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UNIT 1
1. Briefly describe fundamental steps in image processing
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Image processing is a technique used to analyze and manipulate digital images. The
fundamental steps in image processing include:
1. Image acquisition: The first step in image processing is to acquire an image using a
camera or a scanner. The image can be in any format, such as JPEG, BMP, TIFF, etc.
2. Pre-processing: Pre-processing involves enhancing the quality of the acquired image
by removing noise, correcting the image orientation, and adjusting the contrast and
brightness of the image.
3. Segmentation: Segmentation involves dividing the image into meaningful regions.
This step is necessary for analyzing the image and extracting useful information from
it.
4. Feature extraction: Feature extraction involves extracting relevant features from the
segmented regions. These features could be texture, shape, color, or other attributes
that can be used for classification or analysis.
5. Image analysis: Image analysis involves analyzing the extracted features to identify
objects, patterns, or anomalies in the image.
6. Post-processing: Post-processing involves applying filters or other techniques to
further enhance the image quality or to remove unwanted artifacts.
7. Display: Finally, the processed image is displayed to the user in a suitable format,
such as a graphical user interface or a printed document.

2. Write down advantages and disadvantages of digital image

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Advantages of digital image:
1. Easy to store and retrieve: Digital images can be easily stored and retrieved on
computers, hard drives, or cloud storage. They can also be easily shared over the
internet, making it convenient to access and transfer images.
2. Easy to edit: Digital images can be easily edited using software, such as Adobe
Photoshop or GIMP. The ability to manipulate images allows for more creative
expression and greater control over the final output.
3. Higher resolution: Digital images have higher resolution than their analog
counterparts, resulting in sharper and more detailed images.
4. Non-destructive editing: Digital image editing is non-destructive, meaning the
original image remains intact, and changes can be undone or modified later on.
5. Cost-effective: Digital images can be created and reproduced at a lower cost
compared to traditional printing and reproduction methods.

Disadvantages of digital image:

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1. Vulnerable to corruption: Digital images are vulnerable to corruption, such as data

loss or file corruption, which can cause irreversible damage to the image.
2. Limited dynamic range: Digital images have a limited dynamic range compared to
film, resulting in a loss of detail in highlights and shadows.
3. High storage requirements: Digital images require a significant amount of storage
space, especially if the images are in a high resolution or if there are many images to
store.
4. Dependence on technology: Digital images rely on technology to create, edit, and
reproduce them, making them vulnerable to changes in technology and software
compatibility issues.
5. Susceptibility to manipulation: Digital images can be easily manipulated, leading to
issues of authenticity and trust in the accuracy of the image.
3. List various image file formats. Explain any one in detail.
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There are several image file formats used for digital images, including:
1. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
2. PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
3. BMP (Bitmap)
4. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)
5. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)
6. PSD (Adobe Photoshop Document)
7. RAW (Digital Camera Raw Image Format)
8. SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)

1. JPEG is a commonly used image file format that uses lossy compression to reduce the
size of the image file.
2. This compression technique discards some of the image data to reduce the file size,
resulting in a loss of image quality. However, the degree of compression can be
adjusted to balance the file size and image quality.
3. JPEG files are widely used on the internet and in digital cameras, as they provide a
good balance of image quality and file size.
4. They support millions of colors and can be easily viewed on most devices without
additional software.
5. One of the main advantages of the JPEG format is its compatibility with a wide range
of software and devices.
6. However, one of the main disadvantages is that the lossy compression can lead to
image artifacts, such as blurring or pixelation, especially when the image is heavily
compressed.
7. As a result, the JPEG format is not ideal for images that require high levels of detail,
such as medical or scientific images.

4. Explain 2D unit impulse sequence.

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A 2D unit impulse sequence is a sequence of discrete values that represents a point in a 2D
space. It is also known as a 2D delta function or a 2D impulse response.
The 2D unit impulse sequence is defined as follows:
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1. The value of the sequence at the origin (0,0) is 1.

2. The value of the sequence at all other points is 0.
3. In other words, the 2D unit impulse sequence is a matrix where all elements are 0
except for the element at the center, which is 1. The size of the matrix depends on the
range of values for the two dimensions.
4. The 2D unit impulse sequence is useful in signal processing and image processing as
a tool for analysis and filtering.
5. When convolved with an input signal or image, it highlights the point at which the
impulse is located, providing a measure of the system's response to the impulse.
6. For example, in image processing, the 2D unit impulse sequence can be used to
determine the frequency response of a filter or to measure the response of an imaging
system to a point source. By analyzing the system's response to the 2D unit impulse
sequence, it is possible to determine the characteristics of the system and optimize its
performance.

5. Write a note on separable and periodic sequence.

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1. Separable sequence: A separable sequence is one that can be expressed as a product of
two sequences, one that depends only on the time variable n and another that depends
only on the space variable m. Mathematically, a separable sequence can be written as
x(m, n) = f(m)g(n), where f(m) and g(n) are sequences that depend only on the space
and time variables, respectively. Separable sequences are often used in image
processing applications where they can be used to decompose an image into its spatial
and temporal components.
2. Periodic sequence: A periodic sequence is a sequence that repeats itself after a certain
number of samples. Mathematically, a periodic sequence can be written as x(n) =
x(n+N), where N is the period of the sequence. Periodic sequences are used in many
signal processing applications, such as digital communications and audio processing.
In these applications, periodic sequences are often used as waveforms or as a basis for
building more complex signals.

6. Write a note on classification of 2D systems

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In digital signal processing, a 2D system is a system that processes two-dimensional signals
or images. There are several ways to classify 2D systems based on their properties and
characteristics. Here are some common classification methods for 2D systems:
1. Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems: A linear 2D system satisfies the properties of linearity,
which means that its output is a linear combination of its input. A nonlinear 2D
system, on the other hand, does not satisfy the properties of linearity and its output is
a nonlinear function of its input.
2. Time-Invariant vs. Time-Varying Systems: A time-invariant 2D system is a system
whose output is independent of time. In other words, its response to an input signal or
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image is the same regardless of when the input is applied. A time-varying 2D system,
on the other hand, has an output that changes with time.
3. Causal vs. Non-causal Systems: A causal 2D system is a system whose output
depends only on the present and past inputs. In other words, the output at any given
time depends only on the input values up to that time. A non-causal 2D system, on the
other hand, has an output that depends on both past and future inputs.
4. Shift-Invariant vs. Shift-Variant Systems: A shift-invariant 2D system is a system
whose response to a shifted input signal or image is the same as the response to the
original signal or image. In other words, the system does not change its properties
when the input signal or image is shifted. A shift-variant 2D system, on the other
hand, changes its properties when the input signal or image is shifted.
5. Lumped vs. Distributed Systems: A lumped 2D system is a system whose properties
can be described by a finite number of parameters. In other words, its response to an
input signal or image can be described by a set of equations or parameters. A
distributed 2D system, on the other hand, is a system whose properties vary
continuously over space, and its response to an input signal or image cannot be
described by a finite set of parameters.

7. What is need for transformation? Explain classification of image transforms.

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Transformation is the process of converting one form of data or signal into another form,
while preserving the underlying information. In the context of images, transformation refers
to the application of mathematical operations to an image, resulting in a modified version of
the image.
There are several reasons why image transformation may be needed. Some of the most
common reasons include:
1. Pre-processing: Image transformation is often used as a pre-processing step to
improve the quality of an image or to make it easier to analyze. For example, an
image may be transformed to remove noise or to enhance certain features.
2. Compression: Image transformation is also used in image compression algorithms,
where an image is transformed into a different representation that requires fewer bits
to store or transmit.
3. Augmentation: Image transformation can be used to create augmented versions of an
image for use in machine learning applications. Augmentation involves generating
new images by applying various transformations to an existing image.
Classification of image transforms:
There are many types of image transforms, but they can be broadly classified into two
categories:
1. Spatial transforms: These transforms operate on the spatial domain of an image.
Examples include scaling, rotation, translation, and flipping.
2. Frequency transforms: These transforms operate on the frequency domain of an
image. Examples include Fourier transform, Wavelet transform, and Discrete Cosine
Transform.
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8. Explain Fourier transform.

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1. Fourier Transform is a mathematical operation that transforms a signal from the time
domain into the frequency domain. In the context of images, Fourier transform can be
used to convert an image from the spatial domain into the frequency domain, where
the image is represented in terms of its frequency components.
2. In the frequency domain, the image can be decomposed into a set of sinusoidal waves
of different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
3. Each of these sinusoidal waves is called a frequency component or a Fourier
coefficient.
4. The Fourier transform can be used to analyze the frequency content of an image, and
it is commonly used in image processing applications such as image filtering,
compression, and restoration.

9. What are the applications of digital image processing?

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1. Digital image processing (DIP) has a wide range of applications in various fields.
Some of the most common applications of DIP are:
2. Medical imaging: DIP is widely used in medical imaging for tasks such as image
segmentation, feature extraction, and image classification. It is used in medical
diagnosis and treatment planning, as well as in research.
3. Remote sensing: DIP is used in remote sensing to extract information from images
acquired by satellites or airborne sensors. It is used to analyze images of the earth's
surface for applications such as crop monitoring, urban planning, and environmental
monitoring.
4. Surveillance and security: DIP is used in surveillance and security applications for
tasks such as object detection, tracking, and recognition. It is used in security
cameras, traffic monitoring, and automated surveillance systems.
5. Entertainment and multimedia: DIP is used in entertainment and multimedia
applications for tasks such as image and video editing, compression, and transmission.
It is used in movies, TV shows, video games, and social media platforms.
6. Industrial automation: DIP is used in industrial automation for tasks such as quality
control, defect detection, and object recognition. It is used in manufacturing
processes, robotics, and inspection systems.
7. Astronomy and space exploration: DIP is used in astronomy and space exploration for
tasks such as image enhancement, restoration, and analysis. It is used in the study of
celestial objects such as galaxies, stars, and planets.

10. How is the image formed in Human eye?

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1. In the human eye, the process of image formation can be described as follows:
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2. Light enters the eye through the cornea, which is the transparent outermost layer of
the eye. The cornea helps to refract the incoming light and direct it towards the lens.
3. The light then passes through the pupil, which is an opening in the center of the iris
that regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
4. The lens, which is located behind the iris, further refracts the incoming light and
focuses it onto the retina, which is a layer of light-sensitive cells located at the back of
the eye.
5. The retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells called rods and cones, which
convert the incoming light into electrical signals that can be processed by the brain.
6. The rods are responsible for detecting light and dark, while the cones are responsible
for color vision and visual acuity.
7. The electrical signals generated by the rods and cones are transmitted to the brain via
the optic nerve, which is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the eye to the brain.
8. The brain processes the signals received from the retina to form a visual perception of
the image.
9. Overall, the process of image formation in the human eye is a complex and dynamic
process that involves the interaction of various structures and processes within the eye
and the brain.

11. Write a short note on Sampling and Quantization.

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1. Sampling refers to the process of converting continuous signals into discrete signals.
In other words, it is the process of taking a continuous signal and representing it in a
digital format. This is done by taking samples of the continuous signal at specific time
intervals. The interval at which the signal is sampled is known as the sampling rate or
frequency. The higher the sampling rate, the more accurate the digital representation
of the signal will be.
2. Quantization, on the other hand, is the process of converting a continuous range of
values into a finite set of values. In digital signal processing, quantization is necessary
because digital systems can only represent a finite set of values. This process involves
rounding off the continuous signal values to the nearest digital value that can be
represented by the system. The level of quantization is determined by the number of
bits used to represent each sample. The higher the number of bits, the more accurate
the digital representation of the signal will be.

12.Explain the different types of connectivity of pixels with suitable example.

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1. 4-connectivity: In this type of connectivity, two pixels are considered connected if
they are adjacent to each other along the horizontal or vertical axis. For example, in a
binary image, two black pixels that share an edge or a corner are considered
4-connected.
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2. 8-connectivity: In this type of connectivity, two pixels are considered connected if

they are adjacent to each other along the horizontal, vertical, or diagonal axis. For
example, in a binary image, two black pixels that share an edge, a corner, or a
diagonal connection are considered 8-connected.
3. m-connectivity: In this type of connectivity, the connectivity of pixels is determined
by a predefined mask or structuring element. The structuring element is usually a
small binary image that is used to define the pixel connectivity. For example, a 3x3
square structuring element can be used to define 8-connectivity, while a 3x3
cross-shaped structuring element can be used to define 4-connectivity.
4. n-connectivity: In this type of connectivity, pixels are connected if there is a path of n
or fewer pixels between them. For example, in a binary image, two black pixels that
are separated by no more than one white pixel are considered 1-connected, while two
black pixels that are separated by no more than two white pixels are considered
2-connected

13.What are different fields where image processing is used?

