Module1

Optical Fiber Communication: Historical development, The general system, Advantages of optical fiber
communication,Opticalfiberwaveguides:Raytheorytransmission,Modesinplanarguide,Phaseandgroup
velocity, cylindrical fiber: Modes, Step index fibers, Graded index fibers, Single mode fibers, Cutoff
wavelength, Mode field diameter, effective refractive index. Fiber materials, Photonic crystal fibers.

 Communicationmaybebroadly defined asthe transferofinformationfrom onepointto another.

 Whentheinformationistobeconveyedoveranydistanceacommunicationsystemisusuallyrequired.
 Within a communication system the information transfer is frequently achieved by superimposing or
modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier for the information
signal.
 This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination where it is received and the
original information signal is obtained by demodulation.
 Sophisticated techniques have been developed for this process using electromagnetic carrier waves
operating at radio frequencies as well as microwave and millimetre wave frequencies.
 Communication may also be achieved using an electromagnetic carrier which is selected from the
optical range of frequencies.
Historical Development
 Theuseofvisibleopticalcarrierwavesorlightforcommunicationhasbeencommonformanyyears. Simple
systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors, signalling lamps have provided successful
information transfer.
 Early as 1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light beam. The
photophone proposed by Bell just four years after the invention of the telephone modulated sunlight
with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance of 200 m.
 Although some investigation of optical communication continued in the early part of the twentieth
century its use was limited to mobile, low-capacity communication links.
 This was due to both the lack of suitable light sources and the problem that light transmission in the
atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and is severely affected by disturbances such as rain, snow,
fog, dust and atmospheric turbulence.
 Lower frequency and hence longer wavelength electromagnetic waves (i.e., radio and microwave)
proved suitable carriers for