Mathematics

Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, theories and theorems that are
developed and proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many areas of
mathematics, which include number theory (the study of numbers), algebra (the study of formulas and
related structures), geometry (the study of shapes and spaces that contain them), analysis (the study of
continuous changes), and set theory (presently used as a foundation for all mathematics).

Mathematics involves the description and manipulation of abstract objects that consist of either
abstractions from nature or—in modern mathematics—purely abstract entities that are stipulated to have
certain properties, called axioms. Mathematics uses pure reason to prove properties of objects, a proof
consisting of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results
include previously proved theorems, axioms, and—in case of abstraction from nature—some basic
properties that are considered true starting points of the theory under consideration.[1]

Mathematics is essential in the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, finance, computer science, and
the social sciences. Although mathematics is extensively used for modeling phenomena, the fundamental
truths of mathematics are independent of any scientific experimentation. Some areas of mathematics,
such as statistics and game theory, are developed in close correlation with their applications and are often
grouped under applied mathematics. Other areas are developed independently from any application (and
are therefore called pure mathematics) but often later find practical applications.[2][3]

Historically, the concept of a proof and its associated mathematical rigour first appeared in Greek
mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements.[4] Since its beginning, mathematics was primarily
divided into geometry and arithmetic (the manipulation of natural numbers and fractions), until the 16th
and 17th centuries, when algebra[a] and infinitesimal calculus were introduced as new fields. Since then,
the interaction between mathematical innovations and scientific discoveries has led to a correlated
increase in the development of both.[5] At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis of
mathematics led to the systematization of the axiomatic method,[6] which heralded a dramatic increase in
the number of mathematical areas and their fields of application. The contemporary Mathematics Subject
Classification lists more than sixty first-level areas of mathematics.

Areas of mathematics
Before the Renaissance, mathematics was divided into two main areas: arithmetic, regarding the
manipulation of numbers, and geometry, regarding the study of shapes.[7] Some types of pseudoscience,
such as numerology and astrology, were not then clearly distinguished from mathematics.[8]

During the Renaissance, two more areas appeared. Mathematical notation led to algebra which, roughly
speaking, consists of the study and the manipulation of formulas. Calculus, consisting of the two
subfields differential calculus and integral calculus, is the study of continuous functions, which model
the typically nonlinear relationships between varying quantities, as represented by variables. This division
into four main areas—arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and calculus[9]—endured until the end of the 19th
century. Areas such as celestial mechanics and solid mechanics were then studied by mathematicians, but
now are considered as belonging to physics.[10] The subject of combinatorics has been studied for much
of recorded history, yet did not become a separate branch of mathematics until the seventeenth
century.[11]

At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis in mathematics and the resulting systematization of
the axiomatic method led to an explosion of new areas of mathematics.[12][6] The 2020 Mathematics
Subject Classification contains no less than sixty-three first-level areas.[13] Some of these areas
correspond to the older division, as is true regarding number theory (the modern name for higher
arithmetic) and geometry. Several other first-level areas have "geometry" in their names or are otherwise
commonly considered part of geometry. Algebra and calculus do not appear as first-level areas but are
respectively split into several first-level areas. Other first-level areas emerged during the 20th century or
had not previously been considered as mathematics, such as mathematical logic and foundations.[14]

Number theory
Number theory began with the manipulation of numbers, that is,
natural numbers and later expanded to integers and
rational numbers Number theory was once called arithmetic,
but nowadays this term is mostly used for numerical
calculations.[15] Number theory dates back to ancient Babylon and
probably China. Two prominent early number theorists were
Euclid of ancient Greece and Diophantus of Alexandria.[16] The
modern study of number theory in its abstract form is largely
attributed to Pierre de Fermat and Leonhard Euler. The field came
to full fruition with the contributions of Adrien-Marie Legendre
and Carl Friedrich Gauss.[17]
This is the Ulam spiral, which
Many easily stated number problems have solutions that require illustrates the distribution of prime
numbers. The dark diagonal lines in
sophisticated methods, often from across mathematics. A
the spiral hint at the hypothesized
prominent example is Fermat's Last Theorem. This conjecture was
approximate independence between
stated in 1637 by Pierre de Fermat, but it was proved only in 1994 being prime and being a value of a
by Andrew Wiles, who used tools including scheme theory from quadratic polynomial, a conjecture
algebraic geometry, category theory, and homological algebra.[18] now known as Hardy and
Another example is Goldbach's conjecture, which asserts that Littlewood's Conjecture F.
every even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two prime
numbers. Stated in 1742 by Christian Goldbach, it remains
unproven despite considerable effort.[19]

Number theory includes several subareas, including analytic number theory, algebraic number theory,
geometry of numbers (method oriented), diophantine equations, and transcendence theory (problem
oriented).[14]

Geometry
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It started
with empirical recipes concerning shapes, such as lines, angles
and circles, which were developed mainly for the needs of
surveying and architecture, but has since blossomed out into many
other subfields.[20]

A fundamental innovation was the ancient Greeks' introduction of

the concept of proofs, which require that every assertion must be
proved. For example, it is not sufficient to verify by measurement
that, say, two lengths are equal; their equality must be proven via On the surface of a sphere,
reasoning from previously accepted results (theorems) and a few Euclidean geometry only applies as
basic statements. The basic statements are not subject to proof a local approximation. For larger
because they are self-evident (postulates), or are part of the scales the sum of the angles of a
definition of the subject of study (axioms). This principle, triangle is not equal to 180°.
foundational for all mathematics, was first elaborated for
geometry, and was systematized by Euclid around 300 BC in his
book Elements.[21][22]

The resulting Euclidean geometry is the study of shapes and their arrangements constructed from lines,
planes and circles in the Euclidean plane (plane geometry) and the three-dimensional Euclidean
space.[b][20]

Euclidean geometry was developed without change of methods or scope until the 17th century, when
René Descartes introduced what is now called Cartesian coordinates. This constituted a major change of
paradigm: Instead of defining real numbers as lengths of line segments (see number line), it allowed the
representation of points using their coordinates, which are numbers. Algebra (and later, calculus) can thus
be used to solve geometrical problems. Geometry was split into two new subfields: synthetic geometry,
which uses purely geometrical methods, and analytic geometry, which uses coordinates systemically.[23]

Analytic geometry allows the study of curves unrelated to circles and lines. Such curves can be defined as
the graph of functions, the study of which led to differential geometry. They can also be defined as
implicit equations, often polynomial equations (which spawned algebraic geometry). Analytic geometry
also makes it possible to consider Euclidean spaces of higher than three dimensions.[20]

In the 19th century, mathematicians discovered non-Euclidean geometries, which do not follow the
parallel postulate. By questioning that postulate's truth, this discovery has been viewed as joining
Russell's paradox in revealing the foundational crisis of mathematics. This aspect of the crisis was solved
by systematizing the axiomatic method, and adopting that the truth of the chosen axioms is not a
mathematical problem.[24][6] In turn, the axiomatic method allows for the study of various geometries
obtained either by changing the axioms or by considering properties that do not change under specific
transformations of the space.[25]

Today's subareas of geometry include:[14]

Projective geometry, introduced in the 16th century by Girard Desargues, extends Euclidean
geometry by adding points at infinity at which parallel lines intersect. This simplifies many
aspects of classical geometry by unifying the treatments for intersecting and parallel lines.
Affine geometry, the study of properties relative to parallelism and independent from the
concept of length.
 Differential geometry, the study of curves, surfaces, and their generalizations, which are
defined using differentiable functions.
Manifold theory, the study of shapes that are not necessarily embedded in a larger space.
Riemannian geometry, the study of distance properties in curved spaces.
Algebraic geometry, the study of curves, surfaces, and their generalizations, which are
defined using polynomials.
Topology, the study of properties that are kept under continuous deformations.
Algebraic topology, the use in topology of algebraic methods, mainly homological
algebra.
Discrete geometry, the study of finite configurations in geometry.
Convex geometry, the study of convex sets, which takes its importance from its applications
in optimization.
Complex geometry, the geometry obtained by replacing real numbers with complex
numbers.

Algebra
Algebra is the art of manipulating equations and formulas.
Diophantus (3rd century) and al-Khwarizmi (9th century) were the
two main precursors of algebra.[27][28] Diophantus solved some
equations involving unknown natural numbers by deducing new
The quadratic formula, which
relations until he obtained the solution.[29] Al-Khwarizmi
concisely expresses the solutions of
introduced systematic methods for transforming equations, such as all quadratic equations
moving a term from one side of an equation into the other side.[30]
The term algebra is derived from the Arabic word al-jabr meaning
'the reunion of broken parts' that he used for naming one of these
methods in the title of his main treatise.[31][32]

Algebra became an area in its own right only with François Viète
(1540–1603), who introduced the use of variables for representing
unknown or unspecified numbers.[33] Variables allow
mathematicians to describe the operations that have to be done on
the numbers represented using mathematical formulas.[34]

Until the 19th century, algebra consisted mainly of the study of

linear equations (presently linear algebra), and polynomial
equations in a single unknown, which were called algebraic The Rubik's Cube group is a
equations (a term still in use, although it may be ambiguous). concrete application of group
During the 19th century, mathematicians began to use variables to theory.[26]
represent things other than numbers (such as matrices, modular
integers, and geometric transformations), on which generalizations
of arithmetic operations are often valid.[35] The concept of algebraic structure addresses this, consisting
of a set whose elements are unspecified, of operations acting on the elements of the set, and rules that
these operations must follow. The scope of algebra thus grew to include the study of algebraic structures.
This object of algebra was called modern algebra or abstract algebra, as established by the influence and
works of Emmy Noether.[36]
Some types of algebraic structures have useful and often fundamental properties, in many areas of
mathematics. Their study became autonomous parts of algebra, and include:[14]

group theory
field theory
vector spaces, whose study is essentially the same as linear algebra
ring theory
commutative algebra, which is the study of commutative rings, includes the study of
polynomials, and is a foundational part of algebraic geometry
homological algebra
Lie algebra and Lie group theory
Boolean algebra, which is widely used for the study of the logical structure of computers
The study of types of algebraic structures as mathematical objects is the purpose of universal algebra and
category theory.[37] The latter applies to every mathematical structure (not only algebraic ones). At its
origin, it was introduced, together with homological algebra for allowing the algebraic study of non-
algebraic objects such as topological spaces; this particular area of application is called algebraic
topology.[38]

Calculus and analysis

Calculus, formerly called infinitesimal calculus, was introduced
independently and simultaneously by 17th-century
mathematicians Newton and Leibniz. [39] It is fundamentally the
study of the relationship of variables that depend on each other.
Calculus was expanded in the 18th century by Euler with the
introduction of the concept of a function and many other
results.[40] Presently, "calculus" refers mainly to the elementary A Cauchy sequence consists of
part of this theory, and "analysis" is commonly used for advanced elements such that all subsequent
parts.[41] terms of a term become arbitrarily
close to each other as the sequence
Analysis is further subdivided into real analysis, where variables progresses (from left to right).
represent real numbers, and complex analysis, where variables
represent complex numbers. Analysis includes many subareas
shared by other areas of mathematics which include:[14]

Multivariable calculus
Functional analysis, where variables represent varying functions
Integration, measure theory and potential theory, all strongly related with probability theory
on a continuum
Ordinary differential equations
Partial differential equations
Numerical analysis, mainly devoted to the computation on computers of solutions of
ordinary and partial differential equations that arise in many applications

Discrete mathematics
Discrete mathematics, broadly speaking, is the study of individual,
countable mathematical objects. An example is the set of all
integers.[42] Because the objects of study here are discrete, the
methods of calculus and mathematical analysis do not directly
apply.[c] Algorithms—especially their implementation and
computational complexity—play a major role in discrete
mathematics.[43]

The four color theorem and optimal sphere packing were two
major problems of discrete mathematics solved in the second half
of the 20th century.[44] The P versus NP problem, which remains
open to this day, is also important for discrete mathematics, since A diagram representing a two-state
its solution would potentially impact a large number of Markov chain. The states are
computationally difficult problems.[45] represented by 'A' and 'E'. The
numbers are the probability of
Discrete mathematics includes:[14] flipping the state.

Combinatorics, the art of enumerating mathematical

objects that satisfy some given constraints. Originally, these objects were elements or
subsets of a given set; this has been extended to various objects, which establishes a
strong link between combinatorics and other parts of discrete mathematics. For example,
discrete geometry includes counting configurations of geometric shapes.
Graph theory and hypergraphs
Coding theory, including error correcting codes and a part of cryptography
Matroid theory
Discrete geometry
Discrete probability distributions
Game theory (although continuous games are also studied, most common games, such as
chess and poker are discrete)
Discrete optimization, including combinatorial optimization, integer programming, constraint
programming

Mathematical logic and set theory

The two subjects of mathematical logic and set theory have
belonged to mathematics since the end of the 19th century.[46][47]
Before this period, sets were not considered to be mathematical
objects, and logic, although used for mathematical proofs,
belonged to philosophy and was not specifically studied by
mathematicians.[48]

Before Cantor's study of infinite sets, mathematicians were

reluctant to consider actually infinite collections, and considered The Venn diagram is a commonly
infinity to be the result of endless enumeration. Cantor's work used method to illustrate the
offended many mathematicians not only by considering actually relations between sets.

infinite sets[49] but by showing that this implies different sizes of

infinity, per Cantor's diagonal argument. This led to the controversy over Cantor's set theory.[50] In the
same period, various areas of mathematics concluded the former intuitive definitions of the basic
mathematical objects were insufficient for ensuring mathematical rigour.[51]

This became the foundational crisis of mathematics.[52] It was eventually solved in mainstream
mathematics by systematizing the axiomatic method inside a formalized set theory. Roughly speaking,
each mathematical object is defined by the set of all similar objects and the properties that these objects
must have.[12] For example, in Peano arithmetic, the natural numbers are defined by "zero is a number",
"each number has a unique successor", "each number but zero has a unique predecessor", and some rules
of reasoning.[53] This mathematical abstraction from reality is embodied in the modern philosophy of
formalism, as founded by David Hilbert around 1910.[54]

The "nature" of the objects defined this way is a philosophical problem that mathematicians leave to
philosophers, even if many mathematicians have opinions on this nature, and use their opinion—
sometimes called "intuition"—to guide their study and proofs. The approach allows considering "logics"
(that is, sets of allowed deducing rules), theorems, proofs, etc. as mathematical objects, and to prove
theorems about them. For example, Gödel's incompleteness theorems assert, roughly speaking that, in
every consistent formal system that contains the natural numbers, there are theorems that are true (that is
provable in a stronger system), but not provable inside the system.[55] This approach to the foundations of
mathematics was challenged during the first half of the 20th century by mathematicians led by Brouwer,
who promoted intuitionistic logic, which explicitly lacks the law of excluded middle.[56][57]

These problems and debates led to a wide expansion of mathematical logic, with subareas such as model
theory (modeling some logical theories inside other theories), proof theory, type theory, computability
theory and computational complexity theory.[14] Although these aspects of mathematical logic were
introduced before the rise of computers, their use in compiler design, formal verification, program
analysis, proof assistants and other aspects of computer science, contributed in turn to the expansion of
these logical theories.[58]

Statistics and other decision sciences

The field of statistics is a mathematical
application that is employed for the collection
and processing of data samples, using procedures
based on mathematical methods especially
probability theory. Statisticians generate data
with random sampling or randomized
experiments.[60]
Whatever the form of a random population distribution
Statistical theory studies decision problems such (μ), the sampling mean (x̄ ) tends to a Gaussian
as minimizing the risk (expected loss) of a distribution and its variance (σ) is given by the central
statistical action, such as using a procedure in, limit theorem of probability theory.[59]
for example, parameter estimation, hypothesis
testing, and selecting the best. In these traditional
areas of mathematical statistics, a statistical-decision problem is formulated by minimizing an objective
function, like expected loss or cost, under specific constraints. For example, designing a survey often
involves minimizing the cost of estimating a population mean with a given level of confidence.[61]
Because of its use of optimization, the mathematical theory of statistics overlaps with other decision
sciences, such as operations research, control theory, and mathematical economics.[62]

Computational mathematics
Computational mathematics is the study of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human,
numerical capacity.[63][64] Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional
analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis broadly includes the study of approximation and
discretization with special focus on rounding errors.[65] Numerical analysis and, more broadly, scientific
computing also study non-analytic topics of mathematical science, especially algorithmic-matrix-and-
graph theory. Other areas of computational mathematics include computer algebra and symbolic
computation.