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1. Medical Imaging: Image processing is widely used in the medical field for
applications such as X-ray image enhancement, MRI and CT image reconstruction,
cancer detection, and disease diagnosis.
2. Robotics: Image processing is used in robotics for tasks such as object recognition,
tracking, and visual navigation.
3. Surveillance: Image processing is used in surveillance systems for applications such
as facial recognition, motion detection, and tracking.
4. Remote Sensing: Image processing is used in remote sensing for applications such as
satellite imagery analysis, weather forecasting, and land use mapping.
5. Automotive Industry: Image processing is used in the automotive industry for
applications such as driver assistance systems, automatic parking, and collision
avoidance.
6. Entertainment Industry: Image processing is used in the entertainment industry for
applications such as special effects, image and video editing, and motion graphics.
7. Agriculture: Image processing is used in agriculture for applications such as crop
analysis, disease detection, and yield prediction.
8. Quality Control: Image processing is used in quality control for applications such as
defect detection, texture analysis, and measurement.
9. Security: Image processing is used in security systems for applications such as
fingerprint and iris recognition, and document authentication.
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14.Write a short note on DFT

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1. The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is a mathematical algorithm used to transform
a discrete-time signal from the time domain to the frequency domain. It is widely used
in digital signal processing to analyse and process digital signals.
2. The DFT is defined as a finite sequence of complex numbers, and it takes as input a
finite sequence of equally spaced samples of a continuous-time signal. The output of
the DFT is a sequence of complex numbers that represents the frequency content of
the input signal.
3. The DFT algorithm is based on the concept of decomposing a signal into its
constituent frequencies. It works by computing the Fourier coefficients of the input
signal, which are complex numbers that represent the amplitude and phase of each
frequency component in the signal. The DFT algorithm uses a matrix multiplication to
compute the Fourier coefficients, which makes it efficient and well-suited for
implementation on digital computers.

15.Write a note on Walsh transform and its application in image processing.

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The Walsh transform is a mathematical tool used to transform a discrete signal from the
time domain to the frequency domain. It is similar to the Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT), but instead of using complex exponential functions, it uses simple binary
functions called Walsh functions. The Walsh transform is widely used in digital signal
processing, including image processing.
1. Image Compression: The Walsh transform can be used to reduce the amount of data
required to represent an image without significant loss of information. By
transforming the image into the frequency domain using the Walsh transform, the
high-frequency components of the image can be separated from the low-frequency
components, and the high-frequency components can be discarded or compressed
more aggressively without significant loss of image quality.
2. Image Filtering: The Walsh transform can be used for image filtering by applying a
filter in the frequency domain and then transforming the filtered image back to the
time domain using the inverse Walsh transform. This approach can be more efficient
than direct filtering in the time domain, particularly for large images or complex
filters.
3. Edge Detection: The Walsh transform can be used to detect edges in an image by
analyzing the frequency content of the image. Edges typically correspond to
high-frequency components in the image, which can be detected by applying the
Walsh transform and looking for high-frequency coefficients.
4. Texture Analysis: The Walsh transform can be used for texture analysis by analyzing
the frequency content of the image. Textures typically correspond to repetitive
patterns in the image, which can be detected by analyzing the frequency components
of the image using the Walsh transform.
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16.Explain image sampling and quantization.

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Image Sampling:
1. Image sampling is the process of capturing an analog image by dividing it into a grid
of pixels.
2. Each pixel represents a sample of the image at a specific location.
3. The sampling rate determines the number of pixels used to represent the image and is
measured in pixels per inch or pixels per centimeter.
4. The higher the sampling rate, the more pixels used to represent the image, resulting in
a higher level of detail and resolution.
5. Image sampling is typically performed by digital cameras or scanners.
Image Quantization:
1. Image quantization is the process of assigning a discrete set of values to each pixel in
the image.
2. Each pixel is assigned a specific numerical value that represents the color or
brightness of that pixel.
3. The number of possible values that each pixel can take depends on the bit depth of the
image.
4. A higher bit depth allows for a greater range of values and more accurate
representation of the original image.
5. Image quantization is performed during the process of converting an analog image
into a digital image.

17.What is Hadamard Transform? Write the Hadamard matrix for N=8.

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1. Hadamard Transform is a linear transformation technique used in digital signal
processing, image processing, and data compression. It is similar to the Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) in that it transforms a signal from the time or spatial domain
to the frequency domain. The Hadamard Transform is based on the Hadamard matrix,
which is a square matrix of +/-1 values that is orthogonal (i.e., its columns are
mutually orthogonal).
2. The Hadamard matrix for N=8 is as follows:
H=11111111
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
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1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
3. Each row of the matrix represents a basis vector in the Hadamard transform. The first
row represents the DC component of the signal, while the remaining rows represent
higher frequency components. The Hadamard transform of a signal can be computed
by multiplying the signal vector by the Hadamard matrix. The inverse Hadamard
transform can be computed by multiplying the transformed signal by the transpose of
the Hadamard matrix.

18.State the properties of Discrete Cosine Transform.

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The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is a widely used transform in digital signal
processing and image compression. Here are some of the key properties of the DCT:
1. Real-valued: The DCT is a real-to-real transform, meaning that the input signal and
the transformed signal are both real-valued.
2. Energy Compaction: The DCT has the property of energy compaction, which means
that most of the signal energy is concentrated in a small number of coefficients, while
the remaining coefficients have relatively low energy.
3. Symmetry: The DCT is symmetric, meaning that the forward and inverse transforms
are the same, except for a scaling factor.
4. Separability: The DCT is a separable transform, meaning that a two-dimensional DCT
can be computed by applying a one-dimensional DCT separately to each row and
column of the image.
5. Shift Invariant: The DCT is shift-invariant, meaning that small changes in the input
signal result in small changes in the output coefficients.
6. Decorrelation: The DCT has the property of decorrelation, which means that the
transformed coefficients are uncorrelated with each other. This property makes the
DCT well-suited for image compression, as it allows for the removal of redundant
information.

19.Explain any two properties of 2D DFT.

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The 2D Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is a widely used tool in digital image
processing. Here are two important properties of the 2D DFT:
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1. Separability: The 2D DFT is separable, meaning that it can be computed by taking the
1D DFT of each row and column of the image. This property makes the 2D DFT
computationally efficient and allows for the use of fast algorithms such as the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT). Separability also allows for the use of convolution in the
frequency domain, which can be much faster than convolution in the spatial domain.
2. Shift Invariance: The 2D DFT is shift-invariant, meaning that small shifts in the input
image result in small shifts in the output frequency domain representation. This
property is important in image processing applications such as registration and
alignment, where it is necessary to align two images that are shifted relative to each
other. Shift invariance also makes the 2D DFT useful for detecting periodic patterns in
an image, since a periodic pattern will produce a strong peak in the frequency domain
at the corresponding spatial frequency.

20.Define 4-connectivity and 8-connectivity in pixel.

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1. 4-connectivity and 8-connectivity are two commonly used methods for defining the
neighborhood of a pixel in digital image processing.
2. In 4-connectivity, a pixel is connected to its four adjacent pixels in the North, South,
East, and West directions. These adjacent pixels are called the 4-neighbors of the
pixel.
3. In 8-connectivity, a pixel is connected to its eight surrounding pixels, including the
four adjacent pixels in the North, South, East, and West directions, as well as the four
diagonal pixels. These surrounding pixels are called the 8-neighbors of the pixel.
4. The following diagram illustrates the 4-connectivity and 8-connectivity of a pixel P,
where the black pixel represents the center pixel, and the gray pixels represent its
neighbors:
4-Connectivity 8-Connectivity
* *
* * ***
* P * *****
* * ***
* *
5. In image processing, the choice of connectivity depends on the specific application.
For example, 4-connectivity is commonly used in edge detection algorithms, while
8-connectivity is used in image segmentation and pattern recognition algorithms.
21.Explain the Human visual system in accordance with the processing of an image.
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The human visual system (HVS) is a complex system that allows us to perceive and
interpret the world around us. In the context of image processing, the HVS plays a critical
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role in how we perceive and interpret visual information. Here is a brief overview of how
the HVS processes an image:
1. Image Acquisition: The first step in the HVS is the acquisition of the image by the
eye. The eye is responsible for capturing the light that enters it and forming an image
on the retina at the back of the eye.
2. Pre-processing: Once an image is formed on the retina, it undergoes a series of
pre-processing steps before it is transmitted to the brain. These pre-processing steps
include adjusting for changes in lighting conditions, removing noise, and enhancing
edges and contrast.
3. Feature Extraction: In this step, the HVS extracts important features from the image,
such as edges, corners, and textures. These features are used to identify objects and
patterns in the image.
4. Object Recognition: Once the features are extracted, the HVS uses them to identify
objects in the image. This process involves matching the extracted features with
known objects in memory and making a decision about what is present in the image.
5. Interpretation: The final step in the HVS is the interpretation of the image. This
involves integrating the information about the objects and patterns in the image with
other sensory information, such as sound and touch, to form a coherent understanding
of the world.
22.Find the auto-correlation of casual sequence x(n)={2,4,6,8} 23.Find the circular
convolution of the following casual sequence in time domain x1(n)={1,2,5} and
x2(n)={4,7}.
23.Find linear convolution of following casual signals. x(n)={1,2,0,1,23,1,1,2,1,0,3}
h(n)={2,2,1}
24.Find the linear convolution of the following casual signal. x(n)={3,4,2,1,2,2,1,1}
h(n)={1,-1}
25.Explain Haar transformation.
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1. The Haar transform is a mathematical tool used for signal processing and image
compression.
2. It is a type of wavelet transform that decomposes a signal into a set of wavelet
coefficients, representing the signal's energy at different scales and positions.
3. The Haar transform is based on a set of simple functions called Haar wavelets.
4. The Haar wavelets are defined as square pulses with values +1 and -1, each of length
1/2.
5. The Haar transform decomposes a signal into a set of coefficients by repeatedly
splitting the signal into two halves of equal length and computing the difference and
average of each pair of adjacent samples in each half.
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6. The difference coefficients represent the high-frequency components of the signal,

while the average coefficients represent the low-frequency components.
7. The process is repeated recursively on the low-frequency coefficients to obtain a
hierarchical representation of the signal's energy at different scales.
8. The Haar transform is widely used for image compression because it has a simple
implementation and can be applied in real-time.
9. The Haar transform is also a key component of many other wavelet-based algorithms,
such as the discrete wavelet transform and the lifting scheme.

26.Find the cross correlation of the following causal signal. x(n)= {8,9,2,3} h(n)= {4,3,6}
27. What is the function of an image sensor?
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1. Detecting Light: The main function of an image sensor is to detect light that falls on it
through a lens.
2. Convert Light to Electrical Signal: The image sensor converts the detected light into
an electrical signal that can be processed further.
3. Sampling: The image sensor samples the light intensity at each point in the image and
converts it into a digital signal that can be read by a computer or other digital device.
4. Color Detection: Some image sensors have filters that can detect the intensity of light
in different colors (RGB) to produce a full-color image.
5. Noise Reduction: Image sensors have noise reduction mechanisms that remove the
unwanted electrical signals and improve the quality of the image.
6. Pixel Count: The number of pixels in an image sensor determines the resolution of the
captured image. Higher pixel count means better image resolution and detail.
7. Sensor Size: The size of the image sensor affects the quality of the image. Larger
sensors can capture more light and produce better quality images.
8. Dynamic Range: The dynamic range of an image sensor refers to its ability to capture
details in both bright and dark areas of an image.
9. Frame Rate: The frame rate of an image sensor determines how many images per
second can be captured. Higher frame rates are needed for video applications.

28. Give the major classification of an image sensor.

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Image sensors can be classified into different types based on their technology, architecture,
and application. Here are the major classifications of image sensors:
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1. Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs): CCDs are the first type of image sensors invented,
and they have been widely used in digital cameras and other imaging devices. They
are known for their high image quality, low noise, and low power consumption.
2. Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) Sensors: CMOS sensors are
the most commonly used type of image sensors in modern digital cameras,
smartphones, and other imaging devices. They are known for their low power
consumption, fast readout speed, and high integration.
3. Time-of-Flight (ToF) Sensors: ToF sensors use infrared light to measure the distance
between the camera and the subject. They are used in applications such as face
recognition, gesture recognition, and augmented reality.
4. Global Shutter Sensors: Global shutter sensors capture the entire image at once, which
avoids motion distortion in fast-moving scenes. They are used in applications such as
sports photography and machine vision.
5. Rolling Shutter Sensors: Rolling shutter sensors capture the image line by line, which
can result in motion distortion in fast-moving scenes. They are used in applications
such as mobile phones, consumer cameras, and drones.
6. Back-Illuminated Sensors: Back-illuminated sensors are designed to improve the
sensitivity and image quality of the sensor by placing the photodiodes on the backside
of the sensor.
7. Front-Illuminated Sensors: Front-illuminated sensors have the photodiodes on the
front side of the sensor, which can result in a lower sensitivity and more noise than
back-illuminated sensors.

