Ministry of Education

Mawoud Academy
English Department
Diploma project

Parts of Speech

Teacher: Rohullah Bakhteyari

Arranged By: Khadija Jawed
Contents

Acknowledgement
Abstract
Preface
Parts of speech
Noun
Pronoun
Adjective
Verb
Adverb
Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection
References
Acknowledgment

I want to say a big thank you to everyone who helped me with this monograph
about different types of words and how we use them!
A special thank you goes to my teacher, Mrs. Rohullah Bakhteyari, who taught me
so much and helped me understand all about parts of speech. Thank you for being
patient and kind!
I also want to thank my friends for listening to me talk about grammar all the time
and for giving me good ideas for this book.
To my family, thank you for supporting me and letting me work on this project.
Your help and encouragement meant a lot to me.
Lastly, thank you to all the people who talked to me about words and how they
use them. Your stories and examples made this monograph more interesting.
Abstract

This monograph is all about the different kinds of words we use every day and
how we can understand them better. Imagine if words were like puzzle pieces,
each fitting into a sentence just right. That's what we explore in this monograph!
From the exciting action of verbs to the colorful descriptions of adjectives, we
discover how words help us express ourselves. We learn how nouns name people,
places, and things, and how pronouns take the place of nouns to make our
sentences flow smoothly.
Join us on a journey through the world of words, where we unravel the mystery of
parts of speech and learn how they work together to create meaning. By the end
of this monograph, you'll see language in a whole new light and be able to use
words like a pro.
Preface

Welcome to this book about the building blocks of language—parts of speech!

Have you ever wondered how words come together to form sentences that make
sense? Well, that's exactly what we're going to explore together in these pages.
Think of parts of speech as the different roles that words play in sentences. Just
like players on a team, each part has its own job to do to make communication
work smoothly. Understanding these parts will help you become a language
expert in no time!
In this book, we take a closer look at nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. We'll see how each word type adds
its own flavor to our sentences, making them interesting and meaningful.
So, get ready to dive into the wonderful world of words and discover how they
come together to create the stories we tell every day. By the end of this book,
you'll be able to spot these parts of speech in action all around you!
Enjoy the journey!
Parts of speech
Definition:
In the English language, every word is called a part of speech. The role a word
plays in a sentence denotes what part of speech it belongs to.
Types of Parts of Speech
1. Nouns
2. Pronouns
3. Verbs
4. Adverbs
5. Adjective
6. Prepositions
7. Conjunctions
8. Interjections

Nouns:
A noun is the title given to a person, a place, a thing, an animal, and/ or idea.
Overall, nouns are used to name people, places, animals, things, thoughts, etc.
*Note: In general, nouns can be animate (living beings) and inanimate (nonliving
beings). Animate nouns are those which are capable of breathing, growing,
walking, eating, drinking, talking, laughing, etc. On the contrary, inanimate nouns
are those which are not capable of breathing, growing, walking, eating, drinking,
talking, laughing.
To learn enough about nouns, I have classified it into four different classes as
below:
1. Kinds of noun
2. Roles/cases of noun
3. Genders of noun
4. Numbers/forms of noun
Kinds of noun
Generally, there are two types of noun known in English. They are: proper nouns
and common nouns. We will deal with each one in detail.
Proper noun
Proper nouns are the specific names of people, places, things, animals and
languages. In general, all proper nouns refer to names of:
Public buildings: i.e. the Library of congress, Yale University, the fire Department…
Political parties/Members: i.e. the Democrats, the Labor Party, the Republicans…
Commercial products: i.e. Chevrolet, Corolla, Land Cruiser, Camry, Mercedes…
Universities: i.e. AUAF, Harvard University, Oxford University, Kabul University…
Institutes: i.e. Computer Engineering Institutes, ICT Institutes, Experts Institutes…
Deserts: i.e. Sahara Desert, Dry Desert, Wild Desert, Abe Desert, Lailee Desert...
Countries: i.e. Afghanistan, South Korea, China, Uzbekistan, Iraq, India…
Religious concepts: i.e. Islam, God, Allah, Buddhism, Heaven, Christianity…
Provinces/cities: i.e. Kabul, New York, Paris, Nangarhar, Mazar, Bamyan…
Languages/ Nationalities: i.e. English, Chinese, Japanese, Greek, Russian, Korean…
Special occasions: i.e. Ramadan, New Year, Eid, Christmas, Black Friday…
Schools: i.e. Indian Medium School, London School, Habibia High School…
Villages: i.e. Haidarkhani, Chahardehi, Dashti-Barchi, Karte Chahar…
Companies: i.e. Microsoft Corporation, Cable News Network, BBC, VOA…
Months: i.e. July, September, October, December, November, August…
Mountains: i.e. the Himalayas, Shamshad Mountain, Baba Mountain…
Books: i.e. Holy Qur’an, Bible, Torah, Professional English Grammar…
Days: i.e. Saturday, Sunday, Friday, Tuesday, Monday, Wednesday…
Days: i.e. Saturday, Sunday, Friday, Tuesday, Monday, Wednesday…
Districts: i.e. Paghman, Bagrami, Jaghatoo, Dawlatshah…
Oceans: i.e. Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Ocean, Black Ocean…
Rivers: i.e. Kunar River, Aamu River, Kabul River, Nile River…
People: i.e. Khadija, Hamza, Zahra, Jamila, Shafiqa, Nargis, Arshia, Masih…

2.. Common noun:

Common nouns are the general names used to refer to people, places and things.
Common nouns start with a capital letter only if they are used at the beginning of
the sentence. Common nouns can easily be marked with determinatives.
Types of common noun
1. Concrete common noun
2. Abstract common noun
3. Compound common noun
4. Collective common noun
5. Material common noun
1.. Concrete common noun: A noun that can be seen and touched because it has
physical and tangible existence is called concrete common noun. They are also
called tangible or touchable noun. These nouns are things, places, animals and
even people i.e. bag, ground, cat, child. Concrete nouns can be either countable
or uncountable.
2.. Abstract common noun: A noun that can not be seen or touched is called
abstract noun. Abstract nouns, too, can be both countable and uncountable. They
are also called intangible or untouchable nouns i.e. knowledge, kindness, honesty,
education, work.
3.. Compound common noun: All compound nouns are made up of more than
one word. Some compound nouns can be proper nouns, too i.e. shortcut,
armchair, apple juice, dining room, check-in, break-in.
4.. Collective common noun/Group noun: A collective noun is a noun that looks
singular, but gives a plural concept from within. It contains a group of members
inside and is also called container noun. These nouns may accept both singular
and plural verbs with them i.e. class, family, army, band, team, staff, community.
5.. Material common noun: A noun which has the role of material, or nouns
referring to things from which other things are made, or the substances from
which other things are made are called material nouns i.e. cement, gold, copper,
iron, sand, cloth, paper, plastic.

Cases of noun
the title “cases of noun” means what role a noun plays in a sentence. There are
different cases of nouns in a sentence. They are as below:
* Subjective or nominative case of noun
When a noun is used as subject of the sentence, it is called subjective case of
noun. It can be either at the beginning, in the middle or at end of the sentence.
E.g. 1. I think Ali will not help us anymore.
2. My dad cannot send me any money.
3. Teachers always get us to learn better.
4. Where should Sana buy a grammar book?
* Direct object or accusative case of noun
When a noun is used after a lexical (main) verb or as the receiver, it is called direct
abject case of noun. The lexical verbs are underlined below.
E.g. 1. They have to see those boys.
2. He didn’t watch this film last night.
3. Will she ever send the money?
4. I need to visit my friends for help.
* Indirect object case of noun
When a noun receives the action indirectly or is indirectly affected by the verb, it
is called indirect object case of noun. The direct objects are underlined.
E.g. 1. Please tell Ali a good joke new.
2. We made those children two cakes.
3. We sent Sana a gift for her birthday.
4. Have you sent the teacher an email?
* Subject complement case of noun
When a noun is used after a linking verb, it is called subject complement case of
noun.
E.g. 1. They are doctors in this hospital.
2. She looks a chairwoman in this uniform.
3. I want to become a hacker.
4. We will be the leaders of the country.
* Object complement case of noun
When a noun is used after the direct object, it is called object complement case of
noun. Object complements must have a direct connection with their objects.
E.g. 1. Did you find her a good girl?
2. I have made them teachers.
3. Sana found him a punctual worker.
4. She can made me a perfect leader.
*Oblique or dative case of noun
When a noun is used after a preposition, it is called oblique or object of
preposition case of noun.
E.g. 1. This award is for Asiya, the Queen.
 2. Have you been to Africa recently?
3. They never live in a jungle.
4. Has she come by a boat or a car?
* Vocative case of noun
When a noun is called upon (when we call on someone’s name) either before our
sentence or after it, it is called vocative case of noun. It means when we call
somebody by mentioning their name, this is called vocative case of noun. There
should always be a comma between the name and the sentence we say.
E.g. 1. Please watch out, Adeeb.
2. Seyar, please bring me some water.
3. Take your bills, Yasir.
4. Sameer, do not talk here anymore.
* Genitive or possessive case of noun
When a noun like possessive adjectives/determinatives/pronouns take (‘/ ‘s) to
show possession or relationship, it is called possessive case of the noun. The noun
can be a person, place and time. In this case, they function as determiners and/or
modifiers, not nouns.
E.g. 1. Did you tell him your father’s name?
2. Those are men’s clothes, not women’s.
3. Sunday’s concert was cancelled.
4. London’s museum will be inaugurated.
* Appositive case of noun
When a noun is directly coming after another noun in order to give more details
about the first noun, it is called appositive case. These two nouns are said to be in
apposition to each other.
E.g. 1. The Qur’an, the book of true faith, is immortal and everlasting.
2. Firdous, my best teacher, is really generous and reverent.
 3. Ali, my friend from Kabul, is here to work for his family.

