma
J. Grunklee · Z. Chen
T. Hu · Y. Ma
Basic Music
Technology
An Introduction
Computational Music Science
Series editors
Guerino Mazzola
Moreno Andreatta
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8349
Guerino Mazzola • Yan Pang • William Heinze
Kyriaki Gkoudina • Gian Afrisando Pujakusuma
Jacob Grunklee • Zilu Chen • Tianxue Hu
Yiqing Ma
Yiqing Ma
School of Music
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN, USA
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The idea for this book came from one of my students, Yiqing Ma, in my course
Introduction to Music Information Technology. She suggested that we should
continue our tradition of writing textbooks for my university courses at the
School of Music of the University of Minnesota, a tradition that has successfully
produced the books Cool Math for Hot Music [42] and All About Music [43] for
Springer’s series Computational Music Science.
Writing this third textbook was a challenge in that our presentation of ba-
sic music technology not only comprises core concepts from acoustics and analog
and digital approaches to this specific knowledge, but also includes computa-
tional aspects with their mathematical and software-oriented specifications. It
was our aim to transcend a purely qualitative discussion of recent progress by
a rigorous introduction to the quantitative, mathematical, and computational
methods that are crucial for the understanding of what is at stake in this fas-
cinating field of computer-aided musical creativity and data management.
This textbook is addressed to anyone who wants to learn the core method-
ologies of this field from the very beginning. Besides our experience with the
students’ learning curve during their pedagogical development in the course, we
decided to produce a text that can be understood by undergraduate students
of music, and not only by an audience that already knows mathematical and
computational methods and facts. Our approach was therefore driven by the
condition that every single sentence of this book must be stated in a style that
can be appreciated by non-specialist readers.
To this end, the co-authors of the book were asked to collaboratively
create a text that meets their basic qualification of interested and intelligent,
but not yet specialized participants. The co-authors are undergraduate students
Yiqing Ma (music/psychology), Tianxue Hu (music/mathematics), Zilu Chen
(music/computer science), and Jacob Grunklee (electrical engineering/music),
and graduate music students Yan Pang, Bill Heinze, Jay Afrisando, and Kakia
Gkoudina.
v
vi Preface
This pool of students guarantees that the present text is accessible to the
non-specialist audience. This setup of co-authors defines an approach that is
more than a first presentation of our material, it is a communicative singularity
that creates a bridge between a highly innovative technology and its precise and
thorough comprehension. It is our strong belief that this endeavor will help fill
the difficult gap between application and understanding. Figure -1.1 shows our
co-author group in a happy mood after the accomplishment of our project.
This book also gives access to a number of sound examples. Here is how
to find them online: The music examples in this book are available as MIDI,
Sibelius, or MP3 files. They are all accessible via
www.encyclospace.org/special/BMTBOOK.
So if you are looking for the file XX.mid, you define the address
www.encyclospace.org/special/BMTOOK/XX.mid.
We are pleased to acknowledge the strong support for writing such a
demanding treatise from Springer’s computer science editor Ronan Nugent.
Fig. -1.1: From left to right, top row: Jacob Grunklee, Jay Afrisando; middle row:
Tianxue Hu, Zilu Chen, Yiqing Ma; front row: Bill Heinze, Guerino Mazzola, Yan
Pang, Kakia Gkoudina.
Contents
Part I Introduction
1 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1 Acoustic Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Sound Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 The Communicative Dimension of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Poiesis, Neutral Level, Esthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Hearing with Ear and Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.1 Classification of Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Flutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3 Reed Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
vii
viii Contents
5.5 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.6 Percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.7 Piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.8 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.9 Electronic Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.9.1 Theremin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.9.2 Trautonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.9.3 U.P.I.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.9.4 Telharmonium or Dynamophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.9.5 MUTABOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8 Finite Fourier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.1 Finite Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.2.1 Fourier via Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.2.2 The FFT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.3 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.4 MP3, MP4, AIFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9 Audio Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.1 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.2 Equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3 Reverberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.4 Time and Pitch Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Contents ix
13 Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.1 Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.2 Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15 Denotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
16 Rubato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
16.2 Rubettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
16.3 The Software Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
18 Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
18.2 Short History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.3 Max Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
18.4 Some Technical Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18.5 Max Artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Part I
Introduction
1
General Introduction
Acoustic Reality
3
Sound
direction of the sound propagation away from the sound source. If they carry
the pitch, the variation of pressure is periodic, i.e., a snapshot of the pressure
shows a regularly repeated pressure along the sound’s expansion in space. The
time period P of this regularity, as shown in Figure 3.2, defines the sound’s
frequency f = 1/P . For example, the chamber pitch a1 has frequency 440 Hz
(Hz (Hertz) is the frequency unit, i.e., periods per second). And going an
octave higher means doubling the frequency; therefore, the octave a2 above
a1 has frequency 880 Hz. Pitch is related to frequency f by the formula
P itch(f ) = log1200
10 (2)
log10 (f ) + C Hz.