29. List and explain elements of image processing system.

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An image processing system consists of various elements that work together to process
digital images. Here are the main elements of an image processing system:
1. Image Acquisition: The first step in image processing is acquiring the digital image
from a camera, scanner, or other imaging device. The image is usually in analog form
and needs to be converted into a digital format using an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC).
2. Image Enhancement: The acquired image may have noise, blur, or other imperfections
that need to be corrected or removed. Image enhancement techniques such as filtering,
sharpening, and contrast adjustment can be used to improve the quality of the image.
3. Image Restoration: Image restoration techniques are used to recover lost or degraded
information in an image due to noise, blur, or other factors. Restoration techniques
include deblurring, denoising, and inpainting.
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4. Image Segmentation: Image segmentation is the process of dividing an image into

meaningful parts or regions. Segmentation can be based on color, texture, or other
features of the image.
5. Feature Extraction: Feature extraction involves identifying and extracting specific
features or patterns in an image. These features can be used to classify objects,
recognize faces, or detect anomalies.
6. Image Classification: Image classification is the process of assigning a label or
category to an image based on its features. Classification can be done using machine
learning algorithms such as support vector machines, neural networks, or decision
trees.
7. Object Recognition: Object recognition involves detecting and identifying objects in
an image. Object recognition can be based on the shape, color, texture, or other
features of the object.
8. Image Compression: Image compression techniques are used to reduce the size of an
image while maintaining its quality. Compression can be lossless or lossy, depending
on the application.

30. give any five applications of the image processing system.

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Image processing systems have a wide range of applications in various fields. Here are five
examples of image processing applications:
1. Medical Imaging: Image processing is used extensively in medical imaging
applications such as X-ray, MRI, CT scan, and ultrasound. Image processing
techniques are used to enhance the quality of medical images, extract features, and aid
in the diagnosis of diseases.
2. Surveillance and Security: Image processing is used in surveillance and security
applications such as facial recognition, license plate recognition, and object detection.
These techniques can be used to monitor public spaces, detect anomalies, and identify
suspects.
3. Robotics and Automation: Image processing is used in robotics and automation
applications such as object tracking, motion detection, and visual servoing. These
techniques can be used to control robotic arms, drones, and autonomous vehicles.
4. Entertainment: Image processing is used in entertainment applications such as video
games, movies, and virtual reality. Image processing techniques are used to create
special effects, simulate environments, and enhance the user experience.
5. Agriculture: Image processing is used in agriculture applications such as crop
monitoring, plant disease detection, and yield estimation. These techniques can be
used to optimize crop production, reduce waste, and improve food security.
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31. Distinguish between a monochrome and a Grayscale image.

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Monochrome Gray scale image.

A monochrome image is an image that A grayscale image is an image that consists

consists of only one color, typically black or of shades of gray.
white
Monochrome images can be binary Grayscale images have a range of values
from black to white
Each pixel is stored as a single bit (0 or 1) Each pixel is usually stored as a byte (value
between 0to 255)
It can be used such as text documents and It can be used photographs and medical
line drawings images.

32.what are different types of Line Impulse? Explain in detail.

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Line impulse is a signal used in communication systems to test the response of transmission
lines or networks. It is a short-duration pulse that is transmitted through the system, and the
response is then analyzed to determine the characteristics of the system. There are several
types of line impulses used in communication systems, including:
1. Step Impulse: A step impulse is a signal that has a sudden rise to a fixed amplitude
and remains constant for a brief period before returning to zero. It is used to test the
response of transmission lines to sudden changes in signal level.
2. Gaussian Impulse: A Gaussian impulse is a signal that has a bell-shaped waveform. It
is used to test the frequency response of communication systems.
3. Double Exponential Impulse: A double exponential impulse is a signal that has a fast
rise time and a slower decay. It is used to test the response of transmission lines to
high-frequency signals.
4. Triangular Impulse: A triangular impulse is a signal that has a linear rise and fall with
a fixed duration. It is used to test the frequency response of communication systems.
5. Ramp Impulse: A ramp impulse is a signal that has a linear rise to a fixed amplitude
and then falls to zero at a fixed rate. It is used to test the time-domain response of
communication systems.

33. Sketch the 2D Impulse Sequence x(n1,n2)=delta(2n1, n2) 35. Sketch the 2D Impulse
Sequence x(n1,n2)=delta(n1+ n2-1) 36. Write a short note on 2D Digital Filter.
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34. Explain the types of 2D Digital Filter.

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A 2D digital filter is a mathematical operation applied to a 2D digital signal, such as an
image, to modify its frequency spectrum or to enhance or suppress certain features. There
are several types of 2D digital filters, including:
1. Low-pass filters: A low-pass filter is a filter that allows low-frequency components to
pass through while attenuating higher frequency components. It is used to remove
high-frequency noise from images and to smooth out details.
2. High-pass filters: A high-pass filter is a filter that allows high-frequency components
to pass through while attenuating lower frequency components. It is used to enhance
edges and details in images.
3. Band-pass filters: A band-pass filter is a filter that allows a band of frequencies to
pass through while attenuating frequencies outside the band. It is used to isolate
specific frequency components in images.
4. Band-reject filters: A band-reject filter is a filter that attenuates a band of frequencies
while allowing frequencies outside the band to pass through. It is used to remove
specific frequency components in images.
5. Notch filters: A notch filter is a filter that attenuates a narrow range of frequencies,
typically around a single frequency. It is used to remove specific types of noise from
images.
6. Wiener filters: A Wiener filter is a filter that minimizes the mean square error between
the filtered signal and the original signal. It is used to restore images that have been
degraded by noise.

35. The input matrix x(m,n) and h(m,n). Perform the linear convolution between these two
matrices. x(m,n)={4,5,6; 7,8,9} h(m,n)={1,1,1} 39. The input matrix x(m,n) and h(m,n).
Perform the linear convolution between these two matrices. x(m,n)={1,2,3; 4,5,6; 7,8,9}
h(m,n)={1,1; 1,1; 1,1}
36.write a short note on Slant Transform.
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The slant transform is a type of wavelet transform used in signal processing to analyze
and transform signals in two dimensions. It is a modified version of the standard wavelet
transform, where the basic functions are slanted at an angle to capture directional features
of the signal.
1. The slant transform is a type of wavelet transform used in signal processing.
2. It is used to represent an image in terms of a set of basis functions that are oriented at
different angles.
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3. The slant transform is particularly useful for analyzing signals that have strong
directional features, such as edges and texture patterns in images.
4. It is similar to the standard wavelet transform but uses a modified basis function that
is slanted at an angle.
5. The slant transform has several advantages over other types of wavelet transforms for
analyzing directional signals.
6. It can capture directional information with higher precision and is less sensitive to
signal orientation.
7. The slant transform is computationally efficient, making it suitable for real-time
signal processing applications.
8. It has applications in fields such as image and video processing, biomedical imaging,
and remote sensing.
9. It can be used for tasks such as image compression, feature extraction, and image
analysis.

37. Write a short note on KL transform

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The KL transform, also known as the Karhunen-Loeve transform or principal component
analysis (PCA), is a mathematical technique used for signal processing and data analysis.
1. The KL transform is a mathematical technique used in signal processing and data
analysis.
2. It is also known as the Karhunen-Loeve transform or principal component analysis
(PCA).
3. The KL transform can be used to decompose a signal or data set into a set of
orthogonal basis functions.
4. It is commonly used for image and video compression, where it can reduce the size of
an image or video file while preserving important information.
5. The KL transform identifies the most important features of a signal or data set and
uses them to construct a compressed representation of the signal.
6. The KL transform is widely used in machine learning and pattern recognition for
feature extraction and dimensionality reduction.
7. The KL transform is computationally efficient and is suitable for real-time signal
processing applications.
8. The KL transform has applications in a wide range of fields, including image and
video processing, finance, and neuroscience.
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38. Give the advantages of walsh transform over Fourier Transform

=>
The Walsh transform has several advantages over the Fourier transform in certain
applications:
1. The Walsh transform is computationally efficient and can be implemented using fast
algorithms such as the Walsh-Hadamard transform, which can significantly reduce
processing time compared to the Fourier transform.
2. The Walsh transform is well-suited for analyzing signals with abrupt changes or
discontinuities, which can cause problems for the Fourier transform.
3. The Walsh transform is useful for analyzing signals that have a finite duration,
whereas the Fourier transform requires signals to be infinite in duration.
4. The Walsh transform is a nonparametric technique, which means that it does not
assume any particular form for the signal or its distribution, unlike some other signal
processing techniques.
5. The Walsh transform has applications in image processing, coding theory, and digital
communications, among others.
6. The Walsh transform can be used for pattern recognition and classification tasks,
where it can extract features from signals and data sets to improve the accuracy of
classification models.

UNIT 2
1. Explain the term
(a) Thresholding (b) Log Transformation (c) Negative Transformation (d) Contrast stretching
(e) Grey level slicing.
(a) Thresholding: is a technique used in image processing to convert a grayscale or color
image into a binary image. It involves setting a threshold value, which is a predefined value,
and any pixel in the image whose intensity value is higher than the threshold value is set to
white, while any pixel with intensity value lower than the threshold value is set to black.
(b) Log transformation: is a non-linear transformation technique used to enhance the contrast
of images with low-intensity values. In this technique, the logarithmic function is applied to
the intensity values of the image pixels. This compresses the range of low-intensity values
and expands the range of high-intensity values, resulting in an image with enhanced contrast.
(c) Negative transformation: also known as inverse transformation, is a technique used to
obtain the negative of an image. In this technique, the intensity value of each pixel in the
image is subtracted from the maximum intensity value of the image. This results in an image
with inverted brightness values where darker areas of the original image are made brighter
and vice versa.
(d) Contrast stretching: also known as normalization, is a technique used to increase the
dynamic range of an image. This technique involves stretching the pixel values of an image
so that they occupy the full range of available intensities. The result is an image with
increased contrast and improved visual quality.
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(e) Grey level slicing: is a technique used to highlight a specific range of pixel intensity
values in an image. In this technique, a specific range of intensity values is selected, and
pixels with intensity values within that range are displayed in a specific color. The rest of the
pixels in the image are usually displayed in grayscale. This technique is commonly used in
medical imaging to highlight specific tissues or organs in an image.

2. Explain the terms: (a)Smoothing (b) Sharpening

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1. Smoothing: also known as blurring, is a technique used in image processing to reduce
noise or remove small details from an image. This is achieved by replacing the value
of each pixel in the image with a weighted average of its neighbouring pixels. The
weights assigned to each neighbouring pixel determine the extent of blurring or
smoothing applied to the image.
2. Sharpening: is a technique used in image processing to enhance the edges and details
of an image. This is achieved by applying a filter that accentuates the high-frequency
components of the image. One of the most common filters used for sharpening is the
Laplacian filter, which is a second-order derivative filter that amplifies the edges in
the image.

3. Explain Dilation and Erosion and explain how opening and closing are related with them.
=>
1. Dilation is an operation that expands the boundaries of objects in an image. It is
performed by moving a structuring element (a small binary mask) over each pixel in
the image and setting the output pixel to 1 if any of the structuring element's pixel
overlaps with the input pixel. Dilation can be used to connect nearby objects or to fill
gaps in objects.
2. Erosion, on the other hand, is an operation that shrinks the boundaries of objects in an
image. It is performed by moving a structuring element over each pixel in the image
and setting the output pixel to 1 only if all the structuring element's pixels overlap
with the input pixel. Erosion can be used to remove small objects or details in an
image.
3. Opening and closing are two compound morphological operations that combine
dilation and erosion. Opening is performed by first eroding the image and then
dilating the result using the same structuring element. This operation is useful for
removing small objects and smoothing the boundaries of larger objects. Closing is
performed by first dilating the image and then eroding the result using the same
structuring element. This operation is useful for filling gaps between objects and
smoothing the boundaries of larger objects.
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4. What is Structuring Element? What is the use of it in morphological operation?

=>
1. A structuring element is a small binary matrix or kernel used in morphological
operations to modify the shape and size of objects in an image. It defines the
neighborhood around each pixel in the image that is used to perform the operation.
2. The structuring element is usually defined as a small matrix of 1s and 0s, where 1
represents the pixels that are included in the neighborhood and 0 represents pixels that
are excluded. The shape and size of the structuring element can vary, depending on
the desired effect of the operation.
3. Structuring elements are also used in other morphological operations, such as
opening, closing, and boundary extraction. In opening and closing, the structuring
element is used in a compound operation that combines dilation and erosion to
achieve specific effects on an image. In boundary extraction, the structuring element
is used to identify the pixels that form the boundary between objects in an image.
5. Write a note on image enhancement using spatial filters.
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1. Image enhancement using spatial filters is a technique in image processing that aims
to improve the visual quality of an image by modifying its pixel values.
2. This technique involves the use of spatial filters, which are small matrices or kernels
that are convolved with the image to modify the values of its pixels.
3. Spatial filtering can be used to highlight certain features or suppress unwanted noise
in the image.
4. There are two types of spatial filters used in image enhancement: smoothing filters
and sharpening filters.
5. Smoothing filters, also known as low-pass filters, are used to reduce noise and blur in
an image by averaging the pixel values in the neighborhood of each pixel.
6. Sharpening filters, also known as high-pass filters, are used to enhance the edges and
details in an image by amplifying the differences in pixel values in the neighborhood
of each pixel.
7. Common spatial filters used in image enhancement include the mean filter, median
filter, Gaussian filter, Laplacian filter, and Sobel filter.
8. Each filter has its own characteristics and parameters, which can be adjusted to
achieve the desired effect on the image.