Genders of noun
Gender is not an essential grammatical category in English, but it is an interesting
and controversial topic. All nouns (even pronouns) may have four gender:
1. Masculine gender
2. Feminine gender
3. Personal gender
4. Neuter gender

Masculine gender refers to males.

[father, brother, husband, son, manager, boy, king, brother-in-law, etc.]
Feminine gender refers to females.
[mother, sister, wife, daughter, manageress, girl, queen, sister-in-law, etc.]
Personal gender refers to either males or females.
[teacher, guider, shopkeeper, driver, guest, student, etc.]
Neuter gender refers to the inanimate-things or places.
[pen, computer, marker, board, television, wall, class, book, etc.]

Note: Some non-living nouns can be personified than can be referred to as either
male or female. For instance, sun, summer, winter, death, and time are referred
to as male because they are remarkable for strength and violence.
However, moon, earth, ship, spring, autumn, charity, hope, peace, nature, liberty,
justice, and mercy are referred to as female because they are remarkable for
beauty, gentleness, and grace.
Numbers of noun
Nouns can be regular i.e. book, watches, and irregular i.e. children, men when
changed into plural. In the case of number, there are rules for both regular and
irregular nouns as below:

Pluralizing nouns
1. Generally, nouns take [s] in plural forms: books, markers, computers, ideas,
notebooks, etc.
2. Nouns ending in [s, ss, sh, ch, x, z] take [es]: watches, dishes, buzzes, boxes,
gases, classes, Xeroxes, whizzes, etc.
3. If nouns end in [ch] sounding [k], we use only [s] to pluralize them:
monarchs, epochs, matriarchs, oligarchs, stomach, etc.
4. When nouns end in [y] having a consonant in front of them, we change [y]
into [i] and then add [es] to them: babies, spies, crazies, skies, buddies,
lovelies, etc.
5. Irregular nouns change their whole shape: man-men, ox-oxen, mouse-mice,
louse-lice, goose-geese, foot-feet, brother-brethren, woman-women, child-
children, etc.
6. Nouns ending in [o] (having a consonant before [o]) take [es]: echoes,
heroes, potatoes, tomatoes, buffaloes, negroes, mangoes, cargoes, etc.
7. However, there are some nouns ending in [o] (having a consonant before
[o]) take only [s]: photos, autos, kilos, pianos, memos, solos, cantos,
dynamos, logos, commandos, etc.
8. Nouns ending in [o] (having a vowel before [o]) take only [s]: bamboos,
cuckoos, folios, tattoos, videos, zoos, radios, studios, stereos, ratios, etc.
9. Some nouns ending in [o] take both [es] and [s]; they are exceptions:
mosquitos/mosquitoes, tornadoes/tornados, zeroes/zeros,
volcanoes/volcanos, etc.
10. Nouns ending in [f] or [fe] take [ves]: wife-wives, life-lives, wolf-wolves,
knife-knives, scarf-scarves, calf-calves, loaf-loaves, shelf-shelves, sheof-
sheaves, elf-elves, half-halves, etc.
 11.However, some nouns ending in [f] take only [s]: scarfs, beliefs, cliffs, chiefs,
roofs, gulfs, safes, handkerchiefs, etc.
12.Some nouns ending in [f] can take both [es] and [s]: hoofs/hooves,
scarfs/scarves, wharfs/wharves, dwarfs/dwarves, etc.
13.Some nouns are same in singular and plural forms (called zero plurals):
swine, aircraft, deer, cod, trout, spacecraft, gross, fish, means, series,
sheep, species, offspring. However, aircraft and fish can take [s]; in this
case, we are talking about different types of them. Note that the word
means can be referred to as plural when it refers to wealth. If it refers to
goal, it is both singular and plural.
What are zero plurals?
These plural forms usually do not change from singular shapes to plural shapes by
taking (s/es), because they already have both singular and plural forms in
themselves, and so they can be used with singular and plural concords. They are:
species, series, dice, aircraft, hundred, thousand, foot, dozen, mile, fish, sheep,
salmon and deer.
e.g.
One species of these beasts was found.
Two species of these beasts were found.
Every fish is kept in this glass room.
Many fish are kept in this room.
One dozen does not suffice now.
Two dozen do not suffice now.
14.Hyphenated nouns are pluralized differently: fathers-in-law, passers-by,
men-of-war, lookers-in-on, maid-servants, pickpockets, etc.
15.Some nouns are themselves ending in [s] which should always be as they
are, and they take singular form of the verb: physics, maths, shingles,
measles, sears, United States, United Nations, etc.
16.Nouns with two parts (bipartites) are always plural: scissors, pants jeans,
tweezers, sleeves, pincers, spectacles, pajamas, shorts, tights, breeches,
drawers, trousers, chattels, etc.
17.To pluralize letters and numbers, we use either [‘s] or only [s] at the end of
them. In this case, the use of [‘s] is more natural and preferred, as in:
Bs/B’s, 3s/3’s, Cs/C’s.
18.Some nouns borrowed from other languages are pluralized in special ways.
Below I have provided you with rather a long list of such nouns.

Pronoun
A word or phrase which replaces a noun to prevent the repetition of the same
nouns in a sentence is called pronoun. A pronoun may not always replace a
noun—a times we may come across both the noun and its pronoun together in
one sentence. In this case, we should define pronoun as: a pronoun either
replaces the noun or refers to it. In the case of referring, it is called referential
pronoun.
e.g.
Two boys are here and others are there.
One should always take care of oneself.
Someone has stolen my wallet.
Did he do it by himself or he was helped?

Kinds of pronoun
Dealing with the English language, we will see different types of pronoun as
below:
Personal pronouns indefinite pronouns
Interrogative pronouns Distributive pronouns
 Reciprocal pronouns Reflexive pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns Relative pronouns

1. Personal pronouns
They are used instead of the name of a person, a place, a thin and an animal. They
are called personal pronouns because grammatical distinction of person applies
to them like first person, second person and third person. Only these pronouns
have reflexive forms as their reflexive partners. Person is a grammatical category
to identify the speaker, addressee and the person or thing which is neither the
speaker, nor the addressee. Personal pronouns have different forms according to
number (singular, plural), person (first person, second person, third person), case
(nominative, accusative, possessive), and gender (masculine, feminine).

Personal pronouns are: subject pronouns [ he, she, it, I, we, you, they]; object
pronouns [him, her, it, me, us, you, them], and possessive pronouns [ his, her, its,
mine, ours, yours, theirs].
e.g.
Can you sometimes help us?
I had killed the snake when they came.
They will not spare her like this.
She doesn’t want to see him again.

Note: Object pronouns can be pre modified in special types of verbless sentence
as below:
Lucky you! Poor me!
Unlucky her! Happy him!
Note: Subject pronouns can be used as appositive to a noun in the sentences as
below:
Will you boys come to my party? We people never fight with them.
You guys should not stay here. Can we Afghans live there now?

Note: Possessive pronouns are also called proprietorial pronouns. They should
always be used after the nouns being referred to are used; the noun can even be
deleted.
Let’s regain the position of hers. These rooms look theirs?
A friend of mine is sick today. You are mine and I am yours.
Her phone is new, but his is old. His ideas look good, but ours don’t.

Note: we can use [‘s] with [mine] as [mine’s] to show double possessions, which is
rare in written form, but used in spoken English.
A friend of mine’s mother is ill today. [one of my friends’ mother]
Let’s see a brother of mine’s car. [one of my brother’s car]

2. Demonstrative pronouns

These pronouns are used to point out the nouns. We use them to demonstrate
something either in front of us, or make someone remember something clear to
both sides. Demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those, each of which
must be followed by an auxiliary verb of any type. Such is also referred to as a
demonstrative pronoun, but it is not very common.
e.g.
These should be the new participants. Are these my books, Ali?
Are those our guests or not? That can be very risky to us.
That was my car and this is yours. That cannot be a good idea.
This is not your idea, I believe. Such is a nice machine, I assume.

3. Relative pronouns

These pronouns are used to link the adjective clause with its antecedent. A
relative pronoun is just like a bridge between the modified-word and the
modifier. This concept is seen only in relative clauses or adjective clauses.
Relative pronouns are: who, whom, which, that.
e.g.
I saw the man whom you teach. He is the boy who stole my wallet.
You can take the marker which you like. Did he like the car that we saw?

4. Interrogative pronouns
These pronouns are used to ask questions. They are the wh-words: who, whom,
whose, which and what. They must be followed by an auxiliary verb in this case.
e.g.
Who was that man over there? Whom must I see tomorrow, ha?
What should we do now, sir? Which is a good book of grammar?
Which was better for us to buy? For whom should this be
prepared?

Note: Using prepositions before a wh-word makes the question very formal. Look
at the formal and their ordinary counterparts as below:
e.g. Formal Ordinary
By whom has this room been painted? Who has this room been painted by?
With whom is Sana going to school? Who is Sana going to school with?
To whom should I submit this file? Who should I submit this file to?
By what did you go to university? What did you go the university by?
From where have you come? Where have you come from?
About what is he talking? What is he talking about?