The wave’s pressure amplitude A (relative to the normal pressure) is per-
ceived as loudness. For example, the minimal loudness that can be perceived
by the human ear at 1, 000 Hz is A0 = 2.105 N m−2 . Loudness for amplitude
A is then defined by l(A) = 20. log10 (A/A0 ) dB, where the unit dB is decibel.
A sound is a wave, starting at an onset time, lasting a certain time (its du-
ration), and during that time showing the amplitude and periodicity discussed
above. Taking this kind of object as an element of music, however is a problem.
To begin with, it is not clear why these attributes should hold during the entire
sound. Why should amplitude be constant? A sound may well increase its loud-
ness. And then, why is the pitch constant? What about glissandi? And finally,
where do we find reference to the sound color, the instrumental characteristic?
Onset, duration, loudness, pitch, instrument name—all of this is described
in classical score notation. But only when comparing these forms to the real
time is the same as the value at the position traversed by the wave at the earlier
time t.
14 3 Sound
sound events does one become aware that one can create richer musical compo-
sitions. We shall come back to such options in the discussion of sound synthesis
methods, such as Fourier, FM, wavelets, and physical modeling.
Summary. Apart from the acoustic elements that comprise the nature of the
interaction between sound and the human ear, there are dimensions in the
nature of sound that profile its ontology. These include: Reality, Communica-
tion, and Semiosis. In this section we are going to discuss the communicative
dimension of sound.
–Σ–
to the esthetic level. A good example is free jazz: The performers compose on
the spot and interact with each other, an intact compositional outcome. Nev-
ertheless, it is common that concepts from the poietic realm are falsely used
at the esthesic level, confusing the distinction between the productive and the
perceptive processes, obscuring the creator’s and the listener’s different posi-
tions in the timeline of the work’s realization. Poietic and esthesic levels meet
only when the compositional process is approached in retrograde; in retrograde
poiesis the creator is the first observer of the work and, therefore, retrograde
poiesis is incorporated in esthesis.
Fig. 3.3: Poiesis Fig. 3.4: Neutral level Fig. 3.5: Esthesis
for the ossicles to create a pressure difference that propagates in the new fluid
medium, they concentrate the force of vibrations at the oval window, a bridge
between the middle ear and the cochlea (see Figure 3.6) directly connected to
the stapes. In addition to the oval window, the cochlea has a round window,
which dampens the vibrations that have traveled through the cochlea. With-
out the round window, the residual vibration would cause us to hear everything
twice, like an echo. This would inundate the brain with an excessive amount of
auditory information.
Fig. 3.6: Section of Cochlea. IHC: Inner Hair Cells, OHC: Outer Hair Cells, BM:
Basilar Membrane. The scala vestibuli receives the vibrations of the oval window.
The cochlea is shaped like a hollow spiral. Inside this ‘snail’s shell’ is the
basilar membrane, which contains 20,000 neural hair cells responsible for coding
vibrations in the fluid into electrical signals.
Now that sound has been translated from pressure differences in the air
into electrical impulses in the cochlea’s hair cells, what happens next? In short,
the body’s equivalent of electrical wiring takes on the responsibility of getting
that information to the brain, where it can be processed. This network is known
as the , and it is based on electrical and chemical communication between
neurons.
Once this information is received by the neurons, it is sent to the auditory
cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain. The auditory cortex translates this
information into what we perceive as pitch. After this point, it is unclear exactly
how the brain is able to translate pitch, rhythm, articulation, and other aspects
of music into a profound cognitive and emotional experience. However, it is clear
that listening to music affects many parts of the brain, influencing parts of the
brain responsible for pleasure (i.e., the nucleus accumbens) and emotion (e.g.,
the amygdala and hippocampus).