6.What is histogram of an image? Compare between histogram equalization and histogram

matching.
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Histogram:
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● Histogram is a graphical representation of the frequency distribution of pixel

intensities in an image.
● It shows how many pixels in the image have a certain intensity value.
● The horizontal axis represents the pixel intensity values and the vertical axis
represents the number of pixels that have that intensity value.
Comparison between histogram equalization and histogram matching:
● Histogram equalization produces a more uniform histogram, while histogram
matching produces an image with a specified histogram.
● Histogram equalization is a non-parametric method that does not require any prior
knowledge about the image or the desired output, while histogram matching requires
knowledge of the desired histogram.
● Histogram equalization can result in over-enhancement or under-enhancement of
certain areas of the image, while histogram matching can produce a more
natural-looking result by preserving the local contrast of the image.
● Histogram matching is more suitable for specific applications, such as color
correction and image matching, while histogram equalization is more general-purpose
and can be applied to any image.

7. Write a note on weighted average filters. Give example.

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Weighted average filters:
1. Weighted average filters are a type of spatial filtering technique used to smooth or
blur images.
2. They assign different weights to each neighboring pixel depending on its distance
from the center pixel.
3. This allows the filter to give more weight to the pixels that are closer to the center and
less weight to the pixels that are farther away.
4. Weighted average filters can be used to reduce noise and blur the edges of an image.
Example:
1. One example of a weighted average filter is the Gaussian filter.
2. The Gaussian filter assigns weights to each neighboring pixel based on a Gaussian
distribution.
3. The weights are higher for the pixels that are closer to the center and lower for the
pixels that are farther away.
4. The resulting image is smoother and less noisy than the original image.
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8.What are high boost filters? How are they used? Explain.
=>
1. High boost filters are a type of spatial filtering technique used to sharpen images.
2. They enhance the edges and details in an image while suppressing the noise and
blurring.
3. High boost filters are based on the idea of subtracting a blurred version of the image
from the original image, which enhances the high-frequency components of the
image.
4. The resulting image has a greater contrast and sharpness compared to the original
image.
5. High boost filters can be implemented using a simple formula: H = A - B, where A is
the original image and B is a blurred version of the image.
6. The amount of boost can be adjusted by changing the weighting factor, which
determines the strength of the high-frequency components in the resulting image.
7. High boost filters can be used in various image processing applications such as
medical imaging, satellite imaging, and digital photography.
8. High boost filters can also be combined with other image enhancement techniques
such as histogram equalization and contrast stretching to produce more visually
appealing results.

9. What is dilation and erosion of and erosion of an image? State its applications.
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Dilation:
● Dilation is a morphological operation that expands the boundaries of an object in an
image.
● It involves sliding a small window or structuring element over the image and
replacing the center pixel with the maximum value of the neighbouring pixels.
● Dilation is used to fill in gaps, smooth edges, and merge nearby objects in an image.
● Applications of dilation in image processing include:
● Image smoothing and noise reduction
● Feature extraction and enhancement
● Object recognition and tracking
Erosion:
● Erosion is a morphological operation that shrinks the boundaries of an object in an
image.
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● It involves sliding a small window or structuring element over the image and
replacing the center pixel with the minimum value of the neighboring pixels.
● Erosion is used to remove small objects, smooth boundaries, and separate nearby
objects in an image.
● Applications of erosion in image processing include:
● Image smoothing and noise reduction
● Feature extraction and enhancement
● Object detection and segmentation

10.Explain Euclidean distance, City block distance, chess board distance.

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1. Euclidean Distance:
● Euclidean distance is the straight-line distance between two points in a
two-dimensional space.
● It is also known as the Pythagorean distance or L2 distance.
● It is calculated as the square root of the sum of the squared differences in each
dimension between two points.
2. City Block Distance:
● City block distance, also known as Manhattan distance or L1 distance, is the distance
between two points measured along the axes at right angles.
● It is calculated as the sum of the absolute differences in each dimension between two
points.
● City block distance is commonly used in routing algorithms and geographic
information systems (GIS).
3. Chessboard Distance:
● Chessboard distance, also known as maximum distance or Chebyshev distance, is the
maximum of the absolute differences in each dimension between two points.
● It is calculated as the maximum of the absolute differences in each dimension
between two points.
● Chessboard distance is named after the movements of a king in chess, where it can
move one square in any direction.

11.Explain the morphological image operations on an image.

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1. Morphological Operations is a broad set of image processing operations that process
digital images based on their shapes.
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2. In a morphological operation, each image pixel is corresponding to the value of other

pixel in its neighbourhood.
3. By choosing the shape and size of the neighbourhood pixel, you can construct a
morphological operation that is sensitive to specific shapes in the input image.
4. Dilation: Dilation adds pixels on the object boundaries.
5. Erosion: Erosion removes pixels on object boundaries.
6. Open: The opening operation erodes an image and then dilates the eroded image,
using the same structuring element for both operations.
7. Close: The closing operation dilates an image and then erodes the dilated image, using
the same structuring element for both operations.

12.Explain various image enhancement techniques in the frequency domain.

1. Low-pass filters: These filters allow low-frequency components of an image to pass
through while blocking high-frequency components.
2. High-pass filters: These filters allow high-frequency components of an image to pass
through while blocking low-frequency components.
3. Band-pass filters: These filters allow a range of frequencies to pass through while
blocking frequencies outside the range.
4. Notch filters: These filters block specific frequencies or narrow frequency bands
while allowing all other frequencies to pass through.
5. Homomorphic filtering: This technique involves applying both high-pass and
low-pass filters to an image in order to enhance its contrast while also preserving its
brightness.
6. Wiener filtering: This technique involves estimating the signal-to-noise ratio of an
image and applying a filter that minimizes the mean-squared error between the
filtered image and the original image.
7. Fourier transform: This technique is used to transform an image from the spatial
domain to the frequency domain.
8. Power spectrum: This is a visual representation of the frequency content of an image.
It is useful for identifying which frequencies are most prominent in an image and for
understanding how different filters will affect the image.

13.Write a short note on Thresholding techniques.

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1. Thresholding is a technique used in image processing to separate objects from the
background based on their intensity values.
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2. In thresholding, a threshold value is chosen, and all pixels with intensity values above
or below the threshold are assigned a new value, often black or white.
3. There are several thresholding techniques available, including global thresholding,
adaptive thresholding, and Otsu's thresholding.
4. Global thresholding is a simple technique where a single threshold value is used for
the entire image.
5. Adaptive thresholding is used when the illumination of the image is uneven. It uses a
local threshold value based on the surrounding pixels.
6. Otsu's thresholding is a technique that automatically calculates the threshold value by
maximizing the separability of the object and background based on the histogram of
the image.
7. Thresholding can be useful in a variety of applications, such as image segmentation,
edge detection, and object recognition.
8. However, choosing an appropriate threshold value can be challenging, and different
thresholding techniques may work better for different types of images.

14.Define image enhancement. Explain gray level slicing.

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1. Image enhancement refers to the process of improving the visual appearance of an
image or a set of images. This can include techniques that increase contrast, reduce
noise, sharpen edges, or adjust brightness and color balance.
2. Gray level slicing is a technique used in digital image processing to highlight a
specific range of gray levels in an image while suppressing all other gray levels.
3. Gray level slicing is applied to enhance specific features or objects in an image that
have a certain range of gray levels.
4. This technique is based on segmenting the image based on a certain range of gray
levels and suppressing all other gray levels.
5. Gray level slicing can be used to improve the contrast of an image, highlight certain
regions or objects, or suppress noise.
6. In gray level slicing, the user defines a range of gray levels, called the threshold
range, and all pixels in the image that fall within this range are set to the maximum
gray level value, while all other pixels are set to the minimum gray level value.

15.What are sharpening filters? Give examples. Explain any one in detail.
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1. Sharpening filters are image filters that enhance the edges and details of an image,
resulting in a more visually appealing and clearer image.
2. They are designed to amplify the high-frequency components of an image and
suppress the low-frequency components.
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3. Examples of sharpening filters include the Laplacian filter, the Unsharp Mask filter,
and the High-Boost filter.
4. The Laplacian filter is a second-order derivative filter that highlights edges in an
image by calculating the difference between the sum of the pixels in a neighbourhood
and the center pixel.
5. It is a high-pass filter that amplifies high-frequency components in an image.
However, it is also sensitive to noise and can result in artifacts and unwanted
oscillations.
6. The Unsharp Mask filter, on the other hand, is a simple sharpening filter that is more
robust to noise than the Laplacian filter.
7. It works by subtracting a blurred version of the original image from the original
image, resulting in a sharper image.
8. The amount of sharpening can be controlled by adjusting the amount of the blurred
image that is subtracted.

16.Explain various techniques of image arithmetic.

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1. Image addition: The image addition is a point-by-point sum of two images that result
in a new image. It is usually performed in grayscale or color images.
2. Image subtraction: The image subtraction is a point-by-point subtraction of two
images that result in a new image. It is used in image registration, motion detection,
and image segmentation.
3. Image multiplication: The image multiplication is a point-by-point multiplication of
two images that result in a new image. It is used to enhance images, remove noise,
and extract image features.
4. Image division: The image division is a point-by-point division of two images that
result in a new image. It is used to normalize images, perform contrast enhancement,
and remove artifacts.
5. Image averaging: The image averaging is a technique used to reduce noise in an
image by computing the average of several images. It is commonly used in
astrophotography and microscopy.
6. Image logic operations: The image logic operations include AND, OR, XOR, and
NOT operations. They are used in image processing for image segmentation, feature
extraction, and object detection.
7. Bitwise operations: The bitwise operations are performed on the bit level of an image.
These operations include AND, OR, XOR, and NOT operations. They are used in
image processing for image segmentation, feature extraction, and object detection.

17.Explain bit plane slicing with suitable example

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18.Discuss various colour models used in image processing.

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1. RGB (Red, Green, Blue) Model: This color model represents colors by combining
red, green, and blue light in various proportions. It is the most common color model
used in computer graphics, displays, and cameras.
2. CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) Model: This model is used in printing and subtractive
color mixing. The colors are represented by the amount of cyan, magenta, and yellow
ink used.
3. CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key) Model: This model is similar to the CMY
model, but includes a fourth component, Key or black. It is commonly used in
printing to produce high-quality black and white images.
4. HSI (Hue, Saturation, Intensity) Model: This model separates the color information
into three components, hue, saturation, and intensity. The hue component represents
the color itself, saturation represents the purity of the color, and intensity represents
the brightness of the color.
5. YUV (Luma, Chroma) Model: This model separates the image into two components,
luma (Y) and chroma (U and V). The luma component represents the brightness
information, while the chroma component represents the color information.
6. Lab (Lightness, a, b) Model: This model is used to represent colors in a perceptually
uniform space, where equal distances in the model correspond to equal differences in
perceived color.

19.Justify “Butterworth low pass filter is preferred to ideal low pass filter.”
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1. Ideal low pass filters (LPF) are filters that completely block all frequencies above a
certain cutoff frequency and allow all frequencies below it to pass through unaltered.
2. They have a sharp cutoff, which means that there is an abrupt transition between the
passband and stopband regions. However, ideal LPF are not realizable in practice as
they require infinite computation resources and infinite filter length.
3. On the other hand, Butterworth low pass filters have a more gradual transition from
the passband to the stopband. They are designed to have a flat response in the
passband and a monotonic decline in the stopband.
4. Butterworth filters are preferred over ideal filters because they provide a compromise
between frequency selectivity and passband flatness, and are realizable in practice.
5. Butterworth filters are also characterized by a parameter called the order, which
determines the steepness of the cutoff. Higher order filters have steeper cutoffs and
more rapid transitions, but they also have a higher degree of ringing and overshoot in
the time domain. Lower order filters have gentler transitions but may not provide
adequate attenuation in the stopband.

20.Perform Histogram Equalization on Gray level distribution shown in the table. Draw the
histograms of the original and equalized images.
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21.Explain RGB colour model to represent a digital image.

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The RGB (Red, Green, Blue) colour model is a widely used method of representing colour
images in digital image processing. The model is based on the principle that any colour can
be formed by combining different intensities of the primary colours: red, green, and blue. The
RGB colour model can be explained in the following points:
1. The RGB colour model is an additive colour model, where the three primary colours
are added together to form a range of colours.
2. In the RGB colour model, each pixel of an image is represented by three 8-bit values
(0-255) that correspond to the intensity of red, green, and blue colours present in that
pixel.
3. The combination of these three primary colours can create a wide range of colours,
including white, black, and every shade of grey in between.
4. The RGB colour model is device-dependent, meaning that the colours produced by a
device (such as a monitor or printer) can vary based on the quality and settings of that
device.
5. The RGB colour model is widely used in digital image processing, including in
applications such as digital cameras, computer graphics, and video editing.
6. RGB colour images can be processed using various techniques such as filtering,
enhancement, and segmentation, among others.
7. The RGB colour model has some limitations, such as the fact that it is not well-suited
for representing colours in nature accurately. Other colour models, such as the HSL
and LAB colour models, can be used in such cases.
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22.Compare contrast stretching and histogram equalization.