5. Distributive pronouns

These pronouns are used to create a division in the nouns. We use them to
distribute the nouns into parts and segments. Distributive pronouns are: none,
each, either, neither, other, the others. We use an auxiliary verb with them, or
they should be used alone.
e.g.
There are two pens and I like each. There is none to misguide me.
I have two ideas; indeed, either can work. Neither among these two will talk.
You go; others will be here with me.

6. Reciprocal pronouns

These pronouns are used to show mutual relationships between two sides. They
show the relations in apposition to one another. Reciprocal pronouns are: each
other, one another.
e.g. we have to respect one another.
Ali and I would love to support each other.
They love each other very much.
Students always give one another a hand.
Note: we usually use each other with two things/persons/places, and one
another with two or more than two entities; however, they are, at times,
interchangeable. Likewise, in the two examples below, both each and every are
determinatives/adjectives; [each] is pointing at one member at a time; however,
[every] which is only a determinative/adjective, not a pronoun, points at all
members together.

Every teacher is present today. [all the teachers are present.]

Each teacher is present today. [Ali is present; Sana is present, etc.]

7. Indefinite pronouns
These pronouns are divided into three main classes: the compound pronouns
(someone, anything, nothing, etc.), one/ones, and the quantifiers/numerals
(some, all, any, each, some of, all of, both, either, either of, none of, none, each
of, etc.). Note that quantifiers/numerals must either have (of) or be followed by a
verb, not a noun; if a noun is used after them (i.e. each book, neither plan, little
money, etc.), they are determiners.

a. The compound indefinite pronouns

Compound pronouns talk about unknown people, place, things and/or animals.
These pronouns will tell us whether they substitute for a person (giving
personal/reference), or a thing (giving neuter reference); however, they will never
tell us whom and what we are talking about. These pronouns are divided into four
categories of some, any, no, and every.
Someone anyone no-one everyone
Somebody anybody nobody everybody
Something anything nothing everything
e.g.
Someone called and asked for something.
Did you find anyone lazy here or not?
We had to finally select somebody.
Have you said anything to her recently?
Did anyone say anything to anyone there?
No one sent anything to anyone, I guess.
Nothing stops us from going forward.

We usually use the category some in positive structures; any in negative and
question structures; no in positive structures with negative meanings; and every
in any type of structures. However, there are some exceptions i.e. Would you like
something? You can select anyone here. Likewise, (-body) is usually used in
spoken English, but (-one) is mostly used in written English.

Compound indefinite pronouns can be used as subject, direct object, indirect

object, object of preposition, and complement. Note that something can be used
in every case.
e.g.
Somebody called me yesterday. [subject]
I will tell you something very soon. [direct object]
We will give everyone a prize. [indirect object]
Did you complain about anything? [object of prep/oblique]
There will be something good. [complement]

Using the category some in a negative sentence differs from that of category any.
e.g.
Is there anyone inside? [The speaker has no idea about the person’s existence.]
Is there someone inside? [The speaker thinks there is someone inside.]
b. The pronoun (one)
In addition to its use as a numeral determiner, one has two uses as an indefinite
pronoun-as a substitute (one/ones), and as a generic (one, one’s, oneself).
e.g.
this must be a signal of showing one’s talent to others. [generic]
In case you don’t like this car, you can take that one. [substitute]
I have many good friends, but these ones are great. [substitute]
One has to tale care of oneself in tough situations. [generic]
I assume one book will do for two months to read. [determiner]

The substitutes (one and ones) can optionally be omitted in the following cases:
1. When we have the superlative degree of adjectives;
2. When we have demonstrative adjectives (determinatives);
3. When we have distributive adjectives (determinatives);
4. When we have numeral adjectives (determinatives);
5. And when we have the interrogative [which].
e.g.
I have several books, but this is the best. [best one]
If not these PCs, we have to use those. [those ones]
They are my students and I value each. [each one]
I got the second line, but you got the first. [first one]
If this is not fine, which should be bought? [which one]
On the other hand, there are some cases wherein we cannot omit one and ones.
For instance, with adjectives, the, every, comparatives, the only, etc. we need to
use them.
e.g.
My idea was good, but yours was a bad one.
I like to see every one of these books soon.
The one who deceives people is very dishonest.
That room is small, so I want a bigger one.
This plan is the only one in this project.
Ali is the only one who can do this job.

8. Reflexive pronouns

These pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence, or sometimes they are
used when the doer and the receiver refer to the same person. We can form
reflexive pronouns with suffixes like [self] for singular, and [selves] for plural
reflexive pronouns. Reflexive pronouns are: myself, themselves, itself, yourself
yourselves, ourselves, himself, and herself. We should use reflexive pronouns
based on its counterpart subject; however, there are some exceptions for this
concept.

Subjects Reflexive Forms

I myself
You (pointing at one person) yourself
You (pointing at more than one person ) yourselves
We ourselves
He, Ali, the teacher, etc. himself
She, Sana, the doctor, etc. herself
They, Ali and Sana, the students, etc. themselves
It, the cat, my car, etc. itself

Two uses of reflexive pronouns: basic use and emphatic use.

a. Basic use of reflexive pronoun
In the basic use, we put the reflexive pronoun after the lexical verb.
e.g.
they like themselves more than we do.
Mursal changed herself after I scolded her.
We have to arrange ourselves sooner.
They cannot help themselves now, I guess.
No one will deceive themselves anymore.
A baby can’t save itself in this era.
Everyone is required to like themselves.

Note: When we use by + reflexive pronoun, we mean to say that the action is
done alone by the subject and no-one else.
Can you finish the food by yourself?
They have escaped by themselves.
Hamza cannot buy a flat by himself.
She always likes to line by herself.
 b. Emphatic use of reflexive pronouns
When a reflexive pronoun is used before the verb or after the subject, it is called
emphatic use of reflexive pronoun, in this case, we call them intensive or
emphatic pronouns, too.
e.g.
I myself saw him going there.
She herself called me to help her.
He himself is wasting his time.
Themselves they warred with us.

Adjective
An adjective is a word, a phrase or a clause that modifies or gives information
about a noun, pronoun, noun phrase and/or a verbal noun. The words/phrases
modified are underlined.
e.g.
I study a very important language. [adjective as a phrase]
The man who loves my habits loves me. [adjective as a clause]
She was an honest girl, indeed. [adjective as a word]

Classification of adjectives
To better understand about adjectives, I have classified the topic into six classes
as below.
Cases of adjectives Formation of adjectives
Kinds of adjectives Characteristics of adjectives
Degrees of adjectives Order of adjectives
Cases of adjectives
This means where and with what type of a role an adjective is used in the
sentence. It may be used before or after the noun or pronoun. We have three
cases of adjectives: attributive case, predicative case, and postpositive case.

A. Attributive case of adjectives

In this case, the adjective is followed by a noun or pronoun. It means first comes
the adjective, and then comes the noun or pronoun, as: adjective +
noun/pronoun.
e.g.
Intelligent people always shine. I met some unhappy participants here.
They own an amazing plan for the picnic. Did you see that handsome guy?

In the examples above, all the adjectives—intelligent, amazing, unhappy, and

handsome premodify the nouns people, plan, participants, and guy in order. We,
therefore, say that all the adjectives are used attributively.

B. Predicative case of adjectives

In this case, the adjective follows its noun or pronoun. It means first comes the
noun or pronoun, and then comes the adjective, as: noun/pronoun + verb +
adjective.
e.g. Afghanistan is very beautiful, right?
These students feel rather sad today.
You have got to be smart from now on.
We are not as angry as you think.
In the examples above, all the adjectives—beautiful, smart, sad and angry
postmodify the nouns/pronouns Afghanistan, you, these students, and we in
order. We, therefore, say that all the adjectives are used predicatively.

C. Postpositive case of adjectives

In this case, the adjective comes directly after the subject/object (noun or
pronoun) to modify it. This case of adjective is less used but natural.
e.g.
Those present failed to know this lecture.
Nobody honest lives here nowadays.
We have found him very pleased.
Guys, let’s take something cold.
There was something good to do.
I well make everything possible.
You made me distracted that day!

Formation of adjectives
Adjectives can be formed from different other word classes, such as nouns, verbs
and other adjectives using affixes.
1. Adjectives formed from nouns
Play-playful fool-foolish trouble-troublesome
Courage-courageous laugh-laughable music-musical
People-popular crime-criminal miser-miserly
Thought-thoughtful mischief-mischievous harm-harmful
Boy-boyish shame-shameless hope-hopeful
 2. Adjectives formed from verbs
Bore-boring move-moveable tire-tireless
Edit-editorial adore-adorable forget-forgetful
Solicit-solicitous infer-inferential enjoy-enjoyable
Talk-talkative cease-ceaseless deceive-deceptive
Study-studies elude-elusive combat-combative
Construct-constructive instruct-instructive dispense-dispensed

3. Adjectives formed from other adjectives

Black-blackish white-whitish whole-wholesome
Canonic-canonical pessimist-pessimistic three-threefold
Red-reddish yellow-yellowish green-greenish
Magic-magical economic-economical conic-conical

Kinds of adjective
Quality adjective quantity adjective demonstrative adjective
Relative adjective distributive adjective interrogative adjective
Restrictive adjective phrasal adjective perfective adjective
Proper adjective possessive adjective numerical adjective
Denominal adjective intensifying adjective nominal adjective
Emphatic adjective exclamatory adjective verbal adjective
 1. Quality adjectives
These adjectives talk about the qualities and features of the noun or pronoun.
They describe the nouns by the features, as shape, opinion, color, size, talent, etc.
e.g.
She is a cute girl, indeed. He was very intelligent, right?
I lone those white cars. There were a few nice places.
Sana is a great teacher. Are you tall or short, Asma?