History

Etymology
The word mathematics comes from the Ancient Greek word máthēma (μάθημα), meaning 'something
learned, knowledge, mathematics', and the derived expression mathēmatikḗ tékhnē (μαθηματικὴ τέχνη),
meaning 'mathematical science'. It entered the English language during the Late Middle English period
through French and Latin.[66]

Similarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism was known as the mathēmatikoi
(μαθηματικοί)—which at the time meant "learners" rather than "mathematicians" in the modern sense.
The Pythagoreans were likely the first to constrain the use of the word to just the study of arithmetic and
geometry. By the time of Aristotle (384–322 BC) this meaning was fully established.[67]

In Latin and English, until around 1700, the term mathematics more commonly meant "astrology" (or
sometimes "astronomy") rather than "mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one
from about 1500 to 1800. This change has resulted in several mistranslations: For example, Saint
Augustine's warning that Christians should beware of mathematici, meaning "astrologers", is sometimes
mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.[68]

The apparent plural form in English goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica (Cicero), based on
the Greek plural ta mathēmatiká (τὰ μαθηματικά) and means roughly "all things mathematical", although
it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective mathematic(al) and formed the noun mathematics
anew, after the pattern of physics and metaphysics, inherited from Greek.[69] In English, the noun
mathematics takes a singular verb. It is often shortened to maths[70] or, in North America, math.[71]

Ancient
In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also known how
to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.[72][73] Evidence for more complex
mathematics does not appear until around 3000 BC, when the Babylonians and Egyptians began using
arithmetic, algebra, and geometry for taxation and other financial calculations, for building and
construction, and for astronomy.[74] The oldest mathematical texts
from Mesopotamia and Egypt are from 2000 to 1800 BC.[75]
Many early texts mention Pythagorean triples and so, by
inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient
and widespread mathematical concept after basic arithmetic and
geometry. It is in Babylonian mathematics that elementary
arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) first
appear in the archaeological record. The Babylonians also
possessed a place-value system and used a sexagesimal numeral The Babylonian mathematical tablet
Plimpton 322, dated to 1800 BC
system which is still in use today for measuring angles and
time.[76]

In the 6th century BC, Greek mathematics began to emerge as a distinct discipline and some Ancient
Greeks such as the Pythagoreans appeared to have considered it a subject in its own right.[77] Around 300
BC, Euclid organized mathematical knowledge by way of postulates and first principles, which evolved
into the axiomatic method that is used in mathematics today, consisting of definition, axiom, theorem,
and proof.[78] His book, Elements, is widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all
time.[79] The greatest mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287 – c. 212 BC) of
Syracuse.[80] He developed formulas for calculating the surface area and volume of solids of revolution
and used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of
an infinite series, in a manner not too dissimilar from modern calculus.[81] Other notable achievements of
Greek mathematics are conic sections (Apollonius of Perga, 3rd century BC),[82] trigonometry
(Hipparchus of Nicaea, 2nd century BC),[83] and the beginnings of algebra (Diophantus, 3rd century
AD).[84]

The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules

for the use of its operations, in use throughout the
world today, evolved over the course of the first
millennium AD in India and were transmitted to The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated
the Western world via Islamic mathematics. [85] between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD
Other notable developments of Indian
mathematics include the modern definition and
approximation of sine and cosine, and an early form of infinite series.[86][87]

Medieval and later

During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, mathematics saw many
important innovations building on Greek mathematics. The most notable achievement of Islamic
mathematics was the development of algebra. Other achievements of the Islamic period include advances
in spherical trigonometry and the addition of the decimal point to the Arabic numeral system.[88] Many
notable mathematicians from this period were Persian, such as Al-Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam and
Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.[89] The Greek and Arabic mathematical texts were in turn translated to Latin during
the Middle Ages and made available in Europe.[90]

During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western
Europe, with innovations that revolutionized mathematics, such as the introduction of variables and
symbolic notation by François Viète (1540–1603), the introduction of logarithms by John Napier in 1614,
which greatly simplified numerical calculations, especially for astronomy and
marine navigation, the introduction of coordinates by René Descartes (1596–
1650) for reducing geometry to algebra, and the development of calculus by
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). Leonhard
Euler (1707–1783), the most notable mathematician of the 18th century,
unified these innovations into a single corpus with a standardized
terminology, and completed them with the discovery and the proof of
numerous theorems.[91]

Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the

19th century was the German mathematician
Carl Gauss, who made numerous
contributions to fields such as algebra, A page from al-
analysis, differential geometry, matrix Khwarizmi's Al-Jabr
theory, number theory, and statistics.[92] In
the early 20th century, Kurt Gödel
transformed mathematics by publishing his incompleteness theorems,
which show in part that any consistent axiomatic system—if powerful
enough to describe arithmetic—will contain true propositions that cannot
be proved.[55]
Carl Friedrich Gauss
Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a
fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of
both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made to this very day. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in
the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, "The number of papers and
books included in the Mathematical Reviews (MR) database since 1940 (the first year of operation of
MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year.
The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their
proofs."[93]

Symbolic notation and terminology

Mathematical notation is widely used in science and engineering
for representing complex concepts and properties in a concise,
unambiguous, and accurate way. This notation consists of symbols
used for representing operations, unspecified numbers, relations
and any other mathematical objects, and then assembling them
into expressions and formulas.[94] More precisely, numbers and
other mathematical objects are represented by symbols called
variables, which are generally Latin or Greek letters, and often
An explanation of the sigma (Σ)
include subscripts. Operation and relations are generally
summation notation
represented by specific symbols or glyphs,[95] such as + (plus), ×
(multiplication), (integral), = (equal), and < (less than).[96] All
these symbols are generally grouped according to specific rules to form expressions and formulas.[97]
Normally, expressions and formulas do not appear alone, but are included in sentences of the current
language, where expressions play the role of noun phrases and formulas play the role of clauses.
Mathematics has developed a rich terminology covering a broad range of fields that study the properties
of various abstract, idealized objects and how they interact. It is based on rigorous definitions that provide
a standard foundation for communication. An axiom or postulate is a mathematical statement that is taken
to be true without need of proof. If a mathematical statement has yet to be proven (or disproven), it is
termed a conjecture. Through a series of rigorous arguments employing deductive reasoning, a statement
that is proven to be true becomes a theorem. A specialized theorem that is mainly used to prove another
theorem is called a lemma. A proven instance that forms part of a more general finding is termed a
corollary.[98]

Numerous technical terms used in mathematics are neologisms, such as polynomial and
homeomorphism.[99] Other technical terms are words of the common language that are used in an
accurate meaning that may differ slightly from their common meaning. For example, in mathematics, "or"
means "one, the other or both", while, in common language, it is either ambiguous or means "one or the
other but not both" (in mathematics, the latter is called "exclusive or"). Finally, many mathematical terms
are common words that are used with a completely different meaning.[100] This may lead to sentences
that are correct and true mathematical assertions, but appear to be nonsense to people who do not have
the required background. For example, "every free module is flat" and "a field is always a ring".

Relationship with sciences

Mathematics is used in most sciences for modeling phenomena, which then allows predictions to be made
from experimental laws.[101] The independence of mathematical truth from any experimentation implies
that the accuracy of such predictions depends only on the adequacy of the model.[102] Inaccurate
predictions, rather than being caused by invalid mathematical concepts, imply the need to change the
mathematical model used.[103] For example, the perihelion precession of Mercury could only be
explained after the emergence of Einstein's general relativity, which replaced Newton's law of gravitation
as a better mathematical model.[104]

There is still a philosophical debate whether mathematics is a science. However, in practice,

mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists, and mathematics shares much in common with the
physical sciences. Like them, it is falsifiable, which means in mathematics that, if a result or a theory is
wrong, this can be proved by providing a counterexample. Similarly as in science, theories and results
(theorems) are often obtained from experimentation.[105] In mathematics, the experimentation may
consist of computation on selected examples or of the study of figures or other representations of
mathematical objects (often mind representations without physical support). For example, when asked
how he came about his theorems, Gauss once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren" (through
systematic experimentation).[106] However, some authors emphasize that mathematics differs from the
modern notion of science by not relying on empirical evidence.[107][108][109][110]

Pure and applied mathematics

Until the 19th century, the development of mathematics in the West was mainly motivated by the needs of
technology and science, and there was no clear distinction between pure and applied mathematics.[111]
For example, the natural numbers and arithmetic were introduced for the need of counting, and geometry
was motivated by surveying, architecture and astronomy. Later, Isaac Newton introduced infinitesimal
calculus for explaining the movement of the planets with his law of gravitation. Moreover, most
mathematicians were
also scientists, and many
scientists were also
mathematicians.[112]
However, a notable
exception occurred with
the tradition of pure
mathematics in Ancient
Greece.[113] The
problem of integer
factorization, for Isaac Newton (left) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus.
example, which goes
back to Euclid in 300
BC, had no practical application before its use in the RSA cryptosystem, now widely used for the security
of computer networks.[114]

In the 19th century, mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass and Richard Dedekind increasingly focused
their research on internal problems, that is, pure mathematics.[111][115] This led to split mathematics into
pure mathematics and applied mathematics, the latter being often considered as having a lower value
among mathematical purists. However, the lines between the two are frequently blurred.[116]

The aftermath of World War II led to a surge in the development of applied mathematics in the US and
elsewhere.[117][118] Many of the theories developed for applications were found interesting from the point
of view of pure mathematics, and many results of pure mathematics were shown to have applications
outside mathematics; in turn, the study of these applications may give new insights on the "pure
theory".[119][120]

An example of the first case is the theory of distributions, introduced by Laurent Schwartz for validating
computations done in quantum mechanics, which became immediately an important tool of (pure)
mathematical analysis.[121] An example of the second case is the decidability of the first-order theory of
the real numbers, a problem of pure mathematics that was proved true by Alfred Tarski, with an algorithm
that is impossible to implement because of a computational complexity that is much too high.[122] For
getting an algorithm that can be implemented and can solve systems of polynomial equations and
inequalities, George Collins introduced the cylindrical algebraic decomposition that became a
fundamental tool in real algebraic geometry.[123]

In the present day, the distinction between pure and applied mathematics is more a question of personal
research aim of mathematicians than a division of mathematics into broad areas.[124][125] The
Mathematics Subject Classification has a section for "general applied mathematics" but does not mention
"pure mathematics".[14] However, these terms are still used in names of some university departments,
such as at the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge.

Unreasonable effectiveness
The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics is a phenomenon that was named and first made explicit
by physicist Eugene Wigner.[3] It is the fact that many mathematical theories (even the "purest") have
applications outside their initial object. These applications may be completely outside their initial area of
mathematics, and may concern physical phenomena that were completely unknown when the
mathematical theory was introduced.[126] Examples of unexpected applications of mathematical theories
can be found in many areas of mathematics.

A notable example is the prime factorization of natural numbers that was discovered more than 2,000
years before its common use for secure internet communications through the RSA cryptosystem.[127] A
second historical example is the theory of ellipses. They were studied by the ancient Greek
mathematicians as conic sections (that is, intersections of cones with planes). It was almost 2,000 years
later that Johannes Kepler discovered that the trajectories of the planets are ellipses.[128]

In the 19th century, the internal development of geometry (pure mathematics) led to definition and study
of non-Euclidean geometries, spaces of dimension higher than three and manifolds. At this time, these
concepts seemed totally disconnected from the physical reality, but at the beginning of the 20th century,
Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity that uses fundamentally these concepts. In particular,
spacetime of special relativity is a non-Euclidean space of dimension four, and spacetime of general
relativity is a (curved) manifold of dimension four.[129][130]

A striking aspect of the interaction between mathematics and physics is when mathematics drives
research in physics. This is illustrated by the discoveries of the positron and the baryon In both
cases, the equations of the theories had unexplained solutions, which led to conjecture of the existence of
an unknown particle, and the search for these particles. In both cases, these particles were discovered a
few years later by specific experiments.[131][132][133]

Specific sciences

Physics
Mathematics and physics have influenced each other over their
modern history. Modern physics uses mathematics
abundantly, [134] and is also considered to be the motivation of
major mathematical developments.[135]

Computing
Computing is closely related to mathematics in several ways.[136]
Theoretical computer science is considered to be mathematical in
nature.[137] Communication technologies apply branches of
mathematics that may be very old (e.g., arithmetic), especially
with respect to transmission security, in cryptography and coding
theory. Discrete mathematics is useful in many areas of computer
science, such as complexity theory, information theory, and graph Diagram of a pendulum
theory.[138] In 1998, the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing
seemed to also be partially proven by computer.[139]

Biology and chemistry

Biology uses probability extensively in fields such as ecology or
neurobiology.[140] Most discussion of probability centers on the
concept of evolutionary fitness.[140] Ecology heavily uses
modeling to simulate population dynamics,[140][141] study
ecosystems such as the predator-prey model, measure pollution
diffusion,[142] or to assess climate change.[143] The dynamics of a
population can be modeled by coupled differential equations, such
as the Lotka–Volterra equations.[144]

Statistical hypothesis testing, is run on data from clinical trials to

determine whether a new treatment works.[145] Since the start of
the 20th century, chemistry has used computing to model The skin of this giant pufferfish
molecules in three dimensions.[146] exhibits a Turing pattern, which can
be modeled by reaction–diffusion
systems.
Earth sciences
Structural geology and climatology use probabilistic models to
predict the risk of natural catastrophes.[147] Similarly, meteorology, oceanography, and planetology also
use mathematics due to their heavy use of models.[148][149][150]

Social sciences
Areas of mathematics used in the social sciences include probability/statistics and differential equations.
These are used in linguistics, economics, sociology,[151] and psychology.[152]

Often the fundamental postulate of mathematical economics is that

of the rational individual actor – Homo economicus (lit. 'economic
man').[153] In this model, the individual seeks to maximize their
self-interest,[153] and always makes optimal choices using perfect
information.[154] This atomistic view of economics allows it to
relatively easily mathematize its thinking, because individual
calculations are transposed into mathematical calculations. Such
mathematical modeling allows one to probe economic
mechanisms. Some reject or criticise the concept of Homo
economicus. Economists note that real people have limited
information, make poor choices and care about fairness, altruism,
not just personal gain.[155] Supply and demand curves, like this
one, are a staple of mathematical
Without mathematical modeling, it is hard to go beyond statistical economics.
observations or untestable speculation. Mathematical modeling
allows economists to create structured frameworks to test
hypotheses and analyze complex interactions. Models provide clarity and precision, enabling the
translation of theoretical concepts into quantifiable predictions that can be tested against real-world
data.[156]

At the start of the 20th century, there was a development to express historical movements in formulas. In
1922, Nikolai Kondratiev discerned the ~50-year-long Kondratiev cycle, which explains phases of
economic growth or crisis.[157] Towards the end of the 19th century, mathematicians extended their
analysis into geopolitics.[158] Peter Turchin developed cliodynamics since the 1990s.[159]

Mathematization of the social sciences is not without risk. In the controversial book Fashionable
Nonsense (1997), Sokal and Bricmont denounced the unfounded or abusive use of scientific terminology,
particularly from mathematics or physics, in the social sciences.[160] The study of complex systems
(evolution of unemployment, business capital, demographic evolution of a population, etc.) uses
mathematical knowledge. However, the choice of counting criteria, particularly for unemployment, or of
models, can be subject to controversy.[161][162]

Philosophy

Reality
The connection between mathematics and material reality has led to philosophical debates since at least
the time of Pythagoras. The ancient philosopher Plato argued that abstractions that reflect material reality
have themselves a reality that exists outside space and time. As a result, the philosophical view that
mathematical objects somehow exist on their own in abstraction is often referred to as Platonism.
Independently of their possible philosophical opinions, modern mathematicians may be generally
considered as Platonists, since they think of and talk of their objects of study as real objects.[163]

Armand Borel summarized this view of mathematics reality as follows, and provided quotations of G. H.
Hardy, Charles Hermite, Henri Poincaré and Albert Einstein that support his views.[131]

Something becomes objective (as opposed to "subjective") as soon as we are convinced that it
exists in the minds of others in the same form as it does in ours and that we can think about it
and discuss it together.[164] Because the language of mathematics is so precise, it is ideally
suited to defining concepts for which such a consensus exists. In my opinion, that is sufficient
to provide us with a feeling of an objective existence, of a reality of mathematics ...