=>

23.Can two different images have the same histogram? Justify your answer.
=>
1. Yes, it is possible for two different images to have the same histogram.
2. This is because a histogram represents the distribution of pixel values in an image and
there can be multiple images with the same distribution of pixel values.
3. For example, consider two images - one is a grayscale image of a black circle on a
white background and the other is a grayscale image of a white circle on a black
background.
4. Both images have the same number of black and white pixels, and therefore, their
histograms will be the same.
5. However, it is important to note that even though two images can have the same
histogram, they can still look very different visually.
6. This is because the spatial arrangement of pixel values also plays a significant role in
the visual appearance of an image.
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24.Apply the following image enhancement techniques for the given 3 bits per pixel image
segment. (i) Digital Negative (ii) Thresholding T=5
=>
1. Digital Negative:
The digital negative of an image is obtained by subtracting each pixel value from the
maximum possible pixel value in the image. For a 3-bit per pixel image, the maximum pixel
value is 2^3 - 1 = 7. Thus, to obtain the digital negative of the image segment, we need to
subtract each pixel value from 7.

For example, if the original pixel values are:

213
042
571

The digital negative pixel values will be:

564
735
206

(ii) Thresholding T=5:

Thresholding is a technique used to convert a grayscale image into a binary image by setting
a threshold value T and classifying all pixels with intensity values greater than T as white and
those less than or equal to T as black.

For a 3-bit per pixel image, the maximum pixel value is 2^3 - 1 = 7. If we set the threshold
value T to 5, all pixels with values greater than 5 will be classified as white (1) and those less
than or equal to 5 will be classified as black (0).

For example, if the original pixel values are:

213
042
571

The thresholded image with T=5 will be:

000
000
110

25.Perform histogram equalization and plot the histograms before and after equalization.
=>
1. Histogram equalization is a technique used to enhance the contrast of an image by
redistributing the pixel values in such a way that the histogram of the output image is
approximately uniform. The following steps are involved in histogram equalization:
2. Compute the histogram of the input image. Compute the cumulative distribution
function (CDF) of the histogram.
3. Compute the transformation function that maps the input pixel values to output pixel
values.
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4. Apply the transformation function to each pixel in the input image to obtain the output
image.
5. After histogram equalization, the histogram of the output image should be
approximately uniform, which means that the pixel values are well-distributed across
the intensity range of the image.
6. To plot the histograms before and after equalization, we can use a histogram plot,
where the x-axis represents the intensity values and the y-axis represents the number
of pixels with that intensity value.
7. Before histogram equalization, the histogram of the input image may be skewed or
concentrated in certain intensity values, which indicates poor contrast. After
histogram equalization, the histogram of the output image should be approximately
flat, which indicates improved contrast.

26.Given the 7 X 7 Image segment, perform dilation using the structuring element shown.
27. If all the pixels in an image are shuffled, will there be any change in the histogram?
Justify your answer.
=>
1. No, shuffling the pixels in an image does not change the pixel values or the frequency
of each pixel value. Therefore, the histogram of the image remains the same even
after shuffling the pixels.
2. The histogram is only a representation of the frequency distribution of pixel values in
an image, and shuffling the pixels does not affect this distribution.
3. Ans: No, shuffling the pixels in an image will not change the histogram. The
histogram of an image is a statistical distribution of the frequency of occurrence of
each intensity value in the image. It is determined solely by the intensity values of the
pixels in the image, and their order does not affect the histogram.
4. Shuffling the pixels in an image is equivalent to reordering the pixels without
changing their intensity values. The histogram will remain the same because the
frequency of occurrence of each intensity value in the image is not affected by the
order of the pixels.
5. For example, consider a grayscale image with three pixels having intensity values of
50, 100, and 150. The histogram of this image will have a count of one for each of the
intensity values 50, 100, and 150. If we shuffle the pixels in the image, their order
may change, but the histogram will remain the same, with a count of one for each of
the intensity values 50, 100, and 150.
6. Therefore, shuffling the pixels in an image will not affect the histogram of the image.

28.Are convolutional filters linear? Justify your answer.

=>
1. Yes, convolutional filters are linear.
2. Linear systems have the property of superposition and homogeneity. Superposition
means that the response of the system to a sum of inputs is the same as the sum of the
individual responses to each input.
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3. Homogeneity means that scaling the input results in a corresponding scaling of the
output.
4. Convolutional filters satisfy both properties. Given two input images A and B,
applying a convolutional filter to the sum of A and B is the same as applying the filter
to A and B individually and then summing the results.
5. Additionally, scaling the input image results in a corresponding scaling of the output
image.
6. Therefore, convolutional filters are linear.

29. Two images have the same histogram. Which of the following properties must they have
in common? (i) Same total power (ii)Same entropy (iii) same inter pixel covariance function.
=>
If two images have the same histogram, they must have the same total number of pixels with
the same intensity value. Therefore, option (i) same total power is correct. However, having
the same histogram does not imply that they have the same entropy or the same inter pixel
covariance function.
30. What will we obtain if the arithmetic mean filter is applied to an image again and again?
what will happen if we use the median filter instead?
=>
1. If the arithmetic mean filter is applied to an image again and again, it will result in a
blurred image with reduced sharpness and loss of high-frequency details.
2. This is because the mean filter replaces each pixel with the average value of its
neighbouring pixels, which tends to smooth out the image.
3. If we use the median filter instead, the result would be less blurry compared to the
arithmetic mean filter.
4. The median filter replaces each pixel with the median value of its neighbouring
pixels, which preserves edges and fine details better than the mean filter. However, if
the filter size is too large, the median filter can also lead to some blurring.
31. List and explain five arithmetic operations along with their mathematical representation.
=>
1. Addition: The addition operation is used to combine two images pixel by pixel. The
mathematical representation of the addition operation for two images A and B is
given as:
C(x,y) = A(x,y) + B(x,y)
Here, C(x,y) represents the pixel value at position (x,y) in the resulting image after
adding the corresponding pixel values from images A and B.
2. Subtraction: The subtraction operation is used to find the difference between two
images pixel by pixel. The mathematical representation of the subtraction operation
for two images A and B is given as:
C(x,y) = A(x,y) - B(x,y)
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Here, C(x,y) represents the pixel value at position (x,y) in the resulting image after
subtracting the corresponding pixel values from images A and B.
3. Multiplication: The multiplication operation is used to enhance or attenuate certain
features in an image. The mathematical representation of the multiplication operation
for two images A and B is given as:
C(x,y) = A(x,y) * B(x,y)
Here, C(x,y) represents the pixel value at position (x,y) in the resulting image after
multiplying the corresponding pixel values from images A and B.
4. Division: The division operation is used to normalize the pixel values in an image.
The mathematical representation of the division operation for two images A and B is
given as:
C(x,y) = A(x,y) / B(x,y)
Here, C(x,y) represents the pixel value at position (x,y) in the resulting image after
dividing the corresponding pixel values from images A and B.
5. Modulo: The modulo operation is used to perform arithmetic operations on image
pixel values that are within a certain range. The mathematical representation of the
modulo operation for two images A and B is given as:
C(x,y) = A(x,y) % B(x,y)
Here, C(x,y) represents the pixel value at position (x,y) in the resulting image after
applying the modulo operation to the corresponding pixel values from images A and
B.

32.explain Homomorphic filter along with Block diagram of homomorphic filtering.

=>
1. Homomorphic filtering is a technique used in image processing to enhance images by
adjusting their brightness and contrast in a way that preserves their spatial frequency
content. It is particularly useful for correcting for illumination and reflectance
variations in an image. The main idea behind homomorphic filtering is to decompose
the image into its low-frequency and high-frequency components and then adjust their
amplitude in a way that enhances the image's details and contrasts.
2. The block diagram of homomorphic filtering is shown below:
3. Input Image -> Logarithmic Transformation -> Low-Pass Filter -> High-Pass Filter
-> Scaling -> Exponential Transformation -> Output Image
4. The homomorphic filter consists of several steps, as follows:
5. Logarithmic Transformation: The first step is to apply a logarithmic transformation to
the input image. This step compresses the dynamic range of the input image, which
makes it easier to separate the low-frequency and high-frequency components.
6. Low-Pass Filtering: The next step is to filter the logarithmic image with a low-pass
filter. This filter removes the high-frequency components of the image, leaving only
the low-frequency components.
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7. High-Pass Filtering: The next step is to filter the logarithmic image with a high-pass
filter. This filter removes the low-frequency components of the image, leaving only
the high-frequency components.
8. Scaling: The high-frequency components are then scaled by a constant value, which
adjusts their amplitude. This scaling is typically done in the frequency domain.
9. Exponential Transformation: The high-frequency components are then transformed
back into the spatial domain by applying an exponential transformation. This
transformation expands the dynamic range of the high-frequency components, making
them easier to see.
10. Combination:
11. Finally, the low-frequency and high-frequency components are combined to form the
output image.

33. Explain two types of classification of Color-Quantisation Techniques.

=>
1. Color-quantization techniques are used in digital image processing to reduce the
number of colors in an image while preserving its visual quality as much as possible.
There are two main types of classification of color-quantization techniques:
2. Non-adaptive color-quantization: In non-adaptive color-quantization, the number of
colors in the image is reduced to a fixed value that is determined in advance. This
means that the same number of colors is used for all images, regardless of their
content or visual complexity. Non-adaptive color-quantization techniques can be
further classified into two categories:
3. Spatial quantization: In spatial quantization, the image is divided into small regions,
and each region is quantized independently of the others. The color palette used for
each region is determined based on the colors present in that region only.
4. Global quantization: In global quantization, the entire image is quantized using a
single color palette. The palette is determined by considering all the colors in the
image, regardless of their spatial location.
5. Adaptive color-quantization:
In adaptive color-quantization, the number of colors in the image is determined
dynamically based on the content of the image. This means that different images can
be quantized using different numbers of colors, depending on their visual complexity.
6. Adaptive color-quantization techniques can be further classified into two categories:
Iterative quantization: In iterative quantization, the number of colors in the image is
gradually reduced until a desired level of visual quality is achieved. The process is
iterative because the quantization is done multiple times, with the palette being
updated each time based on the results of the previous iteration.
7. Neural network-based quantization: In neural network-based quantization, a neural
network is trained to map the colors in the original image to a smaller set of output
colors. The neural network is trained on a set of training images, and the output colors
are chosen to minimize the difference between the original and quantized images.

34.Give the steps of Color image quantisation.

=>
1. Load the color image: The first step is to load the color image that you want to
quantize. The image can be in any format like JPG, PNG, BMP, etc.
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2. Convert the image to RGB format: If the image is not in RGB format, convert it to
RGB format. This is because most color quantization techniques work with RGB
format.
3. Calculate the color histogram: Calculate the color histogram of the image. A color
histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of colors in an image.
4. Determine the number of colors to use: Decide the number of colors that you want to
use to represent the image. This number will depend on the application and the
desired quality of the output image.
5. Apply a color quantization algorithm: There are several color quantization algorithms
that you can use. Some popular ones are k-means clustering, median cut, octree
quantization, etc.
6. Map the colors to the quantized values: Once you have the quantized colors, map the
original colors to the nearest quantized values.
7. Convert the image back to its original format: If you converted the image to RGB
format, convert it back to its original format.
8. Save the quantized image: Finally, save the quantized image in a format of your
choice.
9.
35. List the limitations of the RGB Color Model.
=>
1. Limited range of colors: The RGB color model can only represent a limited range of
colors as it is a three-color model. It cannot represent colors such as pure cyan, pure
magenta, and pure yellow.
2. Device-dependent: The RGB color model is device-dependent, which means that the
colors displayed on one device may differ from the colors displayed on another
device.
3. Not perceptually uniform: The RGB color model is not perceptually uniform, which
means that the distance between two colors in the model does not necessarily
correspond to the perceived difference in the colors.
4. Difficulty in color correction: The RGB color model can be difficult to correct if an
image has a color cast, as it is not easy to identify which color channel is causing the
cast.
5. Limited applications: The RGB color model is not suitable for all applications, such
as printing, where the CMYK color model is more commonly used.
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36. List any five color models and explain any two in details.
=>
Five color models used in digital image processing are:
1. RGB Color Model
2. CMYK Color Model
3. HSI Color Model
4. YUV Color Model
5. LAB Color Model
Two of these models are explained in detail below:
1. RGB Color Model: The RGB (Red Green Blue) color model is the most widely used
color model for digital images. In this model, each pixel in an image is represented by
three values, corresponding to the intensity of the red, green, and blue primary colors.
The three values are usually represented as integers ranging from 0 to 255. The RGB
model is used in applications such as digital photography, computer graphics, and
video processing.
2. HSI Color Model: The HSI (Hue Saturation Intensity) color model is a cylindrical
color space that separates the color information of an image into three components:
hue, saturation, and intensity. Hue refers to the dominant color of the image, while
saturation represents the purity of the color and intensity indicates the brightness of
the image. In this model, hue is measured in degrees, while saturation and intensity
are represented as values between 0 and 1. The HSI color model is often used in
image processing applications such as image analysis, color correction, and image
segmentation.