The amazing neurological influence of music is not restricted to music lis-
tening, but extends to music playing and learning. In fact, learning an instru-
ment produces significant changes in the brain that can change one’s behavior
and ability. For example, Oechslin et al. [48] found that individuals who par-
ticipated in music lessons for a number of years were found to have a greater
hippocampal volume (meaning they experience music emotion at a higher level)
3.4 Hearing with Ear and Brain 17
than those who did not take lessons. Oechslin and his colleagues also found that
individuals with higher hippocampal volume tested higher on creative aptitude
tests. The researchers attributed increased creative aptitude to the increased
hippocampal volume.
Music is not only a fascinating topic of neuroscientific study, but (due to
its ability to activate a wide variety of brain areas) it also plays an important
role in teasing apart different parts of neuroscience and making new discoveries.
Music is not only a sensationally rich stimulus. It has an astonishing ability to
access and trigger our thoughts and emotions. Given its omnipresence in the
brain, surely we can say that music is an intrinsic component of the human
experience.
4
Standard Sound Synthesis
Using very simple devices that act like ‘atomic instruments’, it is possible to
produce a complex sound that not only shares the usual musical sound parame-
ters, such as pitch, onset, duration, and loudness, but also instrumental timbre
or sound color.
Fig. 4.2: Joseph Fourier’s theorem, discovered in research about heat conductance
around 1800, provides a first model of sound as composed of ‘atomic’ sound shapes:
sinusoidal functions.
Recall that the pitch of a sounding periodic air pressure vibration w(t) is
1
proportional to the logarithm of its frequency f = P eriod . Fourier’s theorem
then states that w(t) can be expressed in a unique way as a sum of sinusoidal
functions, or, so to speak, as a sum of those atomic instruments given by masses
and springs (see Figure 4.2). Uniqueness means that for the given frequency f
of w(t), the amplitudes A0 , A1 , A2 , . . . and the phases P h1 , P h2 , . . . are uniquely
determined (and called the amplitude and phase spectrum, respectively). The
nth component function An sin(2πnf t + P hn ) is called the nth partial or over-
tone of w(t).
Let us describe how the Fourier theorem is related to realistic sounds. We
can see that the wave function w(t) (at a fixed spatial position) is anything
but natural. In reality no such infinitely lasting regular air vibration can occur.
The relationship to realistic sounds can be seen in Figure 4.3. If a singer sings
“laaaa” at a determined pitch, the pressure variation around the mean pressure
looks like a bundle, as shown at the top of Figure 4.3. The bundle can be
described by its envelope, i.e., the locally maximal pressure variations (shown
at the left bottom), and by a periodic excitation of pressure, limited by the
envelope, and shown at the right bottom.
4.1 Fourier Theory 21
Fig. 4.3: When a singer sings the syllable “laaaa” at a determined pitch, the pressure
variation around the mean pressure looks like a bundle as shown on top. The bundle
can be described by its envelope, i.e., the locally maximal pressure variations (shown
at the left bottom), and by a periodic excitation of pressure, limited by the envelope,
and shown to the right bottom.
Fig. 4.4: The combination of envelope and periodic function yields the realistic sound.
duration and maximal excitation both = 1), and then shifted and squeezed by
a support to yield theonset, duration, and amplitude of the real sound.
In technological modeling of this building process, the envelope is often
represented as a very simple shape, following the ADSR (Attack Decay Sustain
Release) model, as shown in Figure 4.5. Attack is characterized by the time
that passes while the spectrum of the sound is formed. The attack of a sound
is a major indicator of the instrument used. For example, a guitar might sound
like a bell without the guitar’s distinctive attack. Sustain refers to the steady
state of sound when it reaches its highest energy. Finally, decay is defined by
the rate at which the intensity of the sound disappears to silence. Every sound
has a particular pattern of attack, sustain, and decay; therefore the envelope
of a sound is characteristic of the sound.
Although this seems to describe realistic sounds quite faithfully, it turns
out that instrumental sounds are more complex in that the partials are given
independent amplitude envelopes that enable the sound to have variable over-
tones as it evolves in time. Figure 4.6 shows such a situation for a trumpet
sound. The graphic displays envelopes for each partial, and we see that higher
partials have lower and shorter envelopes, meaning that the amplitudes of these
partials contribute for only a short time and to a lower degree to the overall
sound. The display of these temporally variable overtone envelopes is called a
chronospectrum.