Nevertheless, Platonism and the concurrent views on abstraction do not explain the unreasonable
effectiveness of mathematics.[165]

Proposed definitions
There is no general consensus about the definition of mathematics or its epistemological status—that is,
its place inside knowledge. A great many professional mathematicians take no interest in a definition of
mathematics, or consider it undefinable. There is not even consensus on whether mathematics is an art or
a science. Some just say, "mathematics is what mathematicians do".[166][167] A common approach is to
define mathematics by its object of study.[168][169][170][171]

Aristotle defined mathematics as "the science of quantity" and this definition prevailed until the 18th
century. However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish mathematics from
sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a property "separable in thought"
from real instances set mathematics apart.[172] In the 19th century, when mathematicians began to address
topics—such as infinite sets—which have no clear-cut relation to physical reality, a variety of new
definitions were given.[173] With the large number of new areas of mathematics that have appeared since
the beginning of the 20th century, defining mathematics by its object of study has become increasingly
difficult.[174] For example, in lieu of a definition, Saunders Mac Lane in Mathematics, form and function
summarizes the basics of several areas of mathematics, emphasizing their inter-connectedness, and
observes:[175]

the development of Mathematics provides a tightly connected network of formal rules,

concepts, and systems. Nodes of this network are closely bound to procedures useful in human
activities and to questions arising in science. The transition from activities to the formal
Mathematical systems is guided by a variety of general insights and ideas.

Another approach for defining mathematics is to use its methods. For example, an area of study is often
qualified as mathematics as soon as one can prove theorems—assertions whose validity relies on a proof,
that is, a purely-logical deduction.[d][176]

Rigor
Mathematical reasoning requires rigor. This means that the definitions must be absolutely unambiguous
and the proofs must be reducible to a succession of applications of inference rules,[e] without any use of
empirical evidence and intuition.[f][177] Rigorous reasoning is not specific to mathematics, but, in
mathematics, the standard of rigor is much higher than elsewhere. Despite mathematics' concision,
rigorous proofs can require hundreds of pages to express, such as the 255-page Feit–Thompson
theorem.[g] The emergence of computer-assisted proofs has allowed proof lengths to further
expand.[h][178] The result of this trend is a philosophy of the quasi-empiricist proof that can not be
considered infallible, but has a probability attached to it.[6]

The concept of rigor in mathematics dates back to ancient Greece, where their society encouraged logical,
deductive reasoning. However, this rigorous approach would tend to discourage exploration of new
approaches, such as irrational numbers and concepts of infinity. The method of demonstrating rigorous
proof was enhanced in the sixteenth century through the use of symbolic notation. In the 18th century,
social transition led to mathematicians earning their keep through teaching, which led to more careful
thinking about the underlying concepts of mathematics. This produced more rigorous approaches, while
transitioning from geometric methods to algebraic and then arithmetic proofs.[6]

At the end of the 19th century, it appeared that the definitions of the basic concepts of mathematics were
not accurate enough for avoiding paradoxes (non-Euclidean geometries and Weierstrass function) and
contradictions (Russell's paradox). This was solved by the inclusion of axioms with the apodictic
inference rules of mathematical theories; the re-introduction of axiomatic method pioneered by the
ancient Greeks.[6] It results that "rigor" is no more a relevant concept in mathematics, as a proof is either
correct or erroneous, and a "rigorous proof" is simply a pleonasm. Where a special concept of rigor
comes into play is in the socialized aspects of a proof, wherein it may be demonstrably refuted by other
mathematicians. After a proof has been accepted for many years or even decades, it can then be
considered as reliable.[179]
Nevertheless, the concept of "rigor" may remain useful for teaching to beginners what is a mathematical
proof.[180]

Training and practice

Education
Mathematics has a remarkable ability to cross cultural boundaries and time periods. As a human activity,
the practice of mathematics has a social side, which includes education, careers, recognition,
popularization, and so on. In education, mathematics is a core part of the curriculum and forms an
important element of the STEM academic disciplines. Prominent careers for professional mathematicians
include math teacher or professor, statistician, actuary, financial analyst, economist, accountant,
commodity trader, or computer consultant.[181]

Archaeological evidence shows that instruction in mathematics occurred as early as the second
millennium BCE in ancient Babylonia.[182] Comparable evidence has been unearthed for scribal
mathematics training in the ancient Near East and then for the Greco-Roman world starting around 300
BCE.[183] The oldest known mathematics textbook is the Rhind papyrus, dated from c. 1650 BCE in
Egypt.[184] Due to a scarcity of books, mathematical teachings in ancient India were communicated using
memorized oral tradition since the Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE).[185] In Imperial China during the
Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), a mathematics curriculum was adopted for the civil service exam to join the
state bureaucracy.[186]

Following the Dark Ages, mathematics education in Europe was provided by religious schools as part of
the Quadrivium. Formal instruction in pedagogy began with Jesuit schools in the 16th and 17th century.
Most mathematical curricula remained at a basic and practical level until the nineteenth century, when it
began to flourish in France and Germany. The oldest journal addressing instruction in mathematics was
L'Enseignement Mathématique, which began publication in 1899.[187] The Western advancements in
science and technology led to the establishment of centralized education systems in many nation-states,
with mathematics as a core component—initially for its military applications.[188] While the content of
courses varies, in the present day nearly all countries teach mathematics to students for significant
amounts of time.[189]

During school, mathematical capabilities and positive expectations have a strong association with career
interest in the field. Extrinsic factors such as feedback motivation by teachers, parents, and peer groups
can influence the level of interest in mathematics.[190] Some students studying math may develop an
apprehension or fear about their performance in the subject. This is known as math anxiety or math
phobia, and is considered the most prominent of the disorders impacting academic performance. Math
anxiety can develop due to various factors such as parental and teacher attitudes, social stereotypes, and
personal traits. Help to counteract the anxiety can come from changes in instructional approaches, by
interactions with parents and teachers, and by tailored treatments for the individual.[191]

Psychology (aesthetic, creativity and intuition)

The validity of a mathematical theorem relies only on the rigor of its proof, which could theoretically be
done automatically by a computer program. This does not mean that there is no place for creativity in a
mathematical work. On the contrary, many important mathematical results (theorems) are solutions of
problems that other mathematicians failed to solve, and the invention of a way for solving them may be a
fundamental way of the solving process.[192][193] An extreme example is Apery's theorem: Roger Apery
provided only the ideas for a proof, and the formal proof was given only several months later by three
other mathematicians.[194]

Creativity and rigor are not the only psychological aspects of the activity of mathematicians. Some
mathematicians can see their activity as a game, more specifically as solving puzzles.[195] This aspect of
mathematical activity is emphasized in recreational mathematics.

Mathematicians can find an aesthetic value to mathematics. Like beauty, it is hard to define, it is
commonly related to elegance, which involves qualities like simplicity, symmetry, completeness, and
generality. G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that the aesthetic
considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. He also identified
other criteria such as significance, unexpectedness, and inevitability, which contribute to mathematical
aesthetics.[196] Paul Erdős expressed this sentiment more ironically by speaking of "The Book", a
supposed divine collection of the most beautiful proofs. The 1998 book Proofs from THE BOOK, inspired
by Erdős, is a collection of particularly succinct and revelatory mathematical arguments. Some examples
of particularly elegant results included are Euclid's proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers
and the fast Fourier transform for harmonic analysis.[197]

Some feel that to consider mathematics a science is to downplay its artistry and history in the seven
traditional liberal arts.[198] One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate
as to whether mathematical results are created (as in art) or discovered (as in science).[131] The popularity
of recreational mathematics is another sign of the pleasure many find in solving mathematical questions.

Cultural impact

Artistic expression
Notes that sound well together to a Western ear are sounds whose fundamental frequencies of vibration
are in simple ratios. For example, an octave doubles the frequency and a perfect fifth multiplies it by
.[199][200]

Humans, as well as some other animals, find symmetric patterns to be more beautiful.[201]
Mathematically, the symmetries of an object form a group known as the symmetry group.[202] For
example, the group underlying mirror symmetry is the cyclic group of two elements, . A Rorschach
[203]
test is a figure invariant by this symmetry, as are butterfly and animal bodies more generally (at least
on the surface).[204] Waves on the sea surface possess translation
symmetry: moving one's viewpoint by the distance between wave
crests does not change one's view of the sea.[205] Fractals possess
self-similarity.[206][207]

Popularization
Popular mathematics is the act of presenting mathematics without
technical terms.[208] Presenting mathematics may be hard since
the general public suffers from mathematical anxiety and
mathematical objects are highly abstract.[209] However, popular
mathematics writing can overcome this by using applications or Fractal with a scaling symmetry and
cultural links.[210] Despite this, mathematics is rarely the topic of a central symmetry
popularization in printed or televised media.

Awards and prize problems

The most prestigious award in mathematics is the Fields
Medal,[211][212] established in 1936 and awarded every four years
(except around World War II) to up to four individuals.[213][214] It
is considered the mathematical equivalent of the Nobel Prize.[214]

Other prestigious mathematics awards include:[215]

The Abel Prize, instituted in 2002[216] and first awarded

in 2003[217]
The Chern Medal for lifetime achievement, introduced in
2009[218] and first awarded in 2010[219]
The front side of the Fields Medal
The AMS Leroy P. Steele Prize, awarded since 1970[220]
with an illustration of the Greek
The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, also for lifetime polymath Archimedes
achievement,[221] instituted in 1978[222]
A famous list of 23 open problems, called "Hilbert's problems",
was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician David Hilbert.[223] This list has achieved great celebrity
among mathematicians,[224] and at least thirteen of the problems (depending how some are interpreted)
have been solved.[223]

A new list of seven important problems, titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was published in 2000.
Only one of them, the Riemann hypothesis, duplicates one of Hilbert's problems. A solution to any of
these problems carries a 1 million dollar reward.[225] To date, only one of these problems, the Poincaré
conjecture, has been solved by the Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman.[226]

See also
Mathematics portal

Law (mathematics)
 List of mathematical jargon
Lists of mathematicians
Lists of mathematics topics
Mathematical constant
Mathematical sciences
Mathematics and art
Mathematics education
Philosophy of mathematics
Relationship between mathematics and physics
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

References

Notes
a. Here, algebra is taken in its modern sense, which is, roughly speaking, the art of
manipulating formulas.
b. This includes conic sections, which are intersections of circular cylinders and planes.
c. However, some advanced methods of analysis are sometimes used; for example, methods
of complex analysis applied to generating series.
d. For example, logic belongs to philosophy since Aristotle. Circa the end of the 19th century,
the foundational crisis of mathematics implied developments of logic that are specific to
mathematics. This allowed eventually the proof of theorems such as Gödel's theorems.
Since then, mathematical logic is commonly considered as an area of mathematics.
e. This does not mean to make explicit all inference rules that are used. On the contrary, this is
generally impossible, without computers and proof assistants. Even with this modern
technology, it may take years of human work for writing down a completely detailed proof.
f. This does not mean that empirical evidence and intuition are not needed for choosing the
theorems to be proved and to prove them.
g. This is the length of the original paper that does not contain the proofs of some previously
published auxiliary results. The book devoted to the complete proof has more than 1,000
pages.
h. For considering as reliable a large computation occurring in a proof, one generally requires
two computations using independent software