37. Write a short note on HSI color model.

=>
The HSI (Hue-Saturation-Intensity) color model is a representation of colors based on their
perceptual features, such as hue, saturation, and intensity.
1. The HSI color model separates the color information into three components: hue,
saturation, and intensity. Hue represents the color tone of a pixel, saturation represents
the purity of the color, and intensity represents the brightness of the color.
2. Hue is usually represented as an angle, with red at 0 degrees, green at 120 degrees,
and blue at 240 degrees. Other colors are represented by angles between these values.
3. Saturation is a measure of how far a color is from gray, with a value of 0 indicating a
completely unsaturated color (i.e., gray) and a value of 1 indicating a fully saturated
color.
4. Intensity is a measure of the brightness of a color, with a value of 0 indicating black
and a value of 1 indicating white.
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5. The HSI color model is particularly useful in image processing applications that
involve color manipulation or analysis, such as color segmentation, color detection,
and color correction.
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UNIT 3
1) What do you mean by Image Segmentation?
=>
1. Image segmentation is a method in which a digital image is broken down into various
subgroups called Image segments which helps in reducing the complexity of the
image to make further processing or analysis of the image simpler.
2. Segmentation in easy words is assigning labels to pixels.
3. All picture elements or pixels belonging to the same category have a common label
assigned to them.
4. The goal of image segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an
image into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze.
5. Image segmentation is an important step in many image processing tasks, such as
object detection, object recognition, image editing, and medical image analysis.
6. It can be performed using various techniques, such as thresholding, region-growing,
edge detection, and clustering algorithms.
7. These techniques aim to identify the boundaries of different objects in an image and
group the pixels within each object into separate regions.

2) Explain the classification of image segmentation techniques.

=>
1. Image segmentation techniques can be classified into several categories based on their
underlying principles and methodologies. Here are some of the commonly used
classifications:
2. Thresholding-based segmentation: In this technique, a threshold value is selected to
divide the image into two parts: the foreground and the background. Pixels with
intensity values above the threshold are considered as foreground, while those below
the threshold are classified as background.
3. Edge-based segmentation: This technique detects edges or boundaries between
different regions in an image. It works by identifying abrupt changes in image
intensity or texture to create a map of edges.
4. Region-based segmentation: This technique groups pixels into different regions based
on their intensity, texture, or color similarity. It works by starting with an initial set of
regions and then merging or splitting them based on predefined criteria.
5. Clustering-based segmentation: This technique groups pixels into clusters based on
their similarity in terms of intensity, color, or texture. It works by clustering pixels
that have similar characteristics and assigning them to separate regions.
6. Watershed-based segmentation: This technique treats an image as a topographic map
and simulates a flooding process to partition the image into regions. The regions
correspond to the basins of attraction for the flooding process.
7. Neural network-based segmentation: This technique uses deep learning algorithms,
such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), to perform segmentation. The CNNs
are trained to identify and segment objects in an image based on their visual features.
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3) Explain clustering technique used for image segmentation.

=>
1. Clustering is a technique commonly used for image segmentation, where pixels in an
image are grouped together into clusters based on their similarity in colour, texture, or
intensity. The goal of clustering is to divide an image into segments or regions that are
homogeneous in terms of visual characteristics.
2. There are several clustering algorithms used for image segmentation, including
k-means, fuzzy c-means, and mean shift clustering. These algorithms work by
assigning pixels to different clusters based on their similarity in colour, texture, or
intensity. The algorithm iteratively refines the assignment of pixels to clusters until a
convergence criterion is met.
3. The k-means algorithm is one of the most commonly used clustering algorithms for
image segmentation. It works by randomly selecting k initial centroids and then
assigning each pixel to the nearest centroid. The algorithm then updates the centroids
based on the mean of the pixels assigned to each cluster, and repeats this process until
convergence. The resulting clusters correspond to the segmented regions in the image.
4. Fuzzy c-means is another clustering algorithm that is often used for image
segmentation. It works similarly to k-means, but allows pixels to belong to multiple
clusters with varying degrees of membership. This allows for a more flexible
segmentation that can capture more complex image features.
5. Mean shift clustering is another clustering algorithm that is commonly used for image
segmentation. It works by defining a kernel function around each pixel and then
shifting the kernel center towards the direction of maximum density. This process
results in the formation of clusters around regions of high density in the image.

4) Compare and contrast between inter pixel redundancy, coding redundancy and
psycho-visual redundancy.
=>
1. Inter-pixel redundancy, coding redundancy, and psycho-visual redundancy are three
different types of redundancies that can be found in digital images. Here is a brief
comparison and contrast between these types of redundancies:
2. Inter-pixel redundancy: Inter-pixel redundancy refers to the correlation that exists
between adjacent pixels in an image. This correlation can be exploited to compress
the image by coding the differences between adjacent pixels instead of coding each
pixel independently. Inter-pixel redundancy can be reduced by techniques such as
predictive coding and transform coding.
3. Coding redundancy: Coding redundancy refers to the inefficiency that arises in the
coding process due to the use of inefficient coding techniques. This redundancy can
be reduced by using more efficient coding techniques such as Huffman coding,
arithmetic coding, and entropy coding.
4. Psycho-visual redundancy: Psycho-visual redundancy refers to the redundancy that
exists in an image due to the limitations of the human visual system. The human
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visual system is more sensitive to some types of image features, such as edges and
contours, and less sensitive to others, such as high-frequency noise. This redundancy
can be exploited by removing or reducing the less significant image features without
significantly affecting the perceived image quality. Techniques such as color
quantization, sub-sampling, and spatial masking can be used to reduce psycho-visual
redundancy.
5. In summary, inter-pixel redundancy, coding redundancy, and psycho-visual
redundancy are three different types of redundancies that can be found in digital
images. While inter-pixel redundancy and coding redundancy can be reduced through
efficient coding techniques, psycho-visual redundancy can be exploited by removing
or reducing less significant image features without significantly affecting the
perceived image quality.

5) How is thresholding used in image segmentation?

=>
1. Thresholding is a commonly used technique in image segmentation that works by
dividing an image into two regions: the foreground and the background.
2. In thresholding, a threshold value is selected that separates the foreground from the
background based on the intensity values of the pixels in the image. Pixels with
intensity values above the threshold are assigned to the foreground, while pixels with
intensity values below the threshold are assigned to the background.
3. Thresholding can be used for segmentation in a wide range of applications, including
medical imaging, remote sensing, and computer vision. The technique is particularly
useful for segmenting images with a strong contrast between the foreground and the
background.
4. There are several types of thresholding techniques that can be used for image
segmentation, including:
5. Global thresholding: In this technique, a single threshold value is applied to the entire
image to separate the foreground and background regions.
6. Adaptive thresholding: In this technique, the threshold value is adjusted locally based
on the intensity values of the pixels in the surrounding region. This technique is useful
for images with varying illumination or contrast.
7. Multi-level thresholding: In this technique, multiple threshold values are used to
divide an image into more than two regions. This technique is useful for segmenting
images with multiple objects or regions.
8. It is important to select an appropriate threshold value to accurately separate the
foreground and background regions. The choice of threshold value depends on the
characteristics of the image and the application requirements.

6) Explain various edges detected in the segmentation process.

=>
1. Edge detection is a fundamental step in image segmentation, which involves
identifying boundaries between regions in an image.
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2. Different edge detection techniques use various filters and mathematical algorithms to
identify the edges in the image.
3. Here are some commonly detected edges in the segmentation process:
4. Gradient edges: These edges are detected by calculating the gradient of the image
intensity. A gradient is the rate of change of intensity in a particular direction.
Gradient edges can be detected using techniques such as Sobel, Prewitt, or Roberts
operators.
5. Laplacian edges: These edges are detected by calculating the second derivative of the
image intensity. A Laplacian filter is applied to the image to enhance these edges.
Laplacian edges are more precise than gradient edges but are more sensitive to noise.
6. Canny edges: Canny edge detection is a popular technique that uses a multi-stage
algorithm to detect edges in an image. The algorithm involves smoothing the image
with a Gaussian filter, calculating the gradient, non-maximum suppression, hysteresis
thresholding, and finally, edge tracking. Canny edges are highly accurate and have
low noise sensitivity.
7. Zero-crossing edges: These edges are detected by finding the zero-crossings in the
second derivative of the image intensity. The zero-crossings are locations where the
sign of the second derivative changes, indicating a change in the intensity of the
image. Zero-crossing edges can be detected using techniques such as Laplacian of
Gaussian (LoG) or Difference of Gaussian (DoG) filters.
8. Ridge edges: These edges are detected in regions where the image intensity is
constant but has a high spatial gradient. Ridge edges can be detected using techniques
such as Hessian filters, which are based on the second-order derivatives of the image
intensity.

7) Explain Huffman coding with suitable examples.

=>
1. Huffman coding is a lossless data compression algorithm that uses variable-length
codes to represent symbols in a given message.
2. It is based on the frequency of occurrence of each symbol in the message, with the
more frequent symbols being assigned shorter codes and less frequent symbols being
assigned longer codes.
3. The basic steps involved in Huffman coding are:
4. Calculate the frequency of occurrence of each symbol in the message.
5. Create a binary tree based on the frequency of occurrence of each symbol, where the
more frequent symbols are placed closer to the root of the tree.
6. Assign a 0 to each left branch of the tree and a 1 to each right branch of the tree.
7. Assign a code to each symbol based on its position in the tree, where the code is the
sequence of 0s and 1s encountered while traversing the tree from the root to the
symbol.
8. Huffman ka code aur example online nahi milega khud se karna padega !
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8) Explain gradient operator and laplacian operator.

=>
1. Both gradient operator and Laplacian operator are image processing filters used for
edge detection.
2. Gradient Operator: A gradient is a measure of the rate of change of a function over
distance. In image processing, the gradient of an image is the change in intensity
values across the image. The gradient operator is a filter that is used to compute the
gradient of an image. The most commonly used gradient operator is the Sobel
operator. The Sobel operator uses two separate filters, one for detecting vertical edges
and another for detecting horizontal edges.
3. Laplacian Operator: The Laplacian operator is a filter that is used to compute the
second derivative of an image. The second derivative is a measure of the rate of
change of the gradient of an image. The Laplacian operator is used to detect edges
that are not aligned with the horizontal or vertical directions, such as diagonal edges.
The Laplacian operator is defined as the sum of the second derivatives in the x and y
directions:
∇²f(x,y) = ∂²f(x,y)/∂x² + ∂²f(x,y)/∂y²

4. The Laplacian operator is often used in conjunction with a Gaussian filter to reduce
noise in the image before edge detection. The Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG) operator
combines the Laplacian operator and the Gaussian filter into a single filter.

9) What is edge linking? Highlight its significance in image segmentation.

=>
1. Edge linking is the process of connecting individual edge pixels detected by an edge
detection algorithm into longer continuous curves or lines.
2. This process is important in image segmentation because it helps to group edge pixels
that belong to the same object or region in the image. Without edge linking, the edges
detected in an image may be fragmented, making it difficult to identify and segment
objects accurately.
3. Edge linking is usually performed after edge detection using one of several
algorithms.
4. One of the most common edge linking algorithms is Canny edge detector.
5. The Canny edge detector works by first detecting edges using a gradient-based
approach, and then linking adjacent edge pixels that are likely to belong to the same
edge using a set of heuristics.
6. These heuristics include thresholding the gradient magnitude and non-maximum
suppression, which involves suppressing any edge pixels that are not local maxima
along the gradient direction.
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10) Explain the JPEG compression with a suitable block diagram.

=>

1. JPEG compression is a widely used method for compressing digital images. It is a

lossy compression technique that aims to reduce the file size of an image while
maintaining an acceptable level of image quality. Here is a brief explanation of the
JPEG compression process along with a block diagram:
2. Image Preprocessing: In the first step, the input image is preprocessed to remove any
unwanted data and to convert it into a suitable format for compression. This step may
involve colour space conversion, chroma subsampling, and other operations to
prepare the image for compression.
3. Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT): The next step involves applying a DCT to the
image. The DCT is a mathematical technique that converts the spatial image data into
frequency domain data. This transformation allows the image to be represented as a
set of frequency coefficients, which can be more efficiently compressed than the
original pixel data.
4. Quantization: The frequency coefficients obtained from the DCT are then quantized
using a quantization matrix. This process involves dividing the coefficients by a set of
predefined values and rounding them to the nearest integer. This step introduces loss
of information in the image, as some of the high-frequency components are discarded.
However, the level of quantization can be adjusted to control the level of compression
and the resulting image quality.
5. Huffman Coding: The quantized coefficients are then compressed using Huffman
coding, a lossless compression technique that assigns shorter codes to more frequently
occurring values in the data. This step reduces the amount of data required to
represent the image further.
6. Encoding: The final step involves encoding the compressed image data into a suitable
file format, such as a JPEG file.

11) Define segmentation. State different methods based on similarity. Explain any one
method with an example.