2. Quantity adjectives

These adjectives talk about the quantity of uncountable nouns. They answer the
question how much. There are two types of quantity adjectives as below.
a. Definite quantity adjectives
They show a specific quantity of uncountable nouns.
e.g. I have two bundles of paper. He brought a piece of bread.
We should drink one liter of water. You can send me a pocket of rice.
b. Indefinite quantity adjectives
They show an unspecific quantity of uncountable nouns.
e.g. We need a lot of milk for this party. Do you have any money, sir?
Some of the flour was wasted. He earned a great deal of cash.

3. Numeral (numerical) adjectives

These adjectives talk about the number of countable nouns. They answer the
question how many. They are of two types as below.
 a. Definite numeral adjectives
They show a specific number of countable nouns. There are three types of them.

Ordinals: first, second, third, tenth, thirtieth, fortieth, hundredth….

Cardinals: 1,2,3,4,5,10,20,30,40,50,60,100,1000…..
Multiplicatives: single, double, triple, threefold, multiple, etc.
e.g.
I teach eight classes in a day. I will get the first position this time.
The fourth person is lazy. This sentence gives double meanings.
Bring me every single book. We celebrated the hundredth anniversary.

b. Indefinite numeral adjectives

They show an unspecific number of countable nouns. They are: many, some, few,
a few, several, a plenty of, too many, a lot of, a number of, etc.
e.g.
she has many friends here. Some people have great behaviour.
A few words would suffice for you. I have seen her several times.
Very few students failed the test. A number of them escaped.

4. Demonstrative adjectives
These adjectives are used to point out or demonstrate nouns. They are: this, that,
these, those, such. Unlike demonstrative pronouns, which are followed by axiliary
verbs, demonstrative adjectives are always followed by nouns.
e.g. Is this car very efficient or how? If these people unite, they can improve.
Those girls are not happy today. I need that book right now, please.
 5. Proper adjectives
These adjectives, like proper nouns, start with a capital letter and are used to
show nationality, language, sect, residence, etc. they should not be pluralized, nor
should they be enumerated or quantified; otherwise, they will not remain proper
adjectives anymore.
e.g. Afghan people respect one another. This old woman is American.
He is Christian, but he likes Jewish friends. We are not Chinese but Iranian.
English language is becoming more famous. She is Scottish, not Irish. You know?
Islamic countries are having a session. The British Empire shall react soon.

6. Possessive adjectives
These adjectives show possession/proprietorship/ownership/relationship. They
are: my, your, his, her, our, their, and its. They are always followed by nouns,
gerunds or verbal nouns.
e.g. You are all my friends. Ahmad is her brother.
Their claims are ground breaking. That cat is licking its tail.
Our country needs us. Did you do your homework?
Your coming is a must. Her looking at me was risky.

7. Relative adjective
It links an adjective clause with its antecedent. Or it shows a relation between the
adjective clause and its antecedent. It can be used for people, places and things.
There is only one relative adjective WHOSE, but it can also give us a relative
phrase [of whose] in relative clauses-using the former one is less natural.
e.g. This is the person the father of whose friend is a doctor at this hospital.
The man the son of whose brother got the first position is very happy.
Ali, a brother of whose teacher was killed yesterday, cried a lot.

8. Distributive adjectives
They distribute the nouns into segments. They are: each, every, either, other,
another and neither. They must be followed by a noun.
e.g. Each boy is coming to class on time. Neither job will fulfil my problems.
Please give me another idea, sir. Other countries are not very nice.
Every warrior was injured in the war. Sir, neither report was accurate.
I think either plan can work for us. Every minute is worth utilizing.

9. Interrogative adjectives
They are used to interrogate or ask questions. They, too, must be followed by a
noun. They are which, whose, what. They can be called pronominal adjectives
because they have both pronoun and adjective features. In the case of adjective
features, they must be followed by a noun. And in pronoun case, they must be
followed by an auxiliary verb, as in [what are you doing here, Ali?]. Note that
[which] gives a specific number of choices, and [what] gives an unspecific number
of choices.
e.g. What color is good for this room? Which car is yours, Ali?
What business do you like, guys? Whose brother can help you?
Whose presentation did you most like? To which area should we go?

10.Emphatic adjectives
They are used to emphasize, or used for focusing, so they can also be called
focusing adjectives.
e.g. This is my own pen, I tell you. Keep your personal secret.
Murder is an individual crime. These are my private numbers.
One should take care of one’s own life. I cannot tell you my personal problem.

11.Exclamatory adjectives
These adjectives are used to show our sudden feelings, such as surprise, cheer,
shock, etc. almost all adjectives can be used as exclamatory adjectives. They must
take an exclamation mark in the end.
e.g. Awesome! It is accepted. Amazing! You did it, Asiya.
Wonderful! Go ahead, guys. Great! I loved your idea.
Perfect! Your work was agreeable. Fantastic! She can win.

12.Verbal adjectives
These adjectives are participial adjectives, a form of the verb used as adjective.
Present participial adjectives and past participial adjectives are types of verbal
adjectives. The present participial adjectives are the [-ing] forms of the verbs
used as adjectives. The past participial adjectives are the [third form of verb]
used as adjectives.
Present participial adjectives mostly modify places, things and rarely people.
However, past participial adjectives mostly modify people and rarely places.
e.g. She has an interesting behaviour. Did you see the conquered village or not?
This is an amazing class for me. They brought the confusing reports to us.
He is really confused at this idea. We are interested in English grammar.
Ali is an interesting man of the class. Will they visit the destroyed places?

13.Nominal adjectives (adjectives as nouns)

The adjectives which are used as nouns are called nominal adjectives. Therefore,
they are NOT adjectives anymore because when we use the structure (the +
adjective), the adjective doesn’t remain adjective any further, but it changes into
a noun. We should, likewise, bear in mind that the verb should be in plural form in
this case.
e.g. The poor are always in trouble. The rich get hungrier than anyone else.
The disabled have lots of problems. The blind feel very excited about the news.

14. denominal adjectives (nouns as adjectives)

The first noun in compound nouns functions as adjective to pre modify the noun
it precedes. They function as modifiers to the noun coming after them.
e.g. Vegetable soup makes you healthier. Don’t make orange juice.
He and I drank an apple juice. I need this grammar book.
Our future plan is to leave here. This is a washing machine.
Have you done your home assignment? The bus driver was arrested.
She is a computer expert, I believe. A two-year program will suffice.

15.Absolut adjectives
They are those adjectives which usually do not have comparative and superlative
forms. They by themselves convey a complete degree; therefore, they do not
need comparative and superlative degrees; they are also called perfective (stand-
alone) adjectives. They are: sick, complete, excellent, historical, daily, awful,
terrible, impossible, unique, perfect, possible, round, entire, ideal, chief, eternal,
dead, universal, square, soaked, drenched, medical, financial, wrong, fatal, etc.
e.g. Our chief problem is living under cruelty.
Her answer was wrong among all answers.
You should provide correct answers.
Their plan is a perfect one for all of us.
She ate the absolute food from the table.
 16. Restrictive adjectives
They are restricted to the referred noun exclusively, particularly or chiefly. They
are very precise in modifying a noun.
e.g. A certain person is standing here. He is the particular teacher.
She is the very girl we know well. She was the sole problem solver.
That can be the only chance for me. I got the exact answer to me question.

17. Phrasal adjectives/adjectival compounds

Those adjectives which are made up of more than one word are called phrasal
adjectives. Different kinds of adjectives fall into this group of adjectives.
e.g. Sana will buy the easy-broken chair. This is not a short-term government.
We made a long-term program. He has got on easy-to-get-jobs idea.
This is a never-seen-before book. I like the anybody-can-dance show.
I have a four-year-old son. She is a very good-looking woman.
He is a bad-tempered boy. It was a come-and-eat location.

18.Intensifying adjectives
These adjectives have a heightening or lowering of degree effect on the noun
they modify. It means they can give either a higher or a lower definition to the
noun or pronoun. They, too, may include different types of adjectives.
e.g. He is a real hero to all of us. That was sheer arrogance.
Your idea seems plain nonsense. This is a sure sign of success.

Characteristics of adjectives
Characteristically, there are four types of adjectives as below.
 1.Stative adjectives 2. Dynamic adjectives
3. Inherent adjectives 4. Noninherent adjectives

• Stative adjectives
These adjectives cannot be used with the progressive aspect and imperatives.
e.g. She is tall, but her mom is short. She is being short/tall.
They sound very fat to me. They are being fat.

• Dynamic adjectives
They are those adjectives which are susceptible to the subjective measurement.
They can be used with progressive aspect and imperatives. We can use dynamic
adjectives as stative, too.
e.g. AS DYNAMIC AS STATIVE
he is becoming careful. He is a very careful boy.
please be brave, not chicken. I am a brave man, not chicken.

• Inherent adjectives
These adjectives characterize the referent of the noun directly. It means they can
logically be used with their nouns or pronouns.
e.g. This is a true report. Sana is a nice girl, right?
We are so happy people. This book is very useful.