Citations
1. Hipólito, Inês Viegas (August 9–15, 2015). "Abstract Cognition and the Nature of
Mathematical Proof". In Kanzian, Christian; Mitterer, Josef; Neges, Katharina (eds.).
Realismus – Relativismus – Konstruktivismus: Beiträge des 38. Internationalen Wittgenstein
Symposiums (https://www.alws.at/alws/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/papers-2015.pdf#page
=133) [Realism – Relativism – Constructivism: Contributions of the 38th International
Wittgenstein Symposium] (PDF) (in German and English). Vol. 23. Kirchberg am Wechsel,
Austria: Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society. pp. 132–134. ISSN 1022-3398 (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/issn/1022-3398). OCLC 236026294 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/236026
294). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221107221937/https://www.alws.at/alws/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2018/06/papers-2015.pdf#page=133) (PDF) from the original on November
7, 2022. Retrieved January 17, 2024. (at ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net/publi
cation/280654540_Abstract_Cognition_and_the_Nature_of_Mathematical_Proof) Archived
 (https://web.archive.org/web/20221105145638/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280
654540_Abstract_Cognition_and_the_Nature_of_Mathematical_Proof) November 5, 2022,
at the Wayback Machine)
2. Peterson 1988, p. 12.
3. Wigner, Eugene (1960). "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural
Sciences" (https://math.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html).
Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics. 13 (1): 1–14.
Bibcode:1960CPAM...13....1W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960CPAM...13....1W).
doi:10.1002/cpa.3160130102 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcpa.3160130102).
S2CID 6112252 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6112252). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20110228152633/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wi
gner.html) from the original on February 28, 2011.
4. Wise, David. "Eudoxus' Influence on Euclid's Elements with a close look at The Method of
Exhaustion" (http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMT668/EMAT6680.F99/Wise/essay7/essay7.htm).
The University of Georgia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190601004355/http://jwil
son.coe.uga.edu/emt668/EMAT6680.F99/Wise/essay7/essay7.htm) from the original on
June 1, 2019. Retrieved January 18, 2024.
5. Alexander, Amir (September 2011). "The Skeleton in the Closet: Should Historians of
Science Care about the History of Mathematics?". Isis. 102 (3): 475–480.
doi:10.1086/661620 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F661620). ISSN 0021-1753 (https://search.w
orldcat.org/issn/0021-1753). MR 2884913 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?
mr=2884913). PMID 22073771 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22073771).
S2CID 21629993 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21629993).
6. Kleiner, Israel (December 1991). "Rigor and Proof in Mathematics: A Historical Perspective".
Mathematics Magazine. 64 (5). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 291–314.
doi:10.1080/0025570X.1991.11977625 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0025570X.1991.119776
25). eISSN 1930-0980 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1930-0980). ISSN 0025-570X (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-570X). JSTOR 2690647 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2690
647). LCCN 47003192 (https://lccn.loc.gov/47003192). MR 1141557 (https://mathscinet.am
s.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1141557). OCLC 1756877 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17
56877). S2CID 7787171 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7787171).
7. Bell, E. T. (1945) [1940]. "General Prospectus". The Development of Mathematics (2nd ed.).
Dover Publications. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-486-27239-9. LCCN 45010599 (https://lccn.loc.gov/45
010599). OCLC 523284 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/523284). "... mathematics has
come down to the present by the two main streams of number and form. The first carried
along arithmetic and algebra, the second, geometry."
8. Tiwari, Sarju (1992). "A Mirror of Civilization". Mathematics in History, Culture, Philosophy,
and Science (1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications. p. 27. ISBN 978-81-7099-404-6.
LCCN 92909575 (https://lccn.loc.gov/92909575). OCLC 28115124 (https://search.worldcat.
org/oclc/28115124). "It is unfortunate that two curses of mathematics--Numerology and
Astrology were also born with it and have been more acceptable to the masses than
mathematics itself."
9. Restivo, Sal (1992). "Mathematics from the Ground Up". In Bunge, Mario (ed.). Mathematics
in Society and History. Episteme. Vol. 20. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 0-7923-
1765-3. LCCN 25709270 (https://lccn.loc.gov/25709270). OCLC 92013695 (https://search.w
orldcat.org/oclc/92013695).
10. Musielak, Dora (2022). Leonhard Euler and the Foundations of Celestial Mechanics. History
of Physics. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-12322-1 (https://doi.or
g/10.1007%2F978-3-031-12322-1). eISSN 2730-7557 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2730
-7557). ISBN 978-3-031-12321-4. ISSN 2730-7549 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2730-7
549). OCLC 1332780664 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1332780664). S2CID 253240718
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253240718).
11. Biggs, N. L. (May 1979). "The roots of combinatorics" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-086
0%2879%2990074-0). Historia Mathematica. 6 (2): 109–136. doi:10.1016/0315-
0860(79)90074-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990074-0). eISSN 1090-
249X (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1090-249X). ISSN 0315-0860 (https://search.worldca
t.org/issn/0315-0860). LCCN 75642280 (https://lccn.loc.gov/75642280). OCLC 2240703 (htt
ps://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2240703).
12. Warner, Evan. "Splash Talk: The Foundational Crisis of Mathematics" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20230322165544/https://www.math.columbia.edu/~warner/notes/SplashTalk.pdf)
(PDF). Columbia University. Archived from the original (https://www.math.columbia.edu/~war
ner/notes/SplashTalk.pdf) (PDF) on March 22, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
13. Dunne, Edward; Hulek, Klaus (March 2020). "Mathematics Subject Classification 2020" (http
s://www.ams.org/journals/notices/202003/rnoti-p410.pdf) (PDF). Notices of the American
Mathematical Society. 67 (3): 410–411. doi:10.1090/noti2052 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fno
ti2052). eISSN 1088-9477 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1088-9477). ISSN 0002-9920 (ht
tps://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9920). LCCN sf77000404 (https://lccn.loc.gov/sf770004
04). OCLC 1480366 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1480366). Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20210803203928/https://www.ams.org/journals/notices/202003/rnoti-p410.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on August 3, 2021. Retrieved February 3, 2024. "The new MSC
contains 63 two-digit classifications, 529 three-digit classifications, and 6,006 five-digit
classifications."
14. "MSC2020-Mathematics Subject Classification System" (https://zbmath.org/static/msc2020.
pdf) (PDF). zbMath. Associate Editors of Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20240102023805/https://zbmath.org/static/msc2020.pdf) (PDF)
from the original on January 2, 2024. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
15. LeVeque, William J. (1977). "Introduction". Fundamentals of Number Theory. Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company. pp. 1–30. ISBN 0-201-04287-8. LCCN 76055645 (https://lccn.l
oc.gov/76055645). OCLC 3519779 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3519779).
S2CID 118560854 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118560854).
16. Goldman, Jay R. (1998). "The Founding Fathers". The Queen of Mathematics: A Historically
Motivated Guide to Number Theory. Wellesley, MA: A K Peters. pp. 2–3.
doi:10.1201/9781439864623 (https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781439864623). ISBN 1-56881-
006-7. LCCN 94020017 (https://lccn.loc.gov/94020017). OCLC 30437959 (https://search.wo
rldcat.org/oclc/30437959). S2CID 118934517 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118
934517).
17. Weil, André (1983). Number Theory: An Approach Through History From Hammurapi to
Legendre. Birkhäuser Boston. pp. 2–3. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4571-7 (https://doi.org/10.1
007%2F978-0-8176-4571-7). ISBN 0-8176-3141-0. LCCN 83011857 (https://lccn.loc.gov/83
011857). OCLC 9576587 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9576587). S2CID 117789303 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117789303).
18. Kleiner, Israel (March 2000). "From Fermat to Wiles: Fermat's Last Theorem Becomes a
Theorem" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FPL00000079). Elemente der Mathematik. 55 (1): 19–
37. doi:10.1007/PL00000079 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FPL00000079). eISSN 1420-8962
(https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1420-8962). ISSN 0013-6018 (https://search.worldcat.org/is
sn/0013-6018). LCCN 66083524 (https://lccn.loc.gov/66083524). OCLC 1567783 (https://se
arch.worldcat.org/oclc/1567783). S2CID 53319514 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:53319514).
19. Wang, Yuan (2002). The Goldbach Conjecture. Series in Pure Mathematics. Vol. 4
(2nd ed.). World Scientific. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1142/5096 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F5096).
ISBN 981-238-159-7. LCCN 2003268597 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2003268597).
OCLC 51533750 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51533750). S2CID 14555830 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14555830).
20. Straume, Eldar (September 4, 2014). "A Survey of the Development of Geometry up to
1870". arXiv:1409.1140 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1409.1140) [math.HO (https://arxiv.org/archive/
math.HO)].
21. Hilbert, David (1902). The Foundations of Geometry (https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z
BsAAAAMAAJ). Open Court Publishing Company. p. 1. doi:10.1126/science.16.399.307 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.16.399.307). LCCN 02019303 (https://lccn.loc.gov/020193
03). OCLC 996838 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/996838). S2CID 238499430 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238499430). Retrieved February 6, 2024.
22. Hartshorne, Robin (2000). "Euclid's Geometry". Geometry: Euclid and Beyond (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=EJCSL9S6la0C&pg=PA9). Springer New York. pp. 9–13. ISBN 0-
387-98650-2. LCCN 99044789 (https://lccn.loc.gov/99044789). OCLC 42290188 (https://se
arch.worldcat.org/oclc/42290188). Retrieved February 7, 2024.
23. Boyer, Carl B. (2004) [1956]. "Fermat and Descartes". History of Analytic Geometry. Dover
Publications. pp. 74–102. ISBN 0-486-43832-5. LCCN 2004056235 (https://lccn.loc.gov/200
4056235). OCLC 56317813 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56317813).
24. Stump, David J. (1997). "Reconstructing the Unity of Mathematics circa 1900" (https://philpa
pers.org/archive/STURTU.pdf) (PDF). Perspectives on Science. 5 (3): 383–417.
doi:10.1162/posc_a_00532 (https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc_a_00532). eISSN 1530-9274
(https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1530-9274). ISSN 1063-6145 (https://search.worldcat.org/is
sn/1063-6145). LCCN 94657506 (https://lccn.loc.gov/94657506). OCLC 26085129 (https://s
earch.worldcat.org/oclc/26085129). S2CID 117709681 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:117709681). Retrieved February 8, 2024.
25. O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (February 1996). "Non-Euclidean geometry" (https://maths
history.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Non-Euclidean_geometry/). MacTuror. Scotland, UK:
University of St. Andrews. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221106142807/https://m
athshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Non-Euclidean_geometry/) from the original on
November 6, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2024.
26. Joyner, David (2008). "The (legal) Rubik's Cube group". Adventures in Group Theory:
Rubik's Cube, Merlin's Machine, and Other Mathematical Toys (2nd ed.). Johns Hopkins
University Press. pp. 219–232. ISBN 978-0-8018-9012-3. LCCN 2008011322 (https://lccn.lo
c.gov/2008011322). OCLC 213765703 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/213765703).
27. Christianidis, Jean; Oaks, Jeffrey (May 2013). "Practicing algebra in late antiquity: The
problem-solving of Diophantus of Alexandria" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.hm.2012.09.00
1). Historia Mathematica. 40 (2): 127–163. doi:10.1016/j.hm.2012.09.001 (https://doi.org/10.
1016%2Fj.hm.2012.09.001). eISSN 1090-249X (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1090-249
X). ISSN 0315-0860 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0315-0860). LCCN 75642280 (https://l
ccn.loc.gov/75642280). OCLC 2240703 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2240703).
S2CID 121346342 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121346342).
28. Kleiner 2007, "History of Classical Algebra" pp. 3–5.
29. Shane, David (2022). "Figurate Numbers: A Historical Survey of an Ancient Mathematics" (ht
tps://www.methodist.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/mr2018_shane.pdf) (PDF). Methodist
University. p. 20. Retrieved June 13, 2024. "In his work, Diophantus focused on deducing
the arithmetic properties of figurate numbers, such as deducing the number of sides, the
different ways a number can be expressed as a figurate number, and the formulation of the
arithmetic progressions."
30. Overbay, Shawn; Schorer, Jimmy; Conger, Heather. "Al-Khwarizmi" (https://www.ms.uky.ed
u/~carl/ma330/project2/al-khwa21.html). University of Kentucky. Retrieved June 13, 2024.
31. Lim, Lisa (December 21, 2018). "Where the x we use in algebra came from, and the X in
Xmas" (https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/2178856/wher
e-x-we-use-algebra-came-and-x-xmas). South China Morning Post. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20181222003908/https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-rea
ds/article/2178856/where-x-we-use-algebra-came-and-x-xmas) from the original on
December 22, 2018. Retrieved February 8, 2024.
32. Berntjes, Sonja. "Algebra" (https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/db/ei3o). Encyclopaedia
of Islam Online (3rd ed.). ISSN 1573-3912 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912).
LCCN 2007238847 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2007238847). OCLC 56713464 (https://search.worl
dcat.org/oclc/56713464). Retrieved June 13, 2024.
33. Oaks, Jeffery A. (2018). "François Viète's revolution in algebra" (https://researchoutreach.or
g/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Jeffrey-Oaks.pdf) (PDF). Archive for History of Exact
Sciences. 72 (3): 245–302. doi:10.1007/s00407-018-0208-0 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00
407-018-0208-0). eISSN 1432-0657 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1432-0657).
ISSN 0003-9519 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519). LCCN 63024699 (https://lcc
n.loc.gov/63024699). OCLC 1482042 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1482042).
S2CID 125704699 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125704699). Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20221108162134/https://researchoutreach.org/wp-content/uploads/20
19/02/Jeffrey-Oaks.pdf) (PDF) from the original on November 8, 2022. Retrieved
February 8, 2024.
34. "Variable in Maths" (https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/variable-in-maths/). GeeksforGeeks.
April 24, 2024. Retrieved June 13, 2024.
35. Kleiner 2007, "History of Linear Algebra" pp. 79–101.
36. Corry, Leo (2004). "Emmy Noether: Ideals and Structures". Modern Algebra and the Rise of
Mathematical Structures (https://books.google.com/books?id=WdGbeyehoCoC&pg=PA247)
(2nd revised ed.). Germany: Birkhäuser Basel. pp. 247–252. ISBN 3-7643-7002-5.
LCCN 2004556211 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2004556211). OCLC 51234417 (https://search.worl
dcat.org/oclc/51234417). Retrieved February 8, 2024.
37. Riche, Jacques (2007). "From Universal Algebra to Universal Logic". In Beziau, J. Y.; Costa-
Leite, Alexandre (eds.). Perspectives on Universal Logic (https://books.google.com/books?id
=ZoRN9T1GUVwC&pg=PA3). Milano, Italy: Polimetrica International Scientific Publisher.
pp. 3–39. ISBN 978-88-7699-077-9. OCLC 647049731 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/647
049731). Retrieved February 8, 2024.
38. Krömer, Ralph (2007). Tool and Object: A History and Philosophy of Category Theory (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=41bHxtHxjUAC&pg=PR20). Science Networks – Historical
Studies. Vol. 32. Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. xxi–xxv, 1–91.
ISBN 978-3-7643-7523-2. LCCN 2007920230 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2007920230).
OCLC 85242858 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/85242858). Retrieved February 8, 2024.
39. Guicciardini, Niccolo (2017). "The Newton–Leibniz Calculus Controversy, 1708–1730" (http
s://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/187993169.pdf) (PDF). In Schliesser, Eric; Smeenk, Chris
(eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Newton. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199930418.013.9 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780
199930418.013.9). ISBN 978-0-19-993041-8. OCLC 975829354 (https://search.worldcat.or
g/oclc/975829354). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221109163253/https://core.ac.
uk/download/pdf/187993169.pdf) (PDF) from the original on November 9, 2022. Retrieved
February 9, 2024.
40. O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (September 1998). "Leonhard Euler" (https://mathshistory.s
t-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Euler/). MacTutor. Scotland, UK: University of St Andrews.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221109164921/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.
uk/Biographies/Euler/) from the original on November 9, 2022. Retrieved February 9, 2024.
41. "Calculus (Differential and Integral Calculus with Examples)" (https://byjus.com/maths/calcul
us/). Byju's. Retrieved June 13, 2024.
42. Franklin, James (July 2017). "Discrete and Continuous: A Fundamental Dichotomy in
Mathematics" (https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1334&context=j
hm). Journal of Humanistic Mathematics. 7 (2): 355–378. doi:10.5642/jhummath.201702.18
(https://doi.org/10.5642%2Fjhummath.201702.18). ISSN 2159-8118 (https://search.worldca
t.org/issn/2159-8118). LCCN 2011202231 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2011202231).
OCLC 700943261 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/700943261). S2CID 6945363 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6945363). Retrieved February 9, 2024.
43. Maurer, Stephen B. (1997). "What is Discrete Mathematics? The Many Answers" (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=EvuQdO3h-DQC&pg=PA121). In Rosenstein, Joseph G.;
Franzblau, Deborah S.; Roberts, Fred S. (eds.). Discrete Mathematics in the Schools.
DIMACS: Series in Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science. Vol. 36.
American Mathematical Society. pp. 121–124. doi:10.1090/dimacs/036/13 (https://doi.org/1
0.1090%2Fdimacs%2F036%2F13). ISBN 0-8218-0448-0. ISSN 1052-1798 (https://search.w
orldcat.org/issn/1052-1798). LCCN 97023277 (https://lccn.loc.gov/97023277).
OCLC 37141146 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37141146). S2CID 67358543 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:67358543). Retrieved February 9, 2024.
44. Hales, Thomas C. (2014). "Turing's Legacy: Developments from Turing's Ideas in Logic" (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=fYgaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260). In Downey, Rod (ed.).
Turing's Legacy. Lecture Notes in Logic. Vol. 42. Cambridge University Press. pp. 260–261.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781107338579.001 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781107338579.00
1). ISBN 978-1-107-04348-0. LCCN 2014000240 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2014000240).
OCLC 867717052 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/867717052). S2CID 19315498 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19315498). Retrieved February 9, 2024.
45. Sipser, Michael (July 1992). The History and Status of the P versus NP Question. STOC '92:
Proceedings of the twenty-fourth annual ACM symposium on Theory of Computing.
pp. 603–618. doi:10.1145/129712.129771 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F129712.129771).
S2CID 11678884 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11678884).
46. Ewald, William (November 17, 2018). "The Emergence of First-Order Logic" (https://plato.st
anford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
ISSN 1095-5054 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054). LCCN sn97004494 (https://lc
cn.loc.gov/sn97004494). OCLC 37550526 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37550526).
Retrieved June 14, 2024.
47. Ferreirós, José (June 18, 2020) [First published April 10, 2007]. "The Early Development of
Set Theory" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/settheory-early/). Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054).
LCCN sn97004494 (https://lccn.loc.gov/sn97004494). OCLC 37550526 (https://search.world
cat.org/oclc/37550526). Retrieved June 14, 2024.
48. Ferreirós, José (December 2001). "The Road to Modern Logic—An Interpretation" (https://id
us.us.es/xmlui/bitstream/11441/38373/1/The%20road%20to%20modern%20logic.pdf)
(PDF). The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic. 7 (4): 441–484. doi:10.2307/2687794 (https://doi.org/
10.2307%2F2687794). eISSN 1943-5894 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1943-5894).
hdl:11441/38373 (https://hdl.handle.net/11441%2F38373). ISSN 1079-8986 (https://search.
worldcat.org/issn/1079-8986). JSTOR 2687794 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2687794).
LCCN 95652899 (https://lccn.loc.gov/95652899). OCLC 31616719 (https://search.worldcat.
org/oclc/31616719). S2CID 43258676 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43258676).
Retrieved June 14, 2024.
49. Wolchover, Natalie, ed. (November 26, 2013). "Dispute over Infinity Divides
Mathematicians" (https://www.quantamagazine.org/to-settle-infinity-question-a-new-law-of-m
athematics-20131126/). Quanta Magazine. Retrieved June 14, 2024.
50. Zhuang, Chaohui. "Wittgenstein's analysis on Cantor's diagonal argument" (https://philarchiv
e.org/archive/ZHUWAO) (DOC). PhilArchive. Retrieved June 14, 2024.
51. Tanswell, Fenner Stanley (2024). Mathematical Rigour and Informal Proof. Cambridge
Elements in the Philosophy of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/9781009325110 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009325110). eISSN 2399-
2883 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2399-2883). ISBN 978-1-00-949438-0. ISSN 2514-
3808 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2514-3808). OCLC 1418750041 (https://search.world
cat.org/oclc/1418750041).
52. Avigad, Jeremy; Reck, Erich H. (December 11, 2001). " "Clarifying the nature of the infinite":
the development of metamathematics and proof theory" (https://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/
avigad/Papers/infinite.pdf) (PDF). Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved June 14, 2024.
53. Hamilton, Alan G. (1982). Numbers, Sets and Axioms: The Apparatus of Mathematics (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=OXfmTHXvRXMC&pg=PA3). Cambridge University Press.
pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-521-28761-6. Retrieved November 12, 2022.
54. Snapper, Ernst (September 1979). "The Three Crises in Mathematics: Logicism,
Intuitionism, and Formalism". Mathematics Magazine. 52 (4): 207–216.
doi:10.2307/2689412 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2689412). ISSN 0025-570X (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/issn/0025-570X). JSTOR 2689412 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2689412).
55. Raatikainen, Panu (October 2005). "On the Philosophical Relevance of Gödel's
Incompleteness Theorems" (https://www.cairn.info/revue-internationale-de-philosophie-2005
-4-page-513.htm). Revue Internationale de Philosophie. 59 (4): 513–534.
doi:10.3917/rip.234.0513 (https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frip.234.0513). JSTOR 23955909 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/23955909). S2CID 52083793 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:52083793). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221112212555/https://www.cairn.in
fo/revue-internationale-de-philosophie-2005-4-page-513.htm) from the original on November
12, 2022. Retrieved November 12, 2022.
56. Moschovakis, Joan (September 4, 2018). "Intuitionistic Logic" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entr
ies/logic-intuitionistic/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20221216154821/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/) from the
original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved November 12, 2022.
57. McCarty, Charles (2006). "At the Heart of Analysis: Intuitionism and Philosophy" (https://doi.
org/10.4000%2Fphilosophiascientiae.411). Philosophia Scientiæ, Cahier spécial 6: 81–94.
doi:10.4000/philosophiascientiae.411 (https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fphilosophiascientiae.411).
58. Halpern, Joseph; Harper, Robert; Immerman, Neil; Kolaitis, Phokion; Vardi, Moshe; Vianu,
Victor (2001). "On the Unusual Effectiveness of Logic in Computer Science" (https://www.cs.
cmu.edu/~rwh/papers/unreasonable/basl.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20210303115643/https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~rwh/papers/unreasonable/basl.pdf) (PDF) from
the original on March 3, 2021. Retrieved January 15, 2021.
59. Rouaud, Mathieu (April 2017) [First published July 2013]. Probability, Statistics and
Estimation (http://www.incertitudes.fr/book.pdf) (PDF). p. 10. Archived (https://ghostarchive.
org/archive/20221009/http://www.incertitudes.fr/book.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
October 9, 2022. Retrieved February 13, 2024.
60. Rao, C. Radhakrishna (1997) [1989]. Statistics and Truth: Putting Chance to Work (2nd ed.).
World Scientific. pp. 3–17, 63–70. ISBN 981-02-3111-3. LCCN 97010349 (https://lccn.loc.go
v/97010349). MR 1474730 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1474730).
OCLC 36597731 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36597731).
61. Rao, C. Radhakrishna (1981). "Foreword". In Arthanari, T.S.; Dodge, Yadolah (eds.).
Mathematical programming in statistics. Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical
Statistics. New York: Wiley. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 978-0-471-08073-2. LCCN 80021637 (https://lc
cn.loc.gov/80021637). MR 0607328 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=06
07328). OCLC 6707805 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6707805).
62. Whittle 1994, pp. 10–11, 14–18.
63. Marchuk, Gurii Ivanovich (April 2020). "G I Marchuk's plenary: ICM 1970" (https://mathshisto
ry.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Computational_mathematics/). MacTutor. School of Mathematics
and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
221113155409/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Computational_mathematics/)