=>

1. Segmentation is the process of dividing an image into multiple regions or segments,

each of which corresponds to a specific object, texture, color, or other visual feature.
The goal of segmentation is to partition an image into meaningful regions that can be
analyzed and processed independently.
2. There are several methods for image segmentation based on similarity, including:
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3. Thresholding: This method involves setting a threshold value for a specific visual
feature, such as intensity or color, and separating the pixels in the image that exceed
the threshold from those that do not.
4. Region Growing: This method involves selecting a seed pixel in the image and
growing a region by adding adjacent pixels that have similar features, such as
intensity or color, to the seed pixel.
5. Clustering: This method involves grouping similar pixels into clusters based on their
visual features, such as intensity, color, or texture.
6. Edge Detection: This method involves detecting the edges in an image, which
correspond to boundaries between regions, and then segmenting the image based on
these edges.
7. One example of an image segmentation method based on similarity is k-means
clustering.
8. K-means clustering is a widely used algorithm for grouping pixels into clusters based
on their color values.
9. The algorithm works by selecting k initial cluster centers and then iteratively
assigning each pixel in the image to the nearest cluster center based on its color
values. After each iteration, the cluster centers are updated based on the mean color
values of the pixels assigned to each cluster. The process continues until convergence,
when no more pixel assignments or center updates are made.

12.Draw and explain block diagram of JPEG encoder and decoder.

=>
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13.Compare arithmetic coding and Huffman coding.

=>

1. Arithmetic coding and Huffman coding are two widely used lossless compression
techniques. Here are some differences between the two:
2. Probability Model: Huffman coding uses a probability model based on symbol
frequency to generate a variable-length code for each symbol, while arithmetic coding
uses a probability model based on symbol ranges to encode a stream of symbols.
3. Efficiency: Arithmetic coding is generally more efficient than Huffman coding,
meaning that it can achieve higher compression rates for the same input data.
4. Complexity: Arithmetic coding is more complex than Huffman coding, both in terms
of implementation and computation time. This complexity makes it harder to
implement and less suitable for real-time applications.
5. Decoding: Decoding in Huffman coding is simpler and faster than decoding in
arithmetic coding.
6. Adaptability: Arithmetic coding is more adaptable to changing data than Huffman
coding. It can adjust the probability model dynamically as the data stream is being
compressed, while Huffman coding requires a fixed probability model that is
computed in advance.
7. Patent: Arithmetic coding is patented, while Huffman coding is not. This makes it
more expensive to use arithmetic coding in commercial applications.

14.Explain with block diagram Transform based coding.

=>

1. Transform-based coding is a technique for compressing digital images and video by

transforming the original data into a different domain where it can be compressed
more efficiently.
2. The basic block diagram for transform-based coding is shown below:
3. Input Image/Video --> Transformation --> Quantization --> Encoding --> Compressed
Image/Video
4. Transformation: In the first step, the input image or video is transformed into a
different domain using a mathematical transform such as the Discrete Cosine
Transform (DCT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), or Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT). This transform converts the image or video from the spatial domain
to the frequency domain, where the energy of the image or video is concentrated in
fewer coefficients.
5. Quantization: In the second step, the transformed coefficients are quantized to reduce
their precision and hence the amount of data required to represent them. This is
achieved by dividing each coefficient by a quantization factor and rounding off the
result to the nearest integer.
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6. Encoding: In the third step, the quantized coefficients are encoded using a lossless or
lossy compression algorithm. In lossless compression, the compressed data can be
reconstructed exactly back to the original data. In lossy compression, some
information is lost during the compression process, but the amount of compression
achieved is higher.
7. Compressed Image/Video: The final output of the transform-based coding process is
the compressed image or video, which can be stored or transmitted over a network. To
reconstruct the original image or video, the inverse transform, quantization, and
decoding processes are applied in reverse order.

15.Explain the method of edge linking using Hough transform.

=>

1. The Hough transform is a popular computer vision technique for detecting simple
shapes like lines, circles, and ellipses in an image. One common application of the
Hough transform is edge linking, which involves connecting edges in an image to
form complete contours or shapes.
2. The edge linking process using the Hough transform can be summarized as follows:
3. Perform edge detection on the input image using techniques like Canny edge
detection, Sobel edge detection, or other edge detection algorithms. This will produce
a binary image where the edges are represented by white pixels and the background is
black.
4. Apply the Hough transform on the binary image to detect lines or other shapes. The
Hough transform converts each edge pixel in the binary image into a line in parameter
space (i.e., the Hough space), where the parameters define the properties of the line,
such as its slope and intercept.
5. Use a thresholding technique to identify the most significant lines or shapes in the
Hough space. This can be done by selecting a threshold value and considering only
the lines or shapes that have a higher accumulation of votes than the threshold.
6. Perform edge linking by connecting the edges that correspond to the significant lines
or shapes identified in step 3. This can be done by tracing the edges that lie on the
detected lines or shapes, and connecting them to form complete contours or shapes.
7. Optionally, post-process the connected edges to refine the final contours or shapes.
This can involve techniques like smoothing, filtering, or morphological operations to
remove noise, fill gaps, or enhance the shape details.

16.What are different types of data redundancies found in a digital image? Explain in detail.

=>

1. Data redundancy in a digital image refers to the presence of information that is

duplicated or unnecessary, which can increase the size of the image file and affect its
processing and storage. There are several types of data redundancies that can be found
in a digital image, including:
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2. Spatial redundancy: This type of redundancy refers to the presence of adjacent pixels
in an image that have similar or identical values. Spatial redundancy is often present
in smooth or uniform areas of an image, where neighbouring pixels have similar
colors or brightness levels. Spatial redundancy can be reduced by applying techniques
like image compression, which can remove or approximate the redundant pixel
values.
3. Spectral redundancy: Spectral redundancy refers to the presence of similar or
correlated information across different color channels or spectral bands in an image.
Spectral redundancy is common in color images, where the red, green, and blue
channels may contain redundant or correlated information. Spectral redundancy can
be reduced by applying techniques like color transformation or decorrelation, which
can separate the color channels and reduce the redundancy.
4. Temporal redundancy: Temporal redundancy refers to the presence of duplicate or
similar information across different frames or time intervals in a video or sequence of
images. Temporal redundancy is often present in video data, where adjacent frames
may have similar or identical content. Temporal redundancy can be reduced by
applying techniques like video compression, which can exploit the similarities
between frames to reduce the amount of data needed to represent the video.
5. Irrelevant data: Irrelevant data refers to the presence of information in an image that is
not useful or necessary for the intended purpose of the image. Irrelevant data can
include metadata, comments, or annotations that may not be needed for the image
processing or analysis. Irrelevant data can be removed or compressed to reduce the
size of the image file and improve its processing and storage.
6. Reducing data redundancies in digital images can have several benefits, including
reducing the file size, improving the processing speed, and enhancing the image
quality.

17.Generate the Huffman code for the word ‘COMMITTEE’

18.Write a short note on region splitting.

=>

1. Region splitting is a technique used in image segmentation to divide an image into

smaller regions based on their characteristics or features.
2. The goal of region splitting is to group together pixels that share common properties,
such as color, texture, or intensity, and separate them from pixels that have different
properties.
3. Region splitting is often used as a pre-processing step for further analysis or
processing of an image, such as object recognition or tracking.
4. The region splitting algorithm starts with an initial region that covers the entire image.
The algorithm then checks the properties of the pixels within the region and
determines whether the region should be split into smaller sub-regions.
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5. The splitting criterion can be based on different factors, such as the variance of the
pixel intensities, the gradient of the image, or the texture features of the region. If the
region meets the splitting criterion, it is divided into two or more sub-regions. The
process is repeated recursively for each sub-region until no further splitting is possible
or desirable.
6. Region splitting can be an effective technique for image segmentation in situations
where the regions of interest have distinct properties or features that can be separated
from the rest of the image. However, region splitting can also lead to
over-segmentation or under-segmentation of the image, depending on the choice of
the splitting criterion and the parameters used in the algorithm.

19.Explain run length coding with suitable examples.

=>

1. Run-length coding is a lossless data compression technique used for reducing the size
of digital images or video sequences by compressing sequences of repetitive or
homogeneous data.
2. The idea behind run-length coding is to replace sequences of repeated data with a
code that specifies the data value and the number of times it occurs consecutively in
the sequence.
3. This can significantly reduce the amount of data needed to represent an image or a
video, especially in cases where the data contains long runs of identical values.
4. Here is an example of run-length coding applied to a sequence of binary data:
5. Original data: 111110000000011111111111000000
6. Run-length coded data: 5,1,6,7,6,1,6
7. In this example, the original data consists of a sequence of 0s and 1s. The run-length
coding algorithm replaces consecutive runs of the same value with a code that
specifies the value and the length of the run. The first run in the sequence is 5
consecutive 1s, so it is replaced with the code '5,1'. The next run is a single 0, so it is
replaced with the code '1,0'. The next run is 6 consecutive 0s, so it is replaced with the
code '6,0', and so on.
8. The resulting run-length coded data is a sequence of codes that represent the original
data in a more compact form. In this example, the run-length coded data contains 7
codes, whereas the original data contains 27 bits. This represents a compression ratio
of approximately 74%.

20.Explain edge detection.

=>

1. Edge detection is a fundamental operation in image processing that involves

identifying the boundaries between different regions in an image. An edge is defined
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as a region where there is a sharp change in the intensity, color or texture of the
pixels. Edge detection algorithms aim to detect these changes and identify the
boundaries between different regions in the image.
2. There are several edge detection algorithms, but one of the most commonly used is
the Canny edge detection algorithm. The Canny edge detection algorithm involves the
following steps:
3. Smoothing: The image is convolved with a Gaussian filter to reduce noise and
eliminate small details.
4. Gradient calculation: The gradient magnitude and direction are calculated for each
pixel in the smoothed image using a technique such as the Sobel operator.
5. Non-maximum suppression: The gradient magnitude is compared with the
magnitudes of its neighboring pixels in the direction of the gradient. If the magnitude
of the pixel is not the maximum among its neighbors, it is suppressed (set to zero).
6. Thresholding: Two thresholds are applied to the gradient magnitude. Pixels with
magnitudes above the high threshold are considered to be edges, while pixels with
magnitudes below the low threshold are discarded. Pixels with magnitudes between
the two thresholds are classified as edges only if they are connected to pixels above
the high threshold.
7. The result of the Canny edge detection algorithm is a binary image where the edges
are represented by white pixels and the non-edges are represented by black pixels.

21.Name different types of image segmentation techniques. Explain the splitting and merging
technique with the help of examples.

=>

1. Image segmentation is the process of dividing an image into multiple segments or

regions, each of which represents a different object or part of the image. There are
various types of image segmentation techniques, including:
2. Thresholding: This technique involves setting a threshold value and classifying each
pixel in the image as either foreground or background based on whether its intensity
value is above or below the threshold.
3. Clustering: This technique groups pixels in the image into different clusters based on
their similarity in color, texture, or other features.
4. Edge-based segmentation: This technique identifies edges in the image, which are
defined as boundaries between regions with different intensities or textures.
5. Region-based segmentation: This technique partitions the image into regions based on
the similarity of pixels within each region.
6. Splitting and merging: This technique is based on the divide-and-conquer strategy and
involves recursively dividing the image into smaller regions until each region satisfies
some criteria, and then merging adjacent regions that have similar characteristics.
7. The splitting and merging technique involves recursively dividing the image into
smaller regions until each region satisfies some criteria, such as homogeneity in color
or texture. Once the image is divided into smaller regions, adjacent regions that have
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similar characteristics are merged together to form larger regions. This process
continues until no further merging is possible.

22.Compare lossy and lossless image compression.

=>

1. There are two main types of image compression: lossy and lossless.
2. Lossless compression is a technique that reduces the size of an image file without
losing any information.
3. It achieves this by finding patterns and redundancies in the image data and encoding
them in a more efficient way. When a losslessly compressed image is decompressed,
it is exactly the same as the original image.
4. Lossless compression is often used for images that require high quality and accuracy,
such as medical images or architectural drawings.
5. Lossy compression, on the other hand, reduces the size of an image file by discarding
some of the information in the original image.
6. The amount of information that is discarded can be controlled by adjusting the
compression level. The higher the compression level, the more information is
discarded, and the smaller the file size becomes.
7. However, as more information is discarded, the visual quality of the image decreases.
Lossy compression is often used for images that do not require high levels of accuracy
or precision, such as photographs or graphics on the web.
8. lossless compression produces a smaller file size than lossy compression for the same
image quality.
9. However, lossless compression is not suitable for all types of images, as it may not be
able to compress highly complex images as efficiently as lossy compression.
10. Additionally, lossy compression can achieve much higher levels of compression than
lossless compression, but at the cost of sacrificing image quality.

23.Explain image compression scheme.