• Noninherent adjectives
These adjectives are not referring to the logical state of the noun or pronoun.
They cannot logically be accepted or true.
e.g. A wooden girl is there. That is a plastic person.
They are iron men. She is made of glass.

Degrees of adjectives
Adjectives whose degree can be shown by comparative and superlative forms are
also known as gradable adjectives. Gradable adjectives have three degrees:
simple degree, comparative degree, and superlative degree.
Comparative degree is used when we want to have a comparison of one to one.
Superlative degree, however, is used when we compare one to many or one to a
group at once.
e.g. I want to be the greatest among all of them. [superlative degree]
Afghanistan is the most beautiful country. [superlative degree]
He is better than any other person in Kabul. [comparative degree]
We are taller than you, and you are shorter. [comparative degree]
Sana was more intelligent than her brother. [comparative degree]
The taller you are, the better it is. [comparative degree]

Rules for degrees of adjectives

When we want to change the simple degree of adjectives into comparatives or
superlative degree, there are two types of marking: inflectional (adding r, ier, est,
iest), and phrasal (adding more, less, most, least).
1. When an adjective is only one syllable, we generally use [er] for
comparative form and [est] for superlative form.
e.g. We are greater that you are. This idea is the greatest of all.
Your building is newer than ours. I need the shortest essay this time.
2. If the adjective has got one [e] in the end, we just add [r] for comparative
form and [st] for superlative form.
e.g. Miss Sana is braver than her sister. You must be the wisest people now.
He is abler than anyone else in this class. We are the noblest live beings.
3. If the adjective is more than one syllable, we use [more/less + simple
adjective] for comparative form and [most/least + simple adjective] for
superlative form. MORE and MOST increase the degree, but LESS and LEAST
decrease the degree they are all adverbs.
e.g. She was the least active person in the class.
You can become less beautiful.
My idea is more important than yours.
This is the most interesting book.
Today is less interesting than yesterday was.
Ali was the least modern man there.
4. Some compound adjectives such as well-known, well-built, good-looking,
bad-tampered, well-reputed, etc. usually take the comparative or
superlative form with their first word.
e.g. They are worse-tempered than are we.
This is the best-looking area of Kabul.
She is better-known than that of Ali.
This building is better-built than that one.
5. Some compound adjectives may, on the contrary, take comparative or
superlative form with [more/less] and [most/least], respectively.
e.g. He is more hard-working than I am.
Sana looks less easy-going than her mom
I am not the least hard-working guy.
These are the most easy-broken items.
6. If a one-syllable adjective is ending with one vowel and one consonant, we
double the last consonant, and then use [er] for comparative form and [est]
for superlative form.
e.g. You are fatter than your father is.
Today feels hotter than yesterday.
This room is small; I want a bigger one.
 7. Irregular adjectives change their forms independently-without taking [er] or
[est].
COMPARATIVE FORMS
Good/well to better bad/evil/ill to worse far to farther/further
Old to older much/many to more little to less
Fore to former up to upper
SUPERLARIVE FORMS
Good/well to best bad/evil/ill to worst far to furthest/farthest
Old to oldest much/many to most fore to foremost
Little to least up to uppermost
e.g. Today we feel better than two days ago.
He visited the farthest areas of this city.
Today is an up day, but yesterday was upper.
This plan is evil, and that one is even worse.
I can be the foremost runner in the race.
8. If the adjective is ending in [y], we change [y] into [i], and then add [er] for
comparative form and [est] for superlative form.
e.g. This city is noisier than Paris, no? Ali used to be lazier than me.
Hamza is the happiest man of the party. Today is the busiest day in my life.

Verb
Verbs, especially lexical or main verbs, provide the focal point of a clause. A verb
is a word or a phrase that shows action, state, feeling, and possession. A verb can
likewise help another verb and can even ask questions.
e.g.
she had a huge apartment of her own. [possession]
Will you call him tomorrow? [question]
He was impressed by my talent. [feeling]
They should respect others. [helping]
They study hard for their tests. [action]
He was fixing my bike yesterday. [action]
They are very serious people. [state]
In order to better understand the roles of verbs in a sentence, as they are playing
different roles in different sentences, verbs may further be divided into the
following branches:
- Verbs according to tense
- Verbs according to kind
- Verbs according to mood
- Verbs according to inflection
- Verbs according to voice

Verbs according to tense

This lets us know whether or not the verb agrees with the tense, subject and/ or
number of the members in a subject used in the sentences. Based upon this
classification, there are two types of verb known- finite and non- finite.

1. Finite verbs
Finite verbs are limited to the subject, tense and number. It means when the
subject changes, the verb changes; when the tense changes, the verb changes;
when the number of the subject changes, the verb changes.

e.g. FROM TO
they are at home and eating lunch. He was at home and eating lunch.
She will leave this place as soon as possible. They would leave this city then.
Ali plays football with his friends. My friends play football well.

In the examples above, are will and plays are finite verbs because in the
sentences opposite, they have changed after changing the subject, tense and
number. To put it simply, the first verb in a sentence is usually a finite verb. The
imperative and subjunctive moods, I spite of the fact that they may not change
for tense, subject or number, are finite verbs.
 2. Non- finite verbs
Non- finite verbs have nothing to do with changing the subject, tense or number.
It means even when the subject, tense or number changes, there is no effect on
the verb. They are not limited to anything: they always remain unchanged.
e.g. FROM TO
they cannot come here anymore. I could not come here yesterday.
She is teaching English in this class. She was teaching in this class.
The boys have seen her several times. Ali had seen her several times.

In the examples above, come, teaching and seen are non- finite verb because in
the sentences opposite, even after the tense, subject or number changes, there is
no change in them.
Both finite and non- finite verbs may be regular and irregular. Regular verbs are
those which take [ d], [ed] or [ied] in their past and past participle forms.
However, irregular verbs are those which usually change their full shape/ form.

e.g.
they have murdered him. [ Murdered is a regular non- finite verb.]
the class taken by Ali is big. [ Taken is an irregular non- finite verb.]
Sana came here very late. [Came is an irregular finite verb.]
She opened the door for me. [ Opened is a regular finite verb.]

What are catenative verbs?

They are those verbs which take non- finite verbs or clauses as complements,
called catenative complements. The constructions for catenative verbs are: hope
to, appear to, happen to, seem to+ infinitive; get, be + ed participle; keep, begin +
ing participle, etc. In the examples below, catenative verbs are in boldface and
catenative complements are underlined.
e.g.
Please keep talking for now. She will get exhausted soon.
I happened to see him in the city. He appears to know nothing.
She got confused with the question. There seems to be a problem.
I always hope to see her again. They hope to achieve their goals.
We all began eating at once. I will begin working faster than you.

To learn more about non- finite verbs, we should know that non- finite verbs are
actually known as VERBALS: gerunds, infinitives and participles. In the examples
below, teaching, studying, study, relax, read, amazing, amazed are examples of
non- finite verbs with different functions.
e.g.
I like teaching, but he likes studying.
She can read a newspaper very well.
I want to study English, but he wants to relax.
He is amazing, but they are amazed

Verbs according to inflectional forms

There are six inflectional forms of verbs in English. It means a verb is usually seen
in these six forms in a sentence as per formation and morphology.
1. Plain simple form [base form with plural subjects]
2. Plain infinitive form [base form with infinitive]
3. Preterit form [second form with simple past tense]
4. Past participle form [third form with perfect tenses and passives]
5. Present singular form [es/ s/ ies form with singular subjects in simple
present]
 6. Present participle form [ing ( gerund- participle) form with progressive
tenses]
e.g.
We teach English here. [plain simple form]
We want to teach English here. [plain infinitive form]
We thought English here. [ preterit/ simple past form]
We have thought English here. [ past participle form]
He teaches English here. [simple present singular form]
We are teaching English here. [ present participle form]

verbs according to kinds

There are generally TWO types of verbs known in English, each of which has its
own subtypes- Ordinary verbs and Auxiliary verbs.

1. Ordinary or lexical (full) verbs

These verbs are used to show action, state or possession. They are also called
main verbs.
e.g.
She watched the match last night.
They were in a bad mood yesterday.
We have our own stuff to do.
He works hard to make his life.

Semantic categories of lexical verbs

Semantically, lexical/ ordinary verbs can contain SEVEN categories as below:
1. Dynamic/ activity verbs (move, work, buy, eat, give, throw, run, go,
walk, play, etc.)
 2. Communication verbs (say, tell, write, shout, speak, call, thank, suggest,
claim, etc.)
3. Causative verbs (cause, enable, force, help, let, make, get, have, allow,
require, etc.)
4. Verbs of aspect (begin, keep, stop, start, continue, open, close, end,
discontinue, etc.)
5. Mental verbs (think, want, know, love, need, see, taste, read, hear,
decide, hate, etc.)
6. Verbs of occurrence (change, develop, become, occur, happen, die,
grow, convert, etc.)
7. Verbs of existence/ relationship (seem, appear, stay, exist, include,
involve, contain, etc.)
In this book, we will study all the lexical verbs dividing them into two general
groups: dynamic verbs and stative verbs.
A) Dynamic ordinary verbs
These verbs are action verbs (verbs which show activities). It means there is an
action or event verb i.e. teach, run, walk, play, read, etc. there are two types of
dynamic verbs as: Transitive verbs and intransitive verbs.
i. Transitive verbs
These verbs are usually followed by their related objects. A sentence in which
transitive verbs are used may simply be changed into passive voice.

e.g. ACTIVE PASSIVE

They received the money. The money was received by them.
She will initiate the project. The project will be initiated by her.
ii. Intransitive verbs
These verbs come in a sentence without any related object to them. They may or
may not have a complement, but they never have an object. A sentence having an
intransitive verb cannot change into a passive voice construction.
e.g.
She felt very nervous.
Sana was going to leave at 5:00.
Can you walk with Ali?
B) Stative ordinary verbs
Stative means there is no action, but only state. They may also be called non-
progressive verbs. They are used to show state, not activity. These verbs are not
usually used in progressive tenses because they may not be used in [-ing] forms,
but if this happens, they give a different meaning.
e.g.
I have needed your help. I have been needing your help.
They wanted to go early. They were wanting to go early.
My leg really hurts. My leg is really hurting.