from the original on November 13, 2022. Retrieved November 13, 2022.
64. Johnson, Gary M.; Cavallini, John S. (September 1991). Phua, Kang Hoh; Loe, Kia Fock
(eds.). Grand Challenges, High Performance Computing, and Computational Science (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=jYNIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28). Singapore Supercomputing
Conference'90: Supercomputing For Strategic Advantage. World Scientific. p. 28.
LCCN 91018998 (https://lccn.loc.gov/91018998). Retrieved November 13, 2022.
65. Trefethen, Lloyd N. (2008). "Numerical Analysis". In Gowers, Timothy; Barrow-Green, June;
Leader, Imre (eds.). The Princeton Companion to Mathematics (http://people.maths.ox.ac.u
k/trefethen/NAessay.pdf) (PDF). Princeton University Press. pp. 604–615. ISBN 978-0-691-
11880-2. LCCN 2008020450 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2008020450). MR 2467561 (https://maths
cinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2467561). OCLC 227205932 (https://search.worldcat.
org/oclc/227205932). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230307054158/http://people.
maths.ox.ac.uk/trefethen/NAessay.pdf) (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved
February 15, 2024.
66. Cresswell 2021, § Mathematics
Perisho 1965, p. 64
67. Perisho, Margaret W. (Spring 1965). "The Etymology of Mathematical Terms". Pi Mu Epsilon
Journal. 4 (2): 62–66. ISSN 0031-952X (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-952X).
JSTOR 24338341 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24338341). LCCN 58015848 (https://lccn.loc.
gov/58015848). OCLC 1762376 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1762376).
68. Boas, Ralph P. (1995). "What Augustine Didn't Say About Mathematicians". In
Alexanderson, Gerald L.; Mugler, Dale H. (eds.). Lion Hunting and Other Mathematical
Pursuits: A Collection of Mathematics, Verse, and Stories. Mathematical Association of
America. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-88385-323-8. LCCN 94078313 (https://lccn.loc.gov/9407831
3). OCLC 633018890 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/633018890).
69. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford English Dictionary, sub "mathematics",
"mathematic", "mathematics".
70. "Maths (Noun)" (https://www.oed.com/dictionary/maths_n). Oxford English Dictionary.
Oxford University Press. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
71. "Math (Noun³)" (https://www.oed.com/dictionary/math_n3). Oxford English Dictionary.
Oxford University Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200404201407/http://oed.
com/view/Entry/114982) from the original on April 4, 2020. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
72. See, for example, Wilder, Raymond L. Evolution of Mathematical Concepts; an Elementary
Study. passim.
73. Zaslavsky, Claudia (1999). Africa Counts: Number and Pattern in African Culture. Chicago
Review Press. ISBN 978-1-61374-115-3. OCLC 843204342 (https://search.worldcat.org/ocl
c/843204342).
74. Kline 1990, Chapter 1.
75. Mesopotamia (https://www.ms.uky.edu/~dhje223/CrestOfThePeacockCh4-pages-2-21.pdf/)
pg 10. Retrieved June 1, 2024
76. Boyer 1991, "Mesopotamia" pp. 24–27.
77. Heath, Thomas Little (1981) [1921]. A History of Greek Mathematics: From Thales to Euclid
(https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekma0002heat/page/n14). New York: Dover
Publications. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-486-24073-2.
78. Mueller, I. (1969). "Euclid's Elements and the Axiomatic Method". The British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science. 20 (4): 289–309. doi:10.1093/bjps/20.4.289 (https://doi.org/10.109
3%2Fbjps%2F20.4.289). ISSN 0007-0882 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0882).
JSTOR 686258 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/686258).
79. Boyer 1991, "Euclid of Alexandria" p. 119.
80. Boyer 1991, "Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 120.
81. Boyer 1991, "Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 130.
82. Boyer 1991, "Apollonius of Perga" p. 145.
83. Boyer 1991, "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 162.
84. Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 180.
85. Ore, Øystein (1988). Number Theory and Its History (https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl
_6BPp7S0AC&pg=IA19). Courier Corporation. pp. 19–24. ISBN 978-0-486-65620-5.
Retrieved November 14, 2022.
86. Singh, A. N. (January 1936). "On the Use of Series in Hindu Mathematics". Osiris. 1: 606–
628. doi:10.1086/368443 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368443). JSTOR 301627 (https://www.
jstor.org/stable/301627). S2CID 144760421 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1447
60421).
87. Kolachana, A.; Mahesh, K.; Ramasubramanian, K. (2019). "Use of series in India". Studies
in Indian Mathematics and Astronomy. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics
and Physical Sciences. Singapore: Springer. pp. 438–461. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7326-
8_20 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-13-7326-8_20). ISBN 978-981-13-7325-1.
S2CID 190176726 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:190176726).
88. Saliba, George (1994). A history of Arabic astronomy: planetary theories during the golden
age of Islam. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7962-0. OCLC 28723059 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28723059).
89. Faruqi, Yasmeen M. (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise" (ht
tps://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ854295). International Education Journal. 7 (4). Shannon Research
Press: 391–399. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221114165547/https://eric.ed.go
v/?id=EJ854295) from the original on November 14, 2022. Retrieved November 14, 2022.
90. Lorch, Richard (June 2001). "Greek-Arabic-Latin: The Transmission of Mathematical Texts in
the Middle Ages" (https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15929/1/greek-arabic-latin.pdf) (PDF).
Science in Context. 14 (1–2). Cambridge University Press: 313–331.
doi:10.1017/S0269889701000114 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0269889701000114).
S2CID 146539132 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146539132). Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20221217160922/https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15929/1/greek-ara
bic-latin.pdf) (PDF) from the original on December 17, 2022. Retrieved December 5, 2022.
91. Kent, Benjamin (2022). History of Science (http://rguir.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/16
963/1/9781984668677.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 2. Bibliotex Digital Library. ISBN 978-1-984668-67-7.
92. Archibald, Raymond Clare (January 1949). "History of Mathematics After the Sixteenth
Century". The American Mathematical Monthly. Part 2: Outline of the History of
Mathematics. 56 (1): 35–56. doi:10.2307/2304570 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2304570).
JSTOR 2304570 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2304570).
93. Sevryuk 2006, pp. 101–109.
94. Wolfram, Stephan (October 2000). Mathematical Notation: Past and Future (https://www.ste
phenwolfram.com/publications/mathematical-notation-past-future/). MathML and Math on
the Web: MathML International Conference 2000, Urbana Champaign, USA. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20221116150905/https://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/ma
thematical-notation-past-future/) from the original on November 16, 2022. Retrieved
February 3, 2024.
95. Douglas, Heather; Headley, Marcia Gail; Hadden, Stephanie; LeFevre, Jo-Anne (December
3, 2020). "Knowledge of Mathematical Symbols Goes Beyond Numbers" (https://doi.org/10.
5964%2Fjnc.v6i3.293). Journal of Numerical Cognition. 6 (3): 322–354.
doi:10.5964/jnc.v6i3.293 (https://doi.org/10.5964%2Fjnc.v6i3.293). eISSN 2363-8761 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/2363-8761). S2CID 228085700 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:228085700).
96. Letourneau, Mary; Wright Sharp, Jennifer (October 2017). "AMS Style Guide" (https://www.a
ms.org/publications/authors/AMS-StyleGuide-online.pdf) (PDF). American Mathematical
Society. p. 75. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221208063650/https://www.ams.or
g//publications/authors/AMS-StyleGuide-online.pdf) (PDF) from the original on December 8,
2022. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
 97. Jansen, Anthony R.; Marriott, Kim; Yelland, Greg W. (2000). "Constituent Structure in
Mathematical Expressions" (https://escholarship.org/content/qt35r988q9/qt35r988q9.pdf)
(PDF). Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. 22. University
of California Merced. eISSN 1069-7977 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1069-7977).
OCLC 68713073 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/68713073). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20221116152222/https://escholarship.org/content/qt35r988q9/qt35r988q9.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on November 16, 2022. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
98. Rossi, Richard J. (2006). Theorems, Corollaries, Lemmas, and Methods of Proof. Pure and
Applied Mathematics: A Wiley Series of Texts, Monographs and Tracts. John Wiley & Sons.
pp. 1–14, 47–48. ISBN 978-0-470-04295-3. LCCN 2006041609 (https://lccn.loc.gov/200604
1609). OCLC 64085024 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/64085024).
99. "Earliest Uses of Some Words of Mathematics" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Miller/
mathword/). MacTutor. Scotland, UK: University of St. Andrews. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20220929032236/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Miller/mathword/) from
the original on September 29, 2022. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
100. Silver, Daniel S. (November–December 2017). "The New Language of Mathematics" (http
s://doi.org/10.1511%2F2017.105.6.364). The American Scientist. 105 (6). Sigma Xi: 364–
371. doi:10.1511/2017.105.6.364 (https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2017.105.6.364). ISSN 0003-
0996 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0996). LCCN 43020253 (https://lccn.loc.gov/430
20253). OCLC 1480717 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1480717). S2CID 125455764 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125455764).
101. Bellomo, Nicola; Preziosi, Luigi (December 22, 1994). Modelling Mathematical Methods and
Scientific Computation (https://books.google.com/books?id=pJAvWaRYo3UC).
Mathematical Modeling. Vol. 1. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8493-8331-1. Retrieved
November 16, 2022.
102. Hennig, Christian (2010). "Mathematical Models and Reality: A Constructivist Perspective"
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225691477). Foundations of Science. 15: 29–48.
doi:10.1007/s10699-009-9167-x (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10699-009-9167-x).
S2CID 6229200 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6229200). Retrieved
November 17, 2022.
103. Frigg, Roman; Hartmann, Stephan (February 4, 2020). "Models in Science" (https://seop.illc.
uva.nl/entries/models-science/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20221117162412/https://seop.illc.uva.nl/entries/models-science/) from the
original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
104. Stewart, Ian (2018). "Mathematics, Maps, and Models" (https://books.google.com/books?id=
mRBMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA345). In Wuppuluri, Shyam; Doria, Francisco Antonio (eds.). The
Map and the Territory: Exploring the Foundations of Science, Thought and Reality. The
Frontiers Collection. Springer. pp. 345–356. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-72478-2_18 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-72478-2_18). ISBN 978-3-319-72478-2. Retrieved
November 17, 2022.
105. "The science checklist applied: Mathematics" (https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematic
s). Understanding Science. University of California, Berkeley. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20191027021023/https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics) from the original
on October 27, 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2019.
106. Mackay, A. L. (1991). Dictionary of Scientific Quotations (https://books.google.com/books?id
=KwESE88CGa8C&q=durch+planm%C3%A4ssiges+Tattonieren). London: Taylor &
Francis. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-7503-0106-0. Retrieved March 19, 2023.
107. Bishop, Alan (1991). "Environmental activities and mathematical culture" (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54). Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural
Perspective on Mathematics Education. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic
Publishers. pp. 20–59. ISBN 978-0-7923-1270-3. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
108. Shasha, Dennis Elliot; Lazere, Cathy A. (1998). Out of Their Minds: The Lives and
Discoveries of 15 Great Computer Scientists. Springer. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-387-98269-4.
109. Nickles, Thomas (2013). "The Problem of Demarcation". Philosophy of Pseudoscience:
Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 104.
ISBN 978-0-226-05182-6.
110. Pigliucci, Massimo (2014). "Are There 'Other' Ways of Knowing?" (https://philosophynow.or
g/issues/102/Are_There_Other_Ways_of_Knowing). Philosophy Now. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20200513190522/https://philosophynow.org/issues/102/Are_There_Other_
Ways_of_Knowing) from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
111. Ferreirós, J. (2007). "Ό Θεὸς Άριθμητίζει: The Rise of Pure Mathematics as Arithmetic with
Gauss" (https://books.google.com/books?id=IUFTcOsMTysC&pg=PA235). In Goldstein,
Catherine; Schappacher, Norbert; Schwermer, Joachim (eds.). The Shaping of Arithmetic
after C.F. Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Springer Science & Business Media.
pp. 235–268. ISBN 978-3-540-34720-0.
112. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1976). "Mathematical vs. Experimental Traditions in the Development of
Physical Science". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 7 (1). The MIT Press: 1–31.
doi:10.2307/202372 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F202372). JSTOR 202372 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/202372).
113. Asper, Markus (2009). "The two cultures of mathematics in ancient Greece" (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=xZMSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107). In Robson, Eleanor; Stedall,
Jacqueline (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Mathematics. Oxford Handbooks
in Mathematics. OUP Oxford. pp. 107–132. ISBN 978-0-19-921312-2. Retrieved
November 18, 2022.
114. Gozwami, Pinkimani; Singh, Madan Mohan (2019). "Integer Factorization Problem". In
Ahmad, Khaleel; Doja, M. N.; Udzir, Nur Izura; Singh, Manu Pratap (eds.). Emerging
Security Algorithms and Techniques. CRC Press. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-8153-6145-9.
LCCN 2019010556 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2019010556). OCLC 1082226900 (https://search.w
orldcat.org/oclc/1082226900).
115. Maddy, P. (2008). "How applied mathematics became pure" (http://pgrim.org/philosophersan
nual/pa28articles/maddyhowapplied.pdf) (PDF). The Review of Symbolic Logic. 1 (1): 16–
41. doi:10.1017/S1755020308080027 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1755020308080027).
S2CID 18122406 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18122406). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20170812012210/http://pgrim.org/philosophersannual/pa28articles/madd
yhowapplied.pdf) (PDF) from the original on August 12, 2017. Retrieved November 19,
2022.
116. Silver, Daniel S. (2017). "In Defense of Pure Mathematics" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=RXGYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17). In Pitici, Mircea (ed.). The Best Writing on
Mathematics, 2016. Princeton University Press. pp. 17–26. ISBN 978-0-691-17529-4.
Retrieved November 19, 2022.
117. Parshall, Karen Hunger (2022). "The American Mathematical Society and Applied
Mathematics from the 1920s to the 1950s: A Revisionist Account" (https://www.ams.org/jour
nals/bull/2022-59-03/S0273-0979-2022-01754-5/home.html). Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society. 59 (3): 405–427. doi:10.1090/bull/1754 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fb
ull%2F1754). S2CID 249561106 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249561106).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221120151259/https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2
022-59-03/S0273-0979-2022-01754-5/home.html) from the original on November 20, 2022.
Retrieved November 20, 2022.
118. Stolz, Michael (2002). "The History Of Applied Mathematics And The History Of Society" (htt
ps://www.researchgate.net/publication/226795930). Synthese. 133: 43–57.
doi:10.1023/A:1020823608217 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1020823608217).
S2CID 34271623 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34271623). Retrieved
November 20, 2022.
119. Lin, C. C . (March 1976). "On the role of applied mathematics" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0
001-8708%2876%2990024-4). Advances in Mathematics. 19 (3): 267–288.
doi:10.1016/0001-8708(76)90024-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0001-8708%2876%299002
4-4).
120. Peressini, Anthony (September 1999). Applying Pure Mathematics (https://www.academia.e
du/download/32799272/ApplyingMathPSA.pdf) (PDF). Philosophy of Science. Proceedings
of the 1998 Biennial Meetings of the Philosophy of Science Association. Part I: Contributed
Papers. Vol. 66. pp. S1–S13. JSTOR 188757 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/188757).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240102210931/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.n
et/32799272/ApplyingMathPSA-libre.pdf?1391205742=&response-content-disposition=inlin
e%3B+filename%3DApplying_Pure_Mathematics.pdf&Expires=1704233371&Signature=Bv
NJyYufdj9BiKFe94w6gdXLpAfr7T5JIv~RU74R2uT0O9Ngj6i4cdBtYYOSB6D4V-MgButb6lK
NhIGGQogw0e0sHVFkJUy5TRsoCiQ-MLabpZOf74E5SGLMFIExhGVAw7SKrSFaQsFGhfb
aRMxbMP~u-wRdJAz6ve6kbWr6oq-doQeEOlRfO4EByNCUYx-KAk3~cBsH1Q2WNZ5QiVO
bMI1ufQ7zkQM1bqzOumLu6g07F~pt~Cds~lftuQufHomoTH-V9H9iKQgUyc3-4bEB1y1Jdng
s7WWg76LcSGn65bPK8dxvsZzKaLDGfoK5jamZkA8z3-xxiMIPL8c6YETjZA__&Key-Pair-Id
=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA) (PDF) from the original on January 2, 2024. Retrieved
November 30, 2022.
121. Lützen, J. (2011). "Examples and reflections on the interplay between mathematics and
physics in the 19th and 20th century" (https://slub.qucosa.de/api/qucosa%3A16267/zip/). In
Schlote, K. H.; Schneider, M. (eds.). Mathematics meets physics: A contribution to their
interaction in the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Harri
Deutsch. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230323164143/https://slub.qucosa.de/api/
qucosa%3A16267/zip/) from the original on March 23, 2023. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
122. Marker, Dave (July 1996). "Model theory and exponentiation" (https://www.ams.org/notices/
199607/). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 43 (7): 753–759. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20140313004011/http://www.ams.org/notices/199607/) from the
original on March 13, 2014. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
123. Chen, Changbo; Maza, Marc Moreno (August 2014). Cylindrical Algebraic Decomposition in
the RegularChains Library (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268067322).
International Congress on Mathematical Software 2014. Lecture Notes in Computer
Science. Vol. 8592. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44199-2_65 (https://doi.org/10.
1007%2F978-3-662-44199-2_65). Retrieved November 19, 2022.
124. Pérez-Escobar, José Antonio; Sarikaya, Deniz (2021). "Purifying applied mathematics and
applying pure mathematics: how a late Wittgensteinian perspective sheds light onto the
dichotomy" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13194-021-00435-9). European Journal for
Philosophy of Science. 12 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1007/s13194-021-00435-9 (https://doi.org/10.10
07%2Fs13194-021-00435-9). S2CID 245465895 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
245465895).
125. Takase, M. (2014). "Pure Mathematics and Applied Mathematics are Inseparably
Intertwined: Observation of the Early Analysis of the Infinity" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=UeElBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA393). A Mathematical Approach to Research Problems of
Science and Technology. Mathematics for Industry. Vol. 5. Tokyo: Springer. pp. 393–399.
doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55060-0_29 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-4-431-55060-0_29).
ISBN 978-4-431-55059-4. Retrieved November 20, 2022.
126. Sarukkai, Sundar (February 10, 2005). "Revisiting the 'unreasonable effectiveness' of
mathematics". Current Science. 88 (3): 415–423. JSTOR 24110208 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/24110208).
127. Wagstaff, Samuel S. Jr. (2021). "History of Integer Factoring" (https://www.cs.purdue.edu/ho
mes/ssw/chapter3.pdf) (PDF). In Bos, Joppe W.; Stam, Martijn (eds.). Computational
Cryptography, Algorithmic Aspects of Cryptography, A Tribute to AKL. London Mathematical
Society Lecture Notes Series 469. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–77. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20221120155733/https://www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/ssw/chapter3.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on November 20, 2022. Retrieved November 20, 2022.
128. "Curves: Ellipse" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Curves/Ellipse/). MacTutor. School
of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20221014051943/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Curves/Ellipse/) from
the original on October 14, 2022. Retrieved November 20, 2022.
129. Mukunth, Vasudevan (September 10, 2015). "Beyond the Surface of Einstein's Relativity
Lay a Chimerical Geometry" (https://thewire.in/science/beyond-the-surface-of-einsteins-relat
ivity-lay-a-chimerical-geometry). The Wire. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221120
191206/https://thewire.in/science/beyond-the-surface-of-einsteins-relativity-lay-a-chimerical-
geometry) from the original on November 20, 2022. Retrieved November 20, 2022.
130. Wilson, Edwin B.; Lewis, Gilbert N. (November 1912). "The Space-Time Manifold of
Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics". Proceedings
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 48 (11): 389–507. doi:10.2307/20022840 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.2307%2F20022840). JSTOR 20022840 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20022
840).
131. Borel, Armand (1983). "Mathematics: Art and Science" (https://doi.org/10.4171%2Fnews%2
F103%2F8). The Mathematical Intelligencer. 5 (4). Springer: 9–17. doi:10.4171/news/103/8
(https://doi.org/10.4171%2Fnews%2F103%2F8). ISSN 1027-488X (https://search.worldcat.
org/issn/1027-488X).
132. Hanson, Norwood Russell (November 1961). "Discovering the Positron (I)". The British
Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 12 (47). The University of Chicago Press: 194–214.
doi:10.1093/bjps/xiii.49.54 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjps%2Fxiii.49.54). JSTOR 685207
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/685207).
133. Ginammi, Michele (February 2016). "Avoiding reification: Heuristic effectiveness of
mathematics and the prediction of the Ω– particle". Studies in History and Philosophy of
Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics. 53: 20–27.
Bibcode:2016SHPMP..53...20G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016SHPMP..53...20G).
doi:10.1016/j.shpsb.2015.12.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsb.2015.12.001).
134. Wagh, Sanjay Moreshwar; Deshpande, Dilip Abasaheb (September 27, 2012). Essentials of
Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=-DmfVjBUPksC&pg=PA3). PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd. p. 3. ISBN 978-81-203-4642-0. Retrieved January 3, 2023.
135. Atiyah, Michael (1990). On the Work of Edward Witten (https://web.archive.org/web/201309
28095313/http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/ICM1990.1/Main/icm1990.1.0031.0036.ocr.pdf)
(PDF). Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians. p. 31. Archived from
the original (http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/ICM1990.1/Main/icm1990.1.0031.0036.ocr.pdf)
(PDF) on September 28, 2013. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
136. "Course 18C Mathematics with Computer Science" (https://math.mit.edu/academics/undergr
ad/major/course18c.html). math.mit.edu. Retrieved June 1, 2024.
137. "Theoretical Computer Science" (https://math.mit.edu/research/applied/comp-science-theor
y.html). math.mit.edu. Retrieved June 1, 2024.
138. "Real-Life Applications of Discrete Mathematics" (https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/real-life-ap
plications-of-discrete-mathematics/). GeeksforGeeks. April 8, 2024. Retrieved May 19,
2024.
139. Hales, Thomas; Adams, Mark; Bauer, Gertrud; Dang, Tat Dat; Harrison, John; Hoang, Le
Truong; Kaliszyk, Cezary; Magron, Victor; Mclaughlin, Sean; Nguyen, Tat Thang; Nguyen,
Quang Truong; Nipkow, Tobias; Obua, Steven; Pleso, Joseph; Rute, Jason; Solovyev,
Alexey; Ta, Thi Hoai An; Tran, Nam Trung; Trieu, Thi Diep; Urban, Josef; Vu, Ky; Zumkeller,
Roland (2017). "A Formal Proof of the Kepler Conjecture" (https://www.cambridge.org/core/j
ournals/forum-of-mathematics-pi/article/formal-proof-of-the-kepler-conjecture/78FBD5E1A3
D1BCCB8E0D5B0C463C9FBC). Forum of Mathematics, Pi. 5: e2. doi:10.1017/fmp.2017.1
(https://doi.org/10.1017%2Ffmp.2017.1). hdl:2066/176365 (https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F1
76365). ISSN 2050-5086 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2050-5086). S2CID 216912822 (h
ttps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216912822). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20201204053232/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/forum-of-mathematics-pi/article/f
ormal-proof-of-the-kepler-conjecture/78FBD5E1A3D1BCCB8E0D5B0C463C9FBC) from the
original on December 4, 2020. Retrieved February 25, 2023.
140. Millstein, Roberta (September 8, 2016). "Probability in Biology: The Case of Fitness" (http://
philsci-archive.pitt.edu/10901/1/Millstein-fitness-v2.pdf) (PDF). In Hájek, Alan; Hitchcock,
Christopher (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Probability and Philosophy. pp. 601–622.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199607617.013.27 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F978
0199607617.013.27). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230307054456/http://philsci-
archive.pitt.edu/10901/1/Millstein-fitness-v2.pdf) (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2023.
Retrieved December 29, 2022.
141. See for example Anne Laurent, Roland Gamet, Jérôme Pantel, Tendances nouvelles en
modélisation pour l'environnement, actes du congrès «Programme environnement, vie et
sociétés» 15–17 janvier 1996, CNRS
142. Bouleau 1999, pp. 282–283.
143. Bouleau 1999, p. 285.
144. "1.4: The Lotka-Volterra Predator-Prey Model" (https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Appli
ed_Mathematics/Mathematical_Biology_(Chasnov)/01%3A_Population_Dynamics/1.04%3A
_The_Lotka-Volterra_Predator-Prey_Model). Mathematics LibreTexts. January 5, 2022.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221229204111/https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshel
ves/Applied_Mathematics/Mathematical_Biology_(Chasnov)/01:_Population_Dynamics/1.0
4:_The_Lotka-Volterra_Predator-Prey_Model) from the original on December 29, 2022.
Retrieved December 29, 2022.