=>

1. Image compression is the process of reducing the file size of an image while
maintaining its quality and visual information.
2. There are various image compression schemes, but two of the most commonly used
ones are lossless compression and lossy compression.
3. Lossless Compression: In lossless compression, the original image can be
reconstructed perfectly from the compressed version without any loss of information.
4. This is achieved by exploiting redundancy in the image data and removing it without
losing any visual information. The most common lossless compression schemes are:
● Run-length encoding (RLE): This method compresses consecutive pixels of
the same value into a single data value and a count of the number of pixels
with that value.
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● Huffman coding: This method assigns shorter codes to frequently occurring

pixel values and longer codes to less frequent values.
● Arithmetic coding: This method assigns a probability to each pixel value and
compresses the image by encoding the probabilities.
5. Lossy Compression: In lossy compression, some information from the original image
is lost during compression, but the loss is generally not noticeable to the human eye.
6. This is achieved by removing certain high-frequency components of the image data
that are not visually important. The most common lossy compression schemes are:
● Discrete cosine transform (DCT): This method transforms the image data into the
frequency domain, where high-frequency components can be removed without
affecting the overall visual quality of the image.
● Wavelet transform: This method decomposes the image data into different frequency
bands, where the high-frequency bands can be removed to achieve compression.
● Fractal compression: This method identifies patterns in the image data and represents
them as mathematical equations, which can be compressed and stored.

24.Write down steps of Shannon-Fano coding.

=>

1. Shannon-Fano coding is a lossless data compression algorithm that works by

assigning binary codes to symbols based on their probability of occurrence in the
input data. The steps involved in Shannon-Fano coding are as follows:
2. Sort the symbols in the input data in decreasing order of probability.
3. Divide the symbols into two groups such that the total probabilities of each group are
as close to each other as possible.
4. Assign a 0 to the symbols in the first group and a 1 to the symbols in the second
group.
5. Recursively apply steps 2 and 3 to each group until each symbol is assigned a binary
code.
6. Encode the input data using the assigned binary codes.

25.How Arithmetic coding is used in image compression?

=>

1. Arithmetic coding is a lossless data compression technique that is used in image

compression to reduce the size of an image file without losing any information.The
steps involved in using arithmetic coding for image compression are as follows:
2. Analyze the image and determine the probability of each symbol or pixel value
occurring in the image.
3. Generate a cumulative probability table that shows the cumulative probability of each
symbol.
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4. Convert the image data into a single stream of symbols and map each symbol to its
corresponding probability value.
5. Compute the initial range of values based on the probability distribution of the
symbols in the input data.
6. Divide the range into sub-ranges for each symbol based on their probabilities.
7. For each symbol in the input data, adjust the range to correspond to the sub-range for
that symbol and repeat this process until the entire input stream has been processed.
8. Finally, encode the resulting range value as a binary string and output the compressed
data.

26.Explain image compression standards.

=>

1. Image compression standards are specifications that define the methods and
algorithms for compressing and decompressing digital images. These standards
provide a common framework for encoding, transmitting, and decoding digital
images, ensuring that different devices and software can communicate with each other
and that the image quality is maintained during the compression and decompression
process.
2. Here are some of the most widely used image compression standards:
3. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group): JPEG is a lossy image compression
standard that is widely used for compressing digital photographs and other complex
images. It uses a discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm to transform the image
data into a frequency domain representation, which is then quantized and encoded
using Huffman coding to reduce the amount of data required to represent the image.
JPEG is highly effective at compressing photographic images but can result in some
loss of image quality.
4. PNG (Portable Network Graphics): PNG is a lossless image compression standard
that is used for compressing images with simple graphics, such as icons and logos.
PNG uses a variant of the LZ77 algorithm to compress the image data and is capable
of compressing images with transparency and alpha channel data.
5. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format): GIF is a lossless image compression standard
that is widely used for compressing simple animated graphics, such as logos and
banners. GIF uses a variant of the LZW algorithm to compress the image data and is
capable of representing images with up to 256 colors.
6. HEVC (High-Efficiency Video Coding): HEVC is a video compression standard that
is designed to provide higher compression efficiency than previous standards such as
H.264/AVC. HEVC achieves this by using advanced techniques such as intra-frame
prediction, inter-frame prediction, and transform coding to reduce the amount of data
required to represent the video.
7. WebP: WebP is a relatively new image compression standard that was developed by
Google. WebP uses a combination of lossy and lossless compression techniques to
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achieve higher compression rates than JPEG and PNG, while maintaining high image
quality.

27.What is block processing? Explain in detail.

=>

1. Block processing is a technique used in image and video compression that divides the
image or video into smaller, fixed-size blocks or segments and processes each block
separately. Each block is typically a square or rectangular region of the image or
video, and the size of the blocks can vary depending on the application and the
compression standard being used.
2. The advantages of block processing are as follows:
3. Reduced complexity: By processing smaller blocks of data, the overall computational
complexity of the compression algorithm is reduced. This makes the compression
process faster and more efficient, especially when dealing with large images or
videos.
4. Better compression: By processing each block separately, the compression algorithm
can adapt to the local characteristics of the image or video, such as edges or texture,
resulting in better compression quality.
5. Error resilience: Block processing provides a level of error resilience, as errors in one
block do not affect the decoding of other blocks. This makes block processing a
useful technique for transmitting compressed images or videos over unreliable
networks.

28.Explain various JPEG modes.

=>

1. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a widely used image compression

standard that provides several different modes for encoding and decoding images.
Each mode is designed to optimize the compression and quality of different types of
images, depending on their characteristics and the intended use.
2. Here are some of the most common JPEG modes:
3. Baseline JPEG: Baseline JPEG is the simplest and most widely used JPEG mode. It
uses a standard encoding process that is optimized for compressing photographic
images with high levels of detail and color complexity. Baseline JPEG supports
progressive encoding, which allows the image to be gradually loaded and displayed as
it is downloaded over the internet.
4. Progressive JPEG: Progressive JPEG is an extension of the baseline JPEG mode that
provides a more efficient way of encoding images for internet delivery. Progressive
JPEG encodes the image in multiple passes, with each pass providing a higher level of
detail. This allows the image to be displayed at low resolution while it is being
downloaded, with the resolution gradually improving as more data is received.
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5. Lossless JPEG: Lossless JPEG is a mode that allows images to be compressed

without any loss of quality. This is achieved by using a predictive encoding technique
that stores the differences between adjacent pixels, rather than the pixel values
themselves. Lossless JPEG is primarily used for archiving and other applications
where image quality is of utmost importance.
6. JPEG 2000: JPEG 2000 is a newer image compression standard that offers several
improvements over the original JPEG mode. JPEG 2000 uses a wavelet transform
algorithm to encode the image data, which provides better compression efficiency and
image quality than the DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) algorithm used in baseline
JPEG. JPEG 2000 also supports lossless compression, progressive encoding, and the
ability to encode images with transparency.
7. JPEG-LS: JPEG-LS is a mode that uses a different compression algorithm based on
the LOCO-I (LOw COmplexity LOssless COmpression for Images) method.
JPEG-LS provides higher compression efficiency than baseline JPEG for images with
low to moderate levels of complexity, such as medical images and satellite imagery.

29.What is content-based image retrieval?

=>

1. Content-based image retrieval (CBIR) is a technique for searching and retrieving

digital images from a database based on their visual content, such as color, texture,
shape, and other image features. In CBIR, the search is based on the visual similarity
between the query image and the images in the database, rather than on textual
metadata such as keywords or captions.
2. CBIR systems typically involve three main stages: feature extraction, feature
representation, and similarity matching. In the feature extraction stage, image features
such as color, texture, and shape are extracted from the images using various
algorithms and techniques. In the feature representation stage, the extracted features
are transformed into a compact and efficient representation, such as a feature vector or
a histogram. Finally, in the similarity matching stage, the query image is compared
with the images in the database using various similarity measures, such as Euclidean
distance or cosine similarity.
3. CBIR has many applications in fields such as art, medicine, and security. For
example, CBIR can be used to retrieve similar images for a given painting or artwork,
to identify and diagnose medical conditions based on medical images, or to search for
suspicious images or videos in forensic investigations.
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30.What is an ‘edge’ in an image? On what mathematical operation are the two basic
approaches for edge detection based on?

=>

1. In digital image processing, an edge is a boundary or a transition region between two

regions of an image that have different characteristics, such as brightness, color,
texture, or contrast. Edges can be characterized by a sudden change in intensity or
color, and are often used as a fundamental feature for image analysis and computer
vision applications.
2. The two basic approaches for edge detection are based on mathematical operations
that seek to identify the areas of an image where there is a sudden change in intensity
or color. These approaches are:
3. Gradient-based edge detection: This approach involves computing the gradient of the
image, which is a vector that points in the direction of the maximum change in
intensity at each pixel. The magnitude of the gradient represents the strength of the
edge, and can be used to locate the edges in the image. Common gradient-based edge
detection operators include the Sobel, Prewitt, and Roberts operators.
4. Laplacian-based edge detection: This approach involves computing the Laplacian of
the image, which is a measure of the second derivative of the image intensity. The
Laplacian highlights regions of the image where the intensity changes rapidly, and can
be used to locate the edges in the image. Common Laplacian-based edge detection
operators include the Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG) and the Difference of Gaussian
(DoG) operators.\

31.Give the following kernel (i)Sobel (ii)Prewitt (iii) Robert

=> The following are the kernel matrices for (i) Sobel, (ii) Prewitt, and (iii) Roberts edge
detection operators:

(i) Sobel:

|-1 0 1| |-1 -2 -1|

Gx=| -2 0 2|, Gy= | 0 0 0|,

|-1 0 1| | 1 2 1|

(ii) Prewitt:

|-1 0 1| |-1 -1 -1|

Gx=| -1 0 1|, Gy= | 0 0 0|,

|-1 0 1| | 1 1 1|
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(iii) Roberts:

| 1 0| |-1 0|

Gx=| 0 -1|, Gy= | 0 1|

32.Explain Frei-Chen Edge Detector and give the nine masks.

=>
1. Frei-Chen edge detection is an edge detection algorithm that uses a set of nine masks
to compute the gradient magnitude and direction at each pixel in an image.
2. The algorithm is based on the Sobel operator but uses a different set of masks that are
designed to be more isotropic, which means that they are less sensitive to the
orientation of the edges in the image.

The nine masks used in the Frei-Chen edge detector are as follows:

| 1 sqrt(2) 1 | | -1 0 1 | | -1 -sqrt(2) -1 |

Gx= | 0 0 0 |, Gy= | -sqrt(2) 0 sqrt(2) |, Gz= | 1 sqrt(2) 1 |

|-1 -sqrt(2) -1 | | 1 0 -1 | | 1 sqrt(2) 1 |

3. To compute the gradient magnitude and direction at each pixel, the following steps are
performed:
4. Convolve the image with each of the three masks Gx, Gy, and Gz to obtain three
gradient images.
5. Compute the magnitude of the gradient at each pixel using the formula: magnitude =
sqrt(Gx^2 + Gy^2 + Gz^2)
6. Compute the direction of the gradient at each pixel using the formula: direction =
atan2(Gy, Gx)
7. Note that the direction is measured in radians and ranges from -pi to pi.
8. Threshold the magnitude image to obtain a binary edge map, where values above a
certain threshold are considered edges and values below the threshold are considered
non-edges.
9. The Frei-Chen edge detector is a powerful edge detection algorithm that can detect
edges with high accuracy and low sensitivity to the orientation of the edges. However,
it is computationally intensive due to the use of multiple masks, and the thresholding
step can be sensitive to noise in the image.
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33.Write a short note on Laplacian of Gaussian (LOG).

=>

1. The Laplacian of Gaussian (LOG) is an edge detection algorithm that combines the
Laplacian operator with Gaussian smoothing. It is a popular method for detecting
edges in images, especially in cases where the edges are blurred or noisy.
2. The Laplacian operator is a second-order derivative filter that measures the rate of
change of the gradient of an image. The Gaussian smoothing filter is used to reduce
noise and to blur the image slightly to ensure that the edges are not too thin.
3. The LOG operator is defined as the Laplacian of a Gaussian function, which is
computed by convolving the image with a Gaussian filter followed by the Laplacian
operator.
4. The Laplacian operator can be implemented using a discrete filter, and the size of the
filter determines the scale at which edges are detected.
5. The key advantage of the LOG operator is that it is a scale-space method, which
means that it can detect edges at different scales by varying the size of the Gaussian
filter.
6. This makes it useful for detecting edges that are not well defined or that are present at
multiple scales in the image. However, it is computationally expensive and can
produce spurious edges if the parameters are not chosen carefully.

34.Explain the term Difference of Gaussians Filter (DoG)

=>

1. The Difference of Gaussians (DoG) filter is an edge detection algorithm that

combines the difference of two Gaussian filters to enhance edges and suppress noise
in an image. It is a type of band-pass filter that accentuates image features at different
scales.
2. The DoG filter works by first applying a Gaussian filter to the image to smooth out
the noise and details. The size of the Gaussian filter determines the scale at which
details are preserved. Next, another Gaussian filter with a larger scale is applied to the
image. The difference between the two filtered images results in an image that
highlights the edges and texture details.
3. The DoG filter is similar to the Laplacian of Gaussian (LOG) filter in that they are
both scale-space methods for edge detection. However, the DoG filter is more
computationally efficient than the LOG filter, as it uses only two Gaussian filters
instead of a Gaussian filter followed by a Laplacian filter.
4. One important application of the DoG filter is in the field of computer vision and
image processing, where it is used for feature extraction and object recognition.
5. For example, the DoG filter can be used to detect the key points in an image that are
invariant to scale and orientation, which are useful for matching and tracking objects
across multiple images.