Stative (non- progressive) verbs are classified as:

1. Linking verbs 2. Possession verbs
3.states of bodily sensation 4. verbs of state of being
5.sense verbs 6. verbs of cognition
7.verbs of emotion

1.linking verbs
these verbs show a link between the subject and its complement. The
complement after linking verbs is compulsory. These complements are called
subject complements or complement of subject(Cs). A subject complement is
usually either an adjective or a noun, and rarely an adverb. Linking verbs are also
called intensive verbs. In the sentences below, the linking verbs are in boldface,
and the subject complements are underlined.
e.g.
Sana looks beautiful. [ adjective as Cs]
Is the doctor really serious? [adjective as Cs]
He wants to be my students. [ noun as Cs]

2.Possession verbs
These verbs show possession. They are: own, have, possess, belong, etc.
e.g.
they have some problems with you.
This book belongs to Mr. Sahib.

3.States of bodily sensation

They show the bodily sensed situations. They are: itch, tickle, feel, ache, hurt, etc.
They may be easily used in progressive form, especially when we talk about a
temporary state.

e.g.
Mom, my back aches. Doctor, my leg hurts.
Is your head aching, Sana? Are your hands hurting?

4.States of being
They show existence or state. They are: is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been,
exist, etc.
e.g.
She was very sad last night. Some water exists in the bucket.
We have been here since 2002. He is being so serious nowadays.

5. emotion/ Attitude verbs

These verbs show emotions or attitudes. They are: love, need, want, like, dislike,
hate, appreciate, envy, mind, fear, care, intent, wish, disagree, pity, etc.
e.g.
We want peace and stability. They envy their rivals and us.
Do you believe in this person? She loves me and I love her.

6.Verbs of cognition
They show mental activities. They are: imagine, believe, know, realize,
understand, recognize, feel, suppose, think, wonder, doubt, remember, forget,
want, need, prefer, mean, etc.
e.g.
He still remembers that day.
She couldn’t realize her friends.

7.Verbs of perception
These verbs are showing senses or perception of humans. They are: see, hear,
feel, taste, smell, etc. The most commonly- used ones are see and hear
e.g.
They see a problem in everything. The flowers smell fragrant.
I saw him go home with his friends. She heard us talking English.

8. Causative verbs
These verbs are used to cause someone to do something. They are always the
cause of another verb in a sentence. In such cases, the subject of the sentence is
only related to the causative verb; the object of the causative verb is actually the
doer of the verb coming after it, the verb caused by the causative verb. The most
popular causative verbs are: get, have, help, let, make; however, there are many
other verbs used as causative verbs. For instance, compel, cause, force, want,
etc. To use causative verbs, we use: Subject +cv + object + (to) verb +C/O.
e.g.
I had her wash the yard. She made me cry a lot yesterday.
Please let them talk. Did you help him(to) walk?

9. Phrasal verbs
These verbs are made up of a verb plus a particle (reposition / adverb). A phrasal
verb can be two or more than two words, but it can never be one word.
Occasionally, a phrasal verb is [ verb + preposition]; sometimes [ verb +adverb],
and at times [ verb+ adverb +preposition]. Note that every phrasal verb should
have its special meaning. Phrasal verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
e.g.
please fill in the blanks in the section.
They turned down the project.
You should put off the program.

10. Delexical verbs

Semantically, these are weak verbs because they cannot be used alone. In order
for them to complete their meaning, they need another word following them. So,
these verbs are reliant on the words after them.
e.g.
they took a shower yesterday. They took yesterday.
Ali will make a plan today. Ali will make today.
She had a drink with us. She had with us.

11.denominal verbs
When verbs come into being from nouns, these are called denominal verbs. They
are basically nouns, but through conversion, they become verbs which then have
distinct meaning.
e.g.
He moonlights nowadays. Can you eye into her eyes now?
You have to pen an email. They booked their tickets yesterday.

12.Factitive verbs
When a verb (complex transitive verb) needs a complement (adjective or noun) in
addition to its direct object, it is called a factitive verb. These verbs indicate the
resulting state (object complement) of a person, place or thing (direct object)
caused by the action verb. The object and the complement are in apposition to
each other. Factitive verbs are known to make something another thing by
thought. Word or action. The most common factitive verbs are: consider, find,
imagine, call, prove, keep, label, elect, appoint, make, presume, think, choose,
deem, assign, name, select, judge, designate, etc. The objects and their
complements are underlined in the following.
e.g.
I have found Aniya great. They consider fighting shameful.
We made him a teacher. They named the baby, Ali.

13.Factual verbs
These verbs are subdivided into two types: public verbs and private verbs.
They consist of speech art, belief or intellectual act verbs. We generally use
them in common reported speech examples with indicative mood. We say
private to mean that something is not observable to others i.e. believe, but
public implies that others can observe something i.e. assert.
e.g.
I believe that you cannot learn English. [ private]
He agreed that I have defeated him. [ public]
 14. Suasive verbs
These verbs are generally followed by a mandative subjunctive mood, or a that-
clause with putative should. However, in BrE only, they might use indicative
mood after these verbs.
e.g.
Everyone suggested that Carlos should teach this class. [ putative should]
Everyone suggested that Carlos teach this class. [mandative subjunctive]
Everyone suggested that Carlos teaches this class. [ indicative, BrE only]

15. Emotive verbs

These verbs can be used with indicative mood, or with putative should, but never
with mandative subjunctive. These verbs are limited in number: wonder, regret,
marvel and rejoice.
e.g.
We regret that he should cry after her parents. [ putative should]
We regret that he cries after her parents. [ indicative mood]
We regret that he cries after her parents. [mandative subjunctive]

16. Hypothesis verbs

These verbs are followed by a that- clause, or were- subjunctive to talk about
unreal situations of past conditions or wishes. They are wish, suppose and would
rather.
e.g.
I wish (that) you were here now. Suppose (that) you failed this time.
I would rather (that) they didn’t go. She wished she hadn’t talked to me.
17. Reflexive verbs
When the object of a verb is the same as its subject, this verb is called reflexive.
These verbs are used with reflexive pronouns in a sentence. The most common
reflexive verbs are: see, teach, cut, kill, change, help, introduce, make, control,
hurt, etc.
e.g.
I want to make myself happy. Sana cannot control herself when angry.
He injured himself with a knife. We should change ourselves sooner.

18. Conditional verbs

They are used to create conditional sentences. They express hypothetical or
improbable situations in main clauses (apodosis/ head/ superordinate clauses).
They can be used in different tenses i.e. past, present and future. They are those
modal auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, might, will, would, should).
e.g.
If we united, we could improve earlier. They can lose if I don’t support them.
If I see my friend, I might hug him. He should fight if we tease him again.

2.Auxiliary verbs/ Helping verbs

These verbs are used to help the lexical verbs; we can also use them to negate or
interrogate our sentences. Here, by help we mean when there is an auxiliary verb
beside the lexical verb, we just deal with the auxiliary verb, not the lexical verb.
For instance, when there is a tense change, verb form change, negation process
or any other changes, we just deal with the first auxiliary verb if several auxiliaries
are used. Auxiliary verbs form the tense (He has gone him.), aspect (He is always
coming late.), voice (He was killed.) and mood (He can do this.) of a verb.
e.g.
He was going to leave here. They don’t have to come here.
You will be being helped by me. I will have been being helped tonight.
The criteria for auxiliary verbs (primaries or models) have been especially based
upon NICE (Negation, Inversion, Code and Emphasis). This means when we call a
verb AUXILIARY, it must have the ability of producing negatives, inversions, coding
(ellipsis) and emphasis.
e.g.
We weren’t at home last night. [N- negation]
Were we happy with the program? [I- inversion]
I am not sad. I would leave if I were. [ C- code (ellipsis)]
We WERE talking seriously with them. [ E- emphasis]
They don’t study English here. [ N- negation]
Do they study English here? [ I- inversion]
They don’t study, but I do. [C- code (ellipsis)]
We DO study English here. [ E- emphasis]
There are two types of auxiliary verbs: Primary auxiliaries and Model auxiliaries.
I. Primary or principal auxiliary verbs
These verbs mainly share an association with the basic grammatical verb
categories of tense, aspect and voice. They are broadly distinguished from the
modal auxiliaries. There are only three classes of primary auxiliary verbs known in
English language: HAVE, DO, BE- each of the three has its subdivisions as: HAVE
(have, has, had), DO (do, does, did) and BE (is, am, are, was, were, been, be,
being).
e.g.
She has seen this film once before. Does Ali often swim here?
They were not eating anything. Are they talking about me?
It should be borne in mind that primary auxiliary verbs are not only helping verbs,
but lexical verbs as well, depending on the sentence, in the following, the main
verbs are underlined and the helping verbs are in bold. Compare:
e.g.
He was rather proud yesterday. He was watching TV last night.
She had a lot of good ideas. She had received the letter.
Do they do their jobs well? He doesn’t do what I do.
In the examples above, each of the words underlined is a lexical verb because
there is no more lexical verb with it to help. Likewise, each of the words in bold is
an auxiliary verb because there is another lexical verb with them. However, this is
not the only reason because in some cases, even when there is no lexica verb,
they can function as auxiliary verbs, as per the NICE criteria we learned
previously. Compare:
e.g.
Is he a doctor? [ helping verb]
He is a doctor. [ ordinary verb]
She has not any money. [ helping verb]
Ali has a lot of money. [ ordinary verb]
Considering the examples above, we can say that when primary auxiliary verbs,
specially BE and HAVE verbs, are used in negative and interrogative sentences as
per NICE, even when there are no lexical verbs with them, they still act as
auxiliary verbs. At times, we can take them as both helping verbs and lexical verbs
in cases as such, but calling them auxiliary verbs is more logical. Do verb is
exempted from this characteristic because it’s a dummy primary, and so we
cannot use it as an operator alone.