145. Salsburg, David (August 17, 1992). "Commentary" (https://www.dfcm.utoronto.ca/sites/defa
ult/files/inline-files/salsburg_1.pdf) (PDF). The Use of Statistical Methods in the Analysis of
Clinical Studies. 46: 17.
146. National Research Council (2003). "8". Beyond the Molecular Frontier: Challenges for
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10633/chapte
r/8). NAP.edu. pp. 71–73. doi:10.17226/10633 (https://doi.org/10.17226%2F10633).
ISBN 978-0-309-16839-7. PMID 25032300 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25032300).
147. "Catastrophe Models (Property)" (https://content.naic.org/cipr-topics/catastrophe-models-pro
perty). content.naic.org. Retrieved May 19, 2024.
148. "MAM2001 Essay" (https://ww2.amstat.org/mam/01/essay.html). ww2.amstat.org. Retrieved
May 19, 2024.
149. Hill, Mullica (September 7, 2022). "HOW MATH IS USED IN WEATHER FORECASTING" (h
ttps://www.mathnasium.com/math-centers/mullicahill/news/how-math-used-weather-forecast
ing). mathnasium.com. Retrieved May 19, 2024.
150. "Using Mathematical Models to Investigate Planetary Habitability" (https://icp.giss.nasa.gov/
education/modules/eccm/eccm_student_3.pdf) (PDF). NASA. Retrieved May 19, 2024.
151. Edling, Christofer R. (2002). "Mathematics in Sociology" (https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/
10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.140942). Annual Review of Sociology. 28 (1): 197–220.
doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.140942 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.soc.28.110
601.140942). ISSN 0360-0572 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0360-0572).
152. Batchelder, William H. (January 1, 2015). "Mathematical Psychology: History" (https://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008097086843059X). In Wright, James D. (ed.).
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition). Oxford:
Elsevier. pp. 808–815. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
153. Zak, Paul J. (2010). Moral Markets: The Critical Role of Values in the Economy (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=6QrvmNo2qD4C&pg=PA158). Princeton University Press. p. 158.
ISBN 978-1-4008-3736-6. Retrieved January 3, 2023.
154. Levin, Jonathan; Milgrom, Paul (September 2004). Introduction to Choice Theory (https://we
b.stanford.edu/~jdlevin/Econ%20202/Choice%20Theory.pdf) (PDF).
155. Kremer, Michael; Rao, Gautam; Schilbach, Frank (2019). "Chapter 5 Behavioral
development economics". Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and
Foundations (https://economics.mit.edu/sites/default/files/2022-09/behavioral-development-
economics.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 2.
156. "Mathematics" (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics/special_issues/Mathematical_M
odeling_Economics_Ecology_Environment). mdpi.com.
157. "Kondratiev, Nikolai Dmitrievich | Encyclopedia.com" (https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/
encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kondratiev-nikolai-dmitrievich).
www.encyclopedia.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160701224009/http://www.
encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404100667.html) from the original on July 1, 2016. Retrieved
December 29, 2022.
158. "Mathématique de l'histoire-géometrie et cinématique. Lois de Brück. Chronologie
géodésique de la Bible., by Charles LAGRANGE et al. | The Online Books Page" (https://onl
inebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupid?key=ha010090244#:~:text=##+Math%C
3%A9matique+de+l'histoire,org%E3%80%91). onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu.
159. "Cliodynamics: a science for predicting the future" (https://www.zdnet.com/article/cliodynami
cs-a-science-for-predicting-the-future/). ZDNet. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221
229204104/https://www.zdnet.com/article/cliodynamics-a-science-for-predicting-the-future/)
from the original on December 29, 2022. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
160. Sokal, Alan; Jean Bricmont (1998). Fashionable Nonsense (https://archive.org/details/fashio
nablenonse00soka). New York: Picador. ISBN 978-0-312-19545-8. OCLC 39605994 (https://
search.worldcat.org/oclc/39605994).
161. "Biden's Misleading Unemployment Statistic – FactCheck.org" (https://www.factcheck.org/20
23/01/bidens-misleading-unemployment-statistic/).
162. "Modern Macroeconomic Models as Tools for Economic Policy | Federal Reserve Bank of
Minneapolis" (https://www.minneapolisfed.org/article/2010/modern-macroeconomic-models-
as-tools-for-economic-policy). minneapolisfed.org.
163. Balaguer, Mark (2016). "Platonism in Metaphysics" (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2
016/entries/platonism). In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Spring 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20220130174043/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/platonis
m/) from the original on January 30, 2022. Retrieved April 2, 2022.
164. See White, L. (1947). "The locus of mathematical reality: An anthropological footnote".
Philosophy of Science. 14 (4): 289–303. doi:10.1086/286957 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F28
6957). S2CID 119887253 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119887253). 189303;
also in Newman, J. R. (1956). The World of Mathematics. Vol. 4. New York: Simon and
Schuster. pp. 2348–2364.
165. Dorato, Mauro (2005). "Why are laws mathematical?" (https://www.academia.edu/download/
52076815/2ch.pdf) (PDF). The Software of the Universe, An Introduction to the History and
Philosophy of Laws of Nature. Ashgate. pp. 31–66. ISBN 978-0-7546-3994-7. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20230817111932/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/52076815/2
ch-libre.pdf?1488997736=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DChapter_
2_of_the_book_the_software_of_th.pdf&Expires=1692274771&Signature=PXpNLBsmWMk
z9YUs6~LUOfXNkmkCAmDfxQUoWOkGJKP4YqPGQUFMuP1I0xFycLZkL0dyfGwdGQ7mP
k44nvmpM3YpKBSeVCZRXtDMiwgqs1JhEWrJovAhrchPLM1mGn3pw5P6LPo0sDZsl7uaPo
ZHMyCyJpayHvFtpyj1oUMIdmGuYM5P3euy1R87g6xlKyNAp~~BR5I4gVpopzLoeZn7d3oE
nOOua0GjsqsZ6H9mEgcZMpH-qF8w9iFa9aSXFpqxagQwcVVkg7DXkOjVV5jyzctBUKQtO
QQ~-9EN1y-c9pFV-Xu-NNuoN3Ij6K4SwvjYv0a8DMs8T5SVj1Kz9i4CEQ__&Key-Pair-Id=AP
KAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA) (PDF) from the original on August 17, 2023. Retrieved
December 5, 2022.
166. Mura, Roberta (December 1993). "Images of Mathematics Held by University Teachers of
Mathematical Sciences". Educational Studies in Mathematics. 25 (4): 375–85.
doi:10.1007/BF01273907 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01273907). JSTOR 3482762 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/3482762). S2CID 122351146 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:122351146).
167. Tobies, Renate; Neunzert, Helmut (2012). Iris Runge: A Life at the Crossroads of
Mathematics, Science, and Industry (https://books.google.com/books?id=EDm0eQqFUQ4C
&pg=PA9). Springer. p. 9. ISBN 978-3-0348-0229-1. Retrieved June 20, 2015. "[I]t is first
necessary to ask what is meant by mathematics in general. Illustrious scholars have
debated this matter until they were blue in the face, and yet no consensus has been
reached about whether mathematics is a natural science, a branch of the humanities, or an
art form."
168. Ziegler, Günter M.; Loos, Andreas (November 2, 2017). Kaiser, G. (ed.). "What is
Mathematics?" and why we should ask, where one should experience and learn that, and
how to teach it. Proceedings of the 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education.
ICME-13 Monographs. Springer. pp. 63–77. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62597-3_5 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1007%2F978-3-319-62597-3_5). ISBN 978-3-319-62596-6. (Sections "What is
Mathematics?" and "What is Mathematics, Really?")
169. Mura 1993, pp. 379, 381.
170. Brown & Porter 1995, p. 326.
171. Strauss, Danie (2011). "Defining mathematics" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/29
0955899). Acta Academica. 43 (4): 1–28. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
172. Franklin, James (2009). Philosophy of Mathematics (https://books.google.com/books?id=mb
n35b2ghgkC&pg=PA104). Elsevier. pp. 104–106. ISBN 978-0-08-093058-9. Retrieved
June 20, 2015.
173. Cajori, Florian (1893). A History of Mathematics (https://books.google.com/books?id=mGJRj
IC9fZgC&pg=PA285). American Mathematical Society (1991 reprint). pp. 285–286.
ISBN 978-0-8218-2102-2. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
174. Devlin 2018, p. 3 (https://books.google.com/books?id=gUb7CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3).
175. Saunders Maclane (1986). Mathematics, form and function. Springer., page 409
176. Brown, Ronald; Porter, Timothy (1995). "The Methodology of Mathematics" (https://cds.cern.
ch/record/280311). The Mathematical Gazette. 79 (485): 321–334. doi:10.2307/3618304 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F3618304). JSTOR 3618304 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3618304).
S2CID 178923299 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:178923299). Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20230323164159/https://cds.cern.ch/record/280311) from the original
on March 23, 2023. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
177. Hamami, Yacin (June 2022). "Mathematical Rigor and Proof" (https://www.yacinhamami.co
m/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Hamami-2019-Mathematical-Rigor-and-Proof.pdf) (PDF).
The Review of Symbolic Logic. 15 (2): 409–449. doi:10.1017/S1755020319000443 (https://d
oi.org/10.1017%2FS1755020319000443). S2CID 209980693 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:209980693). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221205114343/https://ww
w.yacinhamami.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Hamami-2019-Mathematical-Rigor-and-Pr
oof.pdf) (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2022. Retrieved November 21, 2022.
178. Peterson 1988, p. 4: "A few complain that the computer program can't be verified properly."
(in reference to the Haken–Apple proof of the Four Color Theorem)
179. Perminov, V. Ya. (1988). "On the Reliability of Mathematical Proofs". Philosophy of
Mathematics. 42 (167 (4)). Revue Internationale de Philosophie: 500–508.
180. Davis, Jon D.; McDuffie, Amy Roth; Drake, Corey; Seiwell, Amanda L. (2019). "Teachers'
perceptions of the official curriculum: Problem solving and rigor". International Journal of
Educational Research. 93: 91–100. doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2018.10.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2Fj.ijer.2018.10.002). S2CID 149753721 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1497537
21).
181. Endsley, Kezia (2021). Mathematicians and Statisticians: A Practical Career Guide (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=1cEYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3). Practical Career Guides. Rowman
& Littlefield. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-5381-4517-3. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
182. Robson, Eleanor (2009). "Mathematics education in an Old Babylonian scribal school" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=xZMSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199). In Robson, Eleanor;
Stedall, Jacqueline (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Mathematics. OUP
Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-921312-2. Retrieved November 24, 2022.
183. Bernard, Alain; Proust, Christine; Ross, Micah (2014). "Mathematics Education in Antiquity".
In Karp, A.; Schubring, G. (eds.). Handbook on the History of Mathematics Education. New
York: Springer. pp. 27–53. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9155-2_3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F97
8-1-4614-9155-2_3). ISBN 978-1-4614-9154-5.
184. Dudley, Underwood (April 2002). "The World's First Mathematics Textbook". Math Horizons.
9 (4). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 8–11. doi:10.1080/10724117.2002.11975154 (https://doi.org/1
0.1080%2F10724117.2002.11975154). JSTOR 25678363 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567
8363). S2CID 126067145 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126067145).
185. Subramarian, F. Indian pedagogy and problem solving in ancient Thamizhakam (http://hpm2
012.onpcs.com/Proceeding/OT2/T2-10.pdf) (PDF). History and Pedagogy of Mathematics
conference, July 16–20, 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221128082654/htt
p://hpm2012.onpcs.com/Proceeding/OT2/T2-10.pdf) (PDF) from the original on November
28, 2022. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
186. Siu, Man Keung (2004). "Official Curriculum in Mathematics in Ancient China: How did
Candidates Study for the Examination?". How Chinese Learn Mathematics (https://scholar.a
rchive.org/work/3fb5lb2qsfg35gf2cv6viaydny/access/wayback/http://hkumath.hku.hk:80/~mk
s/Chapter%206-Siu.pdf) (PDF). Series on Mathematics Education. Vol. 1. pp. 157–185.
doi:10.1142/9789812562241_0006 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789812562241_0006).
ISBN 978-981-256-014-8. Retrieved November 26, 2022.
187. Jones, Phillip S. (1967). "The History of Mathematical Education". The American
Mathematical Monthly. 74 (1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 38–55. doi:10.2307/2314867 (https://d
oi.org/10.2307%2F2314867). JSTOR 2314867 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2314867).
188. Schubring, Gert; Furinghetti, Fulvia; Siu, Man Keung (August 2012). "Introduction: the
history of mathematics teaching. Indicators for modernization processes in societies" (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11858-012-0445-7). ZDM Mathematics Education. 44 (4): 457–459.
doi:10.1007/s11858-012-0445-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11858-012-0445-7).
S2CID 145507519 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145507519).
189. von Davier, Matthias; Foy, Pierre; Martin, Michael O.; Mullis, Ina V.S. (2020). "Examining
eTIMSS Country Differences Between eTIMSS Data and Bridge Data: A Look at Country-
Level Mode of Administration Effects". TIMSS 2019 International Results in Mathematics
and Science (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED610099.pdf) (PDF). TIMSS & PIRLS
International Study Center, Lynch School of Education and Human Development and
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. p. 13.1. ISBN 978-
1-889938-54-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221129163908/https://files.eric.ed.
gov/fulltext/ED610099.pdf) (PDF) from the original on November 29, 2022. Retrieved
November 29, 2022.
190. Rowan-Kenyon, Heather T.; Swan, Amy K.; Creager, Marie F. (March 2012). "Social
Cognitive Factors, Support, and Engagement: Early Adolescents' Math Interests as
Precursors to Choice of Career" (https://www.academia.edu/download/45974312/j.2161-004
5.2012.00001.x20160526-3995-67kydl.pdf) (PDF). The Career Development Quarterly. 60
(1): 2–15. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2012.00001.x (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.2161-0045.2
012.00001.x). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231122212933/https://d1wqtxts1xzle
7.cloudfront.net/45974312/j.2161-0045.2012.00001.x20160526-3995-67kydl-libre.pdf?1464
293840=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DSocial_Cognitive_Factors_
Support_and_Eng.pdf&Expires=1700692172&Signature=cs9KfTPxoPh859wY~ExtJyAl9Np
Yb3X-2P4rDel1Z3z7DwehsHLRggoZtgi1pMsamxYobu9dVK4G7OsqfvNxcuwz3uKh1pnCMZ
QEz~ahVtPb4kvN-4dmwExJplzoxWu31o3SJOfuBt0GGE-0Hl8eLfPBg5agmtkjSwAWQwlqGr
jp3YgYZGjbNxOEAM4t1l4qvoWXidWvSHHcEUNvlKYwCDvG0~QhGTmA6ldxmfS1ovf0ado
g-qqvjGxxJuSjtP6O8zCTwkPXYwi2e8giI0H6b5fNarHc-2q~-NRnVVtYKhvSBcwC22kNZoA7
s8sp8ix9KIdM3uxiUIBRBRC-4aaVoQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA) (PDF)
from the original on November 22, 2023. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
191. Luttenberger, Silke; Wimmer, Sigrid; Paechter, Manuela (2018). "Spotlight on math anxiety"
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6087017). Psychology Research and
Behavior Management. 11: 311–322. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S141421 (https://doi.org/10.214
7%2FPRBM.S141421). PMC 6087017 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6087
017). PMID 30123014 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30123014).
192. Yaftian, Narges (June 2, 2015). "The Outlook of the Mathematicians' Creative Processes" (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2015.04.617). Procedia – Social and Behavioral
Sciences. 191: 2519–2525. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.617 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.
sbspro.2015.04.617).
193. Nadjafikhah, Mehdi; Yaftian, Narges (October 10, 2013). "The Frontage of Creativity and
Mathematical Creativity" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2013.07.101). Procedia –
Social and Behavioral Sciences. 90: 344–350. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.101 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2013.07.101).
194. van der Poorten, A. (1979). "A proof that Euler missed... Apéry's Proof of the irrationality of
ζ(3)" (http://pracownicy.uksw.edu.pl/mwolf/Poorten_MI_195_0.pdf) (PDF). The Mathematical
Intelligencer. 1 (4): 195–203. doi:10.1007/BF03028234 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF0302
8234). S2CID 121589323 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121589323). Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150906015716/http://pracownicy.uksw.edu.pl/mwolf/Poorten
_MI_195_0.pdf) (PDF) from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved November 22,
2022.
195. Petkovi, Miodrag (September 2, 2009). Famous Puzzles of Great Mathematicians (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=AZlwAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13). American Mathematical Society.
pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 978-0-8218-4814-2. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
196. Hardy, G. H. (1940). A Mathematician's Apology (https://archive.org/details/hardy_annotate
d/). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42706-7. Retrieved November 22, 2022.
See also A Mathematician's Apology.
197. Alon, Noga; Goldston, Dan; Sárközy, András; Szabados, József; Tenenbaum, Gérald;
Garcia, Stephan Ramon; Shoemaker, Amy L. (March 2015). Alladi, Krishnaswami; Krantz,
Steven G. (eds.). "Reflections on Paul Erdős on His Birth Centenary, Part II" (https://doi.org/
10.1090%2Fnoti1223). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 62 (3): 226–247.
doi:10.1090/noti1223 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fnoti1223).
198. See, for example Bertrand Russell's statement "Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not
only truth, but supreme beauty ..." in his History of Western Philosophy. 1919. p. 60.
199. Cazden, Norman (October 1959). "Musical intervals and simple number ratios". Journal of
Research in Music Education. 7 (2): 197–220. doi:10.1177/002242945900700205 (https://do
i.org/10.1177%2F002242945900700205). JSTOR 3344215 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/334
4215). S2CID 220636812 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220636812).
200. Budden, F. J. (October 1967). "Modern mathematics and music". The Mathematical
Gazette. 51 (377). Cambridge University Press ({CUP}): 204–215. doi:10.2307/3613237 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F3613237). JSTOR 3613237 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3613237).
S2CID 126119711 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126119711).
201. Enquist, Magnus; Arak, Anthony (November 1994). "Symmetry, beauty and evolution" (http
s://www.nature.com/articles/372169a0). Nature. 372 (6502): 169–172.
Bibcode:1994Natur.372..169E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Natur.372..169E).
doi:10.1038/372169a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F372169a0). ISSN 1476-4687 (https://sea
rch.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687). PMID 7969448 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/796944
8). S2CID 4310147 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4310147). Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20221228052049/https://www.nature.com/articles/372169a0) from the
original on December 28, 2022. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
202. Hestenes, David (1999). "Symmetry Groups" (https://davidhestenes.net/geocalc/pdf/Symme
tryGroups.pdf) (PDF).
203. Bender, Sara (September 2020). "The Rorschach Test". In Carducci, Bernardo J.; Nave,
Christopher S.; Mio, Jeffrey S.; Riggio, Ronald E. (eds.). The Wiley Encyclopedia of
Personality and Individual Differences: Measurement and Assessment. Wiley. pp. 367–376.
doi:10.1002/9781119547167.ch131 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119547167.ch131).
ISBN 978-1-119-05751-2.
204. Weyl, Hermann (2015). Symmetry. Princeton Science Library. Vol. 47. Princeton University
Press. p. 4 (https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GG1FCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4).
ISBN 978-1-4008-7434-7.
205. "Lecture 8: Translation Symmetry | Physics III: Vibrations and Waves | Physics" (https://ocw.
mit.edu/courses/8-03sc-physics-iii-vibrations-and-waves-fall-2016/pages/part-i-mechanical-v
ibrations-and-waves/lecture-8/). MIT OpenCourseWare.
206. Bradley, Larry (2010). "Fractals – Chaos & Fractals" (https://www.stsci.edu/~lbradley/semina
r/fractals.html). stsci.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230307054609/https://ww
w.stsci.edu/~lbradley/seminar/fractals.html) from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved
December 29, 2022.
207. "Self-similarity" (https://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node5.html). math.bu.edu.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230302132911/http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-g
ame/node5.html) from the original on March 2, 2023. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
208. Kissane, Barry (July 2009). Popular mathematics (https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.a
u/id/eprint/6242/). 22nd Biennial Conference of The Australian Association of Mathematics
Teachers. Fremantle, Western Australia: Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers.
pp. 125–126. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230307054610/https://researchreposi
tory.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/6242/) from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved
December 29, 2022.
209. Steen, L. A. (2012). Mathematics Today Twelve Informal Essays (https://books.google.com/
books?id=-d3TBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=%22%22popular+mathematics%22+analogies%2
2). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4613-9435-8. Retrieved
January 3, 2023.
210. Pitici, Mircea (2017). The Best Writing on Mathematics 2016 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=9nGQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA331&dq=%22%22popular+mathematics%22+analogies%2
2). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8560-2. Retrieved January 3, 2023.
211. Monastyrsky 2001, p. 1: "The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most
influential award in mathematics."
212. Riehm 2002, pp. 778–782.
213. "Fields Medal | International Mathematical Union (IMU)" (https://www.mathunion.org/imu-aw
ards/fields-medal). www.mathunion.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018122601
5744/https://www.mathunion.org/imu-awards/fields-medal) from the original on December
26, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
214. "Fields Medal" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Honours/FieldsMedal/). Maths History.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190322134417/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.
ac.uk/Honours/FieldsMedal.html) from the original on March 22, 2019. Retrieved
February 21, 2022.
215. "Honours/Prizes Index" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Honours/). MacTutor History
of Mathematics Archive. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211217235828/https://mat
hshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Honours/) from the original on December 17, 2021. Retrieved
February 20, 2023.
216. "About the Abel Prize" (https://abelprize.no/page/about-abel-prize). The Abel Prize. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20220414060442/https://abelprize.no/page/about-abel-prize)
from the original on April 14, 2022. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
217. "Abel Prize | mathematics award" (https://www.britannica.com/science/Abel-Prize).
Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200126120202/https://ww
w.britannica.com/science/Abel-Prize) from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved
January 23, 2022.
218. "Chern Medal Award" (https://www.mathunion.org/fileadmin/IMU/Prizes/Chern/Chern_Medal
Press_Release_090601.pdf) (PDF). mathunion.org. June 1, 2009. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20090617012953/https://www.mathunion.org/fileadmin/IMU/Prizes/Chern/Cher
n_MedalPress_Release_090601.pdf) (PDF) from the original on June 17, 2009. Retrieved
February 21, 2022.
219. "Chern Medal Award" (https://www.mathunion.org/imu-awards/chern-medal-award).
International Mathematical Union (IMU). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010082507
1850/http://www.mathunion.org/general/prizes/chern/details) from the original on August 25,
2010. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
220. "The Leroy P Steele Prize of the AMS" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Honours/AMS
SteelePrize/). School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221117201134/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.
uk/Honours/AMSSteelePrize/) from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved
November 17, 2022.
221. Chern, S. S.; Hirzebruch, F. (September 2000). Wolf Prize in Mathematics (https://www.worl
dscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/4149). doi:10.1142/4149 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F
4149). ISBN 978-981-02-3945-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220221171351/ht
tps://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/4149) from the original on February
21, 2022. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
222. "The Wolf Prize" (https://wolffund.org.il/the-wolf-prize/). Wolf Foundation. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20200112205029/https://wolffund.org.il/the-wolf-prize/) from the original
on January 12, 2020. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
223. "Hilbert's Problems: 23 and Math" (https://www.simonsfoundation.org/2020/05/06/hilberts-pr
oblems-23-and-math/). Simons Foundation. May 6, 2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20220123011430/https://www.simonsfoundation.org/2020/05/06/hilberts-problems-23-a
nd-math/) from the original on January 23, 2022. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
224. Feferman, Solomon (1998). "Deciding the undecidable: Wrestling with Hilbert's problems" (h
ttps://math.stanford.edu/~feferman/papers/deciding.pdf) (PDF). In the Light of Logic (https://
books.google.com/books?id=1rjnCwAAQBAJ). Logic and Computation in Philosophy series.
Oxford University Press. pp. 3–27. ISBN 978-0-19-508030-8. Retrieved November 29,
2022.
225. "The Millennium Prize Problems" (http://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems/millennium-
prize-problems). Clay Mathematics Institute. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015070
3184941/http://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems/millennium-prize-problems) from the
original on July 3, 2015. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
226. "Millennium Problems" (http://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems). Clay Mathematics
Institute. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181220122925/http://www.claymath.org/m
illennium-problems) from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2022.