Fig. 4.5: The envelope is often represented as a very simple shape, following the
so-called ADSR (Attack Decay Sustain Release) model.
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Title: Puijolla
Laulunsekainen näytelmä
Language: Finnish
Kirj.
Kustaa Killinen
Näytelmäkirjallisuutta N:o 3.
Matti Kajava |
Rouva Kajava | herrasväkeä maalta.
Aura, heidän tyttärensä |
Aatami Pölckman, gihtinen, rikas herrasmies.
Neiti Armida Antoinette Tralltunga.
Iivari, maisteri.
Palvelustyttö Puijolla.
Leivo | ylioppilaita.
Manninen |
Neitoja ja nuorukaisia kaupungista.
ENSIMÄINEN KOHTAUS.
ROUVA: Eikö mitä, hän vaan vähä ujostelee; kyllä hänestä hyvä
tulee, kun hän vähä tutustuu ja kun hän näkee sinun tavarasi ja kun
hän oikein tulee huomaamaan, kuinka suuren avun hän tällä meille
tekee.
KAJAVA: Niinpä niin, kyllä ymmärrän. Eikös se ole ihme, että nuo
lemmen leyhkäykset saattavat kuivimmankin miehen vähä
runolliselle tuulelle. Minä annan vaikka pääni, jos sinä löydät miehen,
joka ei olisi koettanut jonkinlaista runoa sepustaa silloin kun hän on
lemmen puuhissa hommaillut; monelta tosin ei tuo kyhäys ole
pääsnyt hammasten ulkopuolelle, mutta se vaan on varma, että
jokainen meistä ainakin mietteissään on koettanut jonkinlaista
värssyä varvata.
TRALLTUNGA:
AURA:
Kulkeissani kuutamolla
Kukkakedon poikki
Nuorukaisen siellä näin,
Joka lauleli ja soitti.
KAJAVA: Vielä hän laulaa heh, heh, heh, etkös sitä kuule heh, heh,
heh.
[Kansanlaulun sävel.]
(Iivari ja Aura.)
IIVARI: "Niin olen kuullut sanottavan". Onko siis oikein totta, ettet
sinä tahtoisi tuota kultaista vasikkaa palvella? Onko se pieni Aura-
kukkanen salomailla vielä säilynyt turmeltumatta — voinko tuota
uskoa? — Eikö raha ja rikkaus sinua viehätä, niin kuin melkein
kaikkia muita nykyaikana? Eihän nyt avioliittoon mentäessä
useinkaan tule muu kysymykseenkään, kuin varallisuus. — Mutta
miksi sinä itket? Olenko sinua loukannut? Anna anteeksi, jos olen
väärin puhunut sinun suhteesi.
AURA: Kovasti olet mua loukannut. Tämäkö vielä; vielä yksi kivi
kuorman päälle lisäksi? —
IIVARI: Oi armas Aura! Mitä lienenkään puhunut tässä
puolihoureissani. Mutta kuules: koska sinä haluat, niin lauletaan vaan
vielä yhdessä tuo laulu, jolla ennen niin usein sekä muita että
itseämme huvitimme, ja tämä varmaan onkin viimeinen kerta, jolloin
yhdessä laulamme; siis kiinni säveleesen. (Laulavat)
[Säveltänyt E. Kahra.]
KAJAVA: Kyllä se totta on; mutta vähät minä nyt niistä huolinkaan.
Käyköön meidän vanhain kuinka hyvänsä, pääasia on, että nuo kaksi
nuorta tulevat onnellisiksi. Älä eukkoseni sinäkään häiritse heidän
onneaan.
PÖLCKMAN: Ai, ai, ai! perk. älä herran nimessä siihen käsivarteen,
jota gihti nylkee kuin lahtari teurastaan. — Istutaan tuonne penkille
juttelemaan. Sinä olet siis päättänyt, hyvä. — Hyvä näkyy olevan,
että ihmisellä on säästössä vanhaa tavaraa, oli se sitte mistä
laadusta hyvänsä, senpätähden olenkin koettanut säilytellä yhtä ja
toista takavarikkoon. Mutta minä en voi kumminkaan riidassa erota
vanhoista hyvistä ystävistäni. — Matti hoi, Kajava ja mosteri tulkaapa
tänne, jos joudatte!
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