II. Model auxiliaries/ Defective verbs

these verbs show a speaker’s attitude i.e. possibility, ability, advisability, certainty,
necessity, probability or permissibility in a sentence. With the exception of
marginal models, they are only helping verbs. They cannot stand alone.so there
must be another base form of the verb (lexical verb) after them. Here, too, NICE
should be applicable.
e.g.
She must read a lot. [ necessary]
We might have a meeting. [ probability]
They can learn English. [ability]
She should study all night. [ advisability]
You may go anytime you want. [ permissibility]
To be very clear, we ought to know the four features of central modals (NOT
primary auxiliary verbs) as below. These features are not always applicable on
marginal modals.
✓ . Bare infinitive forms of verb [ Modals are always followed by
bare infinitive.]
✓ . Having no non- finite form [ Modals cannot be seen in non-
finite form.]
✓ . Independence of subject [ Modals have nothing to do with
subject.]
✓ . Abnormal time reference [ Modals have nothing to do with
time.]

Verbs according to voice

According to voice, there are two types of verbs: transitive verbs and intransitive
verbs. Transitive verb is an action verb or event verb with an object licensed by it,
and so we can change its sentence into passive voice. Intransitive verb is not an
action verb, but only a state or non- action verb, and licenses no object but a
complement, and so we cannot change its sentence into the passive voice.
Therefore, the idea of active voice and passive voice is dealing with transitive and
intransitive verbs.
e.g. ACTIVE PASSIVE
He studies a new language. A new language is studied by him.
She is at home right now. [N/A]
We copied the papers. The papers were copied by us.
Ali and Sana run very fast. [N/A]
The first and third sentences are changed into passive voice because they have
transitive verbs. The second and fourth sentences, however, cannot be changed
into passive because they have intransitive verbs. SEE UNIT 11, VOICE.

Verbs according to mood

Mood of verbs shows the factual, nonfactual status of the prediction. Mood of
verbs shows the different attitudes of the speaker- it means we use a verb for a
particular purpose. There are usually FOUR types of mood known as below.
e.g.
Does she watch TV every night? They teach grammar from this book.
Never drink and drive in life. Don’t let’s watch TV any further.
They love to swim here. She works to earn money.
I want my money, whether it be in USD or AFN. God forbid!

Adverb
An adverb is a word, a phrase or a clause. Normally, you might have heard that an
adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or/ and an adverb. However, it is possible for
an adverb to modify a clause, a sentence, a noun phrase, a preposition, a
pronoun, a predeterminer, a prepositional phrase, a particle of phrasal verb, a
numeral, and a measurement expression.
e.g.
Sahib teaches grammar very well. [ modifier of adverb]
Roughly 50% of this water is clean. [ modifier of measurement]
I am definitely like you. [ modifier of preposition]

Types of adverb
1. Adverb of time
These adverbs show the time for something or an action. They generally answer
the questions when, what time, how long, etc. there are two types of time
adverbs as below:
e.g.
we have to finish the assignment next week. Then I called him for help.
I must still help those employees. Thus for we have studied one subject.

2. Adverb of place
These adverbs talk about a location or a place. They generally answer the
questions where, in which place, etc.
e.g.
Do you want to stay home or you want to go there?
Let’s go abroad and enjoy the vacation there.

3. Adverb of degree
They talk about the high and low of something’s degree. They contain amplifiers,
moderators and downtowners. Adverbs of degree are: very, so, too, almost,
pretty, quite, enough, much, more, a little, a lot, rather, somehow, fairly, to some
extent, hardly, nearly, slightly, really, absolutely, completely, totally, fairly,
extremely, less, utterly, perfectly, etc.
e.g.
this book is quite interesting. [moderator]
A slightly cold start was experienced. [downtoner]
We are too busy to talk to you. [ amplifier]
 4. Adverb of manner
These adverbs show the way an action happens. We usually use the suffix [ly]
with an [ adjective] to change the adjective into an adverb of manner. However,
in some adjectives, we may not need the suffix [ly] because they by themselves
can function both adjectivally and adverbially. Some of the adjectives which can
take [ly] are: brave, clear, perfect, easy, arrogant, busy, define, beautiful, nice,
lazy, cozy, interesting, etc. some of the adjectives which may not take [ly] are:
fast, hard, well, good, soon, extra, best, late, right, far, etc.
e.g.
She can drive carefully. We have to walk slowly.
Sana always runs fast. You cannot go far.

5. Adverb of frequency
These adverbs show the repetition of an action; they talk about how many times
an action happens/ repeats. Or they will tell us how often/ for how long an action
takes place/ exists.
e.g.
We often breach the law in school. Thrice a month they send us emails.
They always try to help our nation. Never do we try to start a fight here.

6. Relative adverbs
These adverbs are used to show the relation of an adjective clause or non- finite
adjectival clause and/ or prepositional phrase (functioning as adjective) with its
antecedent. So, the only use of such adverbs is found in adjective clauses,
because an adjective clause is linked with its antecedent via these adverbs,
relative pronouns and relative adjectives. These adverbs link the modifiers with
the noun or pronoun they modify. Relative adverbs are: when, where, why.
They always have an antecedent before them. SEE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
e.g.
The reason why he came here is clear to all of us.
I remember the day when we first met in the park.

7. Conjunctive adverbs
These adverbs take us from one idea to another. They are used to connect the
former sentence with the latter one. They are also called discourse markers,
connectives, connectors and linkers. They can indicate different cases like: time,
addition and similarity, contrast, sequence, consequence, certainty, condition,
definition, example, reason, summary.
e.g.
Ali did not study hard. therefore, he failed the test.
My mom was cooking for us; meanwhile, she was helping us with our homework.
First of all, we must bring those materials, secondly, we are to prepare for work.

8. Interrogative adverbs
These adverbs are used to ask questions, or they are used in interrogative
sentences. The very common interrogative adverbs are: when, why, where, how.
e.g.
where did he go yesterday? How can we speak English fluently?
Why will you use my iPhone? When should she take a break?

9. Affirmation and negation adverbs

These adverbs provide us with negative or positive sentences or answers. We
usually use them after a sentence is said by someone. Affirmation adverbs are:
yes, yeah, sure, yep, for sure, certainly, and other words giving a positive
response. Negation adverbs are: no, nope, not at all, not ever, never, and other
words giving a negative response.
e.g.
Did you have any problems there? No. I didn’t have any problems.
Is this your car, Ali? Yep. This is mine and that one is yours.

10. Emphatic / Additive adverbs

These verbs can function adverbially, and as modifiers in a noun structure to focus
on a point, or add more points. They are: particularly, especially, right ,so , nor,
neither, also, too, even, just, merely, only, mainly, purely, etc.
e.g.
Ghani is just a thinker, I believe. You are a doctor. I am a doctor, too.
Only you can so this task, Aliya. Even Ali and Sana are ready to go.

11. Adverbs of stance

These adverbs can show three types of stance/ position/ standpoint: epistemic,
attitude, and style. Below, I have provided you with detail on each.
e.g.
we will probably have a meeting the day after next.
He was truly trying to financially help the poor here.
Hamza is reportedly I need of our financial help nowadays.

Preposition
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between its object and
another word in the sentence. The object of a preposition is usually a noun or
pronoun.

Types of Prepositions
1. Prepositions of Place: Indicate location or position.
Example: in, on, at, under, over
2. Prepositions of Time: Indicate when something happens.
Example: at, on, in, during, before, after
“We will meet at 5 PM.”
3. Prepositions of Direction: Show movement or direction.
Example: to, towards, into, through, around
“She walked into the room.”
4. Prepositions of Agent or Instrument: Indicate who or what performs the
action or the tool used.
Example: by, with
“The letter was written by her.”
“He cut the paper with scissors.”
5. Prepositions of Cause, Purpose, or Reason: Indicate why something
happens.
Example: for, because of, due to
“She’s studying for the exam.”