Sources
Bouleau, Nicolas (1999). Philosophie des mathématiques et de la modélisation: Du
chercheur à l'ingénieur. L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-7384-8125-2.
Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). A History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/historyofm
athema00boye/page/n3/mode/2up) (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
Cresswell, Julia (2021). Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins (3 ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-886875-0.
Devlin, Keith (2018). Sets, Functions, and Logic: An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=gUb7CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3) (3 ed.). CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4822-8602-1.
Eves, Howard (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics (6th ed.). Saunders.
ISBN 978-0-03-029558-4.
Kleiner, Israel (2007). Kleiner, Israel (ed.). A History of Abstract Algebra (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=RTLRBK-wj6wC). Springer Science & Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-0-
8176-4685-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-8176-4685-1). ISBN 978-0-8176-4684-4.
LCCN 2007932362 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2007932362). OCLC 76935733 (https://search.worl
dcat.org/oclc/76935733). S2CID 117392219 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1173
92219). Retrieved February 8, 2024.
Kline, Morris (1990). Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times (https://archive.or
g/details/mathematicalthou00klin). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
506135-2.
Monastyrsky, Michael (2001). "Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal"
(http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf) (PDF). CMS – Notes –
de la SMC. 33 (2–3). Canadian Mathematical Society. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060813224844/http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on August 13, 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2006.
Oakley, Barbara (2014). A Mind For Numbers: How to Excel at Math and Science (Even If
You Flunked Algebra) (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780399165245). New York: Penguin
Random House. ISBN 978-0-399-16524-5. "A Mind for Numbers."
 Peirce, Benjamin (1881). Peirce, Charles Sanders (ed.). "Linear associative algebra" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=De0GAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&q=Peirce+Benjamin+Linear+As
sociative+Algebra). American Journal of Mathematics. 4 (1–4) (Corrected, expanded, and
annotated revision with an 1875 paper by B. Peirce and annotations by his son, C.S. Peirce,
of the 1872 lithograph ed.): 97–229. doi:10.2307/2369153 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2369
153). hdl:2027/hvd.32044030622997 (https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.3204403062299
7). JSTOR 2369153 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2369153). Corrected, expanded, and
annotated revision with an 1875 paper by B. Peirce and annotations by his son,
C. S. Peirce, of the 1872 lithograph ed. Google Eprint (https://books.google.com/books?id=L
QgPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA221) and as an extract, D. Van Nostrand, 1882, Google Eprint (http
s://archive.org/details/bub_gb_De0GAAAAYAAJ). Retrieved November 17, 2020..
Peterson, Ivars (1988). The Mathematical Tourist: Snapshots of Modern Mathematics. W. H.
Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1953-3. LCCN 87033078 (https://lccn.loc.gov/870330
78). OCLC 17202382 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17202382).
Popper, Karl R. (1995). "On knowledge". In Search of a Better World: Lectures and Essays
from Thirty Years (https://archive.org/details/insearchofbetter00karl). New York: Routledge.
Bibcode:1992sbwl.book.....P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992sbwl.book.....P).
ISBN 978-0-415-13548-1.
Riehm, Carl (August 2002). "The Early History of the Fields Medal" (https://www.ams.org/not
ices/200207/comm-riehm.pdf) (PDF). Notices of the AMS. 49 (7): 778–782. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20061026000014/http://www.ams.org/notices/200207/comm-riehm.
pdf) (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2006. Retrieved October 2, 2006.
Sevryuk, Mikhail B. (January 2006). "Book Reviews" (https://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/
S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-4.pdf) (PDF). Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society. 43 (1): 101–109. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01069-4 (https://doi.or
g/10.1090%2FS0273-0979-05-01069-4). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2006072308
2901/http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-
4.pdf) (PDF) from the original on July 23, 2006. Retrieved June 24, 2006.
Whittle, Peter (1994). "Almost home" (http://www.statslab.cam.ac.uk/History/2history.html#6.
_1966--72:_The_Churchill_Chair). In Kelly, F.P. (ed.). Probability, statistics and optimisation:
A Tribute to Peter Whittle (previously "A realised path: The Cambridge Statistical Laboratory
up to 1993 (revised 2002)" ed.). Chichester: John Wiley. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-471-94829-
2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131219080017/http://www.statslab.cam.ac.uk/Hi
story/2history.html#6._1966--72:_The_Churchill_Chair) from the original on December 19,
2013.