Common Prepositions
Place: above, below, next to, between, among, behind, in front of
Time: since, until, during, by, after
Direction: onto, off, across, along
Other: about, of, concerning, regarding

Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase consists of the preposition, its object, and any associated
modifiers.
Example: “In the morning,” “to the store,” “under the bed.”
Additional Aspects of Prepositions
 1. Prepositions with Idiomatic Expressions: Many prepositions are part of
idiomatic expressions that don’t follow strict grammatical rules and must
be memorized.
Example: “in charge of,” “on time,” “out of luck.”
These phrases often carry specific meanings unrelated to their individual words.
1. Prepositions with Verbs (Phrasal Verbs): Some verbs are paired with
prepositions to form phrasal verbs, which can change the meaning of the
original verb.
Example: “give up” (to quit), “look after” (to care for), “run into” (to encounter).
The preposition in these cases is part of the verb’s meaning and must be used
together with it.
2. Prepositions with Adjectives: Certain adjectives are followed by specific
prepositions.
Example: “interested in,” “afraid of,” “good at.”
These adjective-preposition combinations are common in English and are
sometimes tricky for learners to master.
3. Prepositions in Questions: Prepositions often appear at the end of
questions, especially in informal English.
Example: “What are you looking at?” “Who did you go with?”
4. Prepositions of Time and Place (Detailed Differences):
At, on, in: These prepositions can be confusing when it comes to time and place.
Time:
“At” is used for specific times (e.g., at 5 PM).
“On” is used for days and dates (e.g., on Monday, on June 5th).
“In” is used for longer periods, like months, years, or centuries (e.g., in 2020, in
the 18th century).
Place:
“At” is used for specific points (e.g., at the door).
“On” is used for surfaces (e.g., on the table).
“In” is used for enclosed spaces (e.g., in the room).
5. Ending Sentences with Prepositions: In formal English, ending a sentence
with a preposition was traditionally frowned upon. However, in modern
usage, especially in spoken English, it is often acceptable and natural.
Formal: “With whom did you go?”
Informal: “Who did you go with?”
6. Complex Prepositions: Some prepositions are made up of more than one
word (e.g., in front of, on behalf of, by means of). These are called complex
prepositions and function the same way as single-word prepositions but
can be more specific or nuanced.
7. Omission of Prepositions: In some cases, prepositions are not needed even
though they seem natural in some languages.
Example: “Discuss” (not discuss about), “Enter” (not enter into), “Approach” (not
approach to).
8. Prepositions and Relative Clauses: In formal writing, prepositions often
precede relative pronouns, but in informal speech, they usually come at the
end.
Formal: “The man to whom I was speaking.”
Informal: “The man I was speaking to.”

Common Challenges with Prepositions:

Prepositions often don’t translate directly between languages, making them
difficult to learn.
The use of different prepositions with similar meanings (e.g., by vs. With, in vs. At)
can confuse learners.
Some prepositions seem redundant or unnecessary in certain contexts.
CONJUNCTION

Conjunction are words used to connect word, phrases,clause,or sentences.

They serve to link ideas and make sentences more cohesive. Without
conjunction, writing woud be fragmented and less fluid.
There are three types of conjunctions:
• Coordinating conjunctions
• Subordinating conjunctions
• Correlative conjunctions

1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating conjanctions join two elements of equal grammatical importance, like two words, two phrases, or
two independent clauses.

The seven coordinating conjunctions are remembered by the acronym.

FANBOYS:

• For
• And
• Nor
• But
• Or
• Yet
• So

Examples:

➢ “I want to go out, but it is raining.”

➢ “She studied hard,so she passed the exam.”
➢ “you can have tea or coffee.”
➢ “Go away and never come back.”

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect an independent clause (a complete sentence)
with a dependent (subordinate) clause (which cannot stand alone). They show a
relationship of time, cause and effect, condition, contrast, etc., between the two
clauses.

Common subordinating conjunctions:

After, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, though, unless, until,
when, where, while, once, as soon as, now that, whether.
Examples:
“We stayed inside because it was raining.”
“Although she was tired, she kept working.”
“You can’t go out until you finish your homework.”

Key Note: In sentences starting with a subordinating conjunction, the dependent

clause comes first, so it must be followed by a comma:
“When it rains, we stay inside.”

3. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions come in pairs and work together to link equivalent
sentence elements. They function like coordinating conjunctions but are always
used in pairs.
Common pairs of correlative conjunction

• Both ... and

• Either ... or
• Neither ... nor
• Not only ... but also
• Whether ... or

Examples:
“Both the manager and the assistant will attend the meeting.”
“Either you finish your assignment now, or you’ll have to stay late.”
“He is not only a good teacher, but also a great mentor.”
Key Points to Remember:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So). They
link equal sentence parts (e.g., two nouns, two verbs, or two independent
clauses).
2. Subordinating Conjunctions: These link a dependent clause to an
independent clause, showing relationships like cause and effect, time, or
contrast.
3. Correlative Conjunctions: They always appear in pairs and link equal
sentence parts (both nouns, verbs, or clauses).

▪ Conjunctions in Complex Sentences:

A complex sentence is one that includes at least one independent clause and one
dependent clause, often joined by a subordinating conjunction.
Example:
“I will go out after I finish my work.”
In this sentence, “I finish my work” is a dependent clause that cannot stand alone,
and “I will go out” is an independent clause.

▪ Punctuation and Conjunctions:

1. Coordinating conjunctions:
When joining two independent clauses, use a comma before the conjunction.
Example:
“I want to go to the party, but I have too much work.”
2. Subordinating conjunctions:
If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma after it.
Example: “Because it was raining, we stayed home.”

➢ If the independent clause comes first, no comma is needed.

▪ Conclusion:

Conjunctions are essential in crafting well-structured sentences by connecting

words, phrases, or clauses. They help express complex ideas, show relationships
between thoughts, and make writing or speaking more fluent and coherent.

INTERJECTION
A interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a sudden emotion or reaction.
Interjections are often used to convey feelings such as surprise, excitement,
happiness, anger, or frustration. They can stand alone or be inserten into
sentences to emphasize a speaker’s emotional response.

Characteristics of Interjections:
1. Emotionally driven: Interjections often express strong emotions (e.g.,
“Wow!” for surprise).

2. Punctuation: Interjections are usually followed by an exclamation mark (!)

when they show strong emotions. If the emotion is milder, they may be
followed by a comma or period.

3. Placement: They are often found at the beginning of a sentence but can
also appear in the middle or end of a sentence.
Types of Interjections:

1. Primary Interjections:
These are words that primarily function as interjections and are not used in
other grammatical contexts.
Examples: “Oh!”, “Wow!”, “Ouch!”, “Ah!”, “Oops!”

2. Secondary Interjections:
These are words that can function as other parts of speech (such as nouns or
verbs) but can also be used as interjections.
Examples: “Goodness!”, “Man!”, “Shoot!”, “Hey!”

3. Mild Interjections:
These express emotions in a milder form and are often used in everyday
conversation.
Examples: “Well,” “Hmm,” “Oh,” “Uh”

4. Strong Interjections:
These convey more intense emotions and are often followed by an
exclamation mark.
Examples: “Yikes!”, “Wow!”, “Bravo!”, “No way!”

Examples in Sentences:
• Surprise: “Wow! That was an amazing performance.”
 • Pain: “Ouch! That hurt.”
• Disgust: “Ew, that smells terrible.”
• Joy: “Hooray! We won the game.”
• Thinking: “Hmm, I’m not sure about that.”

▪ Functions of Interjections:
Express Emotion: They convey how the speaker feels in the moment.
Attention-Grabbers: Some interjections are used to call attention, like “Hey!” or
“Look!”
Filler Words: In informal speech, interjections like “Um” and “Ah” are used when
the speaker is thinking or hesitating.

➢ Though interjections play an important role in spoken and casual

language, they are less common in formal writing or speech.

1. Interjections and Grammar:

Non-syntactic: Interjections are often considered outside the traditional sentence

structure. They don’t need to relate grammatically to the rest of the sentence.
Independent units: Interjections often function as complete utterances on their
own.

2. Tone and Context:

Tone: The meaning of an interjection can depend heavily on the speaker’s tone of
voice and context. For example, “Oh!” can express surprise, disappointment, or
realization, depending on how it’s spoken.
 ➢ Cultural differences: Some interjections are culture-specific. For example,
“Eh?” is commonly used in Canadian English to seek agreement or confirm
understanding.
3. Forms of Interjections:
Single words: Most interjections are single words (“Wow!”).
Phrases: Some interjections are phrases (“Oh my!”, “Good grief!”).
Sounds: Certain interjections mimic sounds or emotions, like “Achoo!” for
sneezing or “Ugh!” for disgust.

4. Formal vs. Informal Use:

Informal contexts: Interjections are more common in casual, spoken language.

They can add color to conversations.
Rare in formal writing: They are usually avoided in formal essays or reports,
though they may appear in creative writing or dialogues.

5. Expletives as Interjections:
Mild expletives: Words like “Darn!” or “Shoot!” express mild frustration or
annoyance.
Stronger expletives: Though stronger curse words function similarly, they carry a
heavier emotional load and are typically avoided in polite contexts.
References:
book/ Longman student grammar
book/ just enough English grammar
book/handbook of English
book/basic English grammar
https://byjus.com/english/parts-of-speech/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359843201_Parts_of_Speech_in_English_Grammar

https://www.scribbr.com/category/parts-of-speech/

https://study.com/learn/lesson/8-parts-of-speech.html
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