Further reading
Benson, Donald C. (1999). The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies (https://archive.
org/details/momentofproofmat00bens/page/n5/mode/2up). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-513919-8.
Davis, Philip J.; Hersh, Reuben (1999). The Mathematical Experience (Reprint ed.). Boston;
New York: Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-395-92968-1. Available online (https://archive.org/det
ails/mathematicalexpe0000davi/page/n5/mode/2up) (registration required).
Courant, Richard; Robbins, Herbert (1996). What Is Mathematics?: An Elementary
Approach to Ideas and Methods (https://archive.org/details/whatismathematic0000cour/pag
e/n5/mode/2up) (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510519-3.
Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers (https://archive.org/details/m
athematicsfromb1997gull/page/n5/mode/2up). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-
04002-9.
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Kluwer Academic
Publishers. – A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in
 ten volumes. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online (https://encyclopediaofmath.or
g/wiki/Special:AllPages). Archived (https://archive.today/20121220135247/http://www.encycl
opediaofmath.org/) December 20, 2012, at archive.today.
Hodgkin, Luke Howard (2005). A History of Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to Modernity.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-152383-0.
Jourdain, Philip E. B. (2003). "The Nature of Mathematics". In James R. Newman (ed.). The
World of Mathematics. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43268-7.
Pappas, Theoni (1986). The Joy Of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/joyofmathematic
s0000papp_t0z1/page/n3/mode/2up). San Carlos, California: Wide World Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-933174-65-8.
Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von (1965) [1856]. Gauss zum Gedächtniss. Sändig
Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend. ISBN 978-3-253-01702-5.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mathematics&oldid=1258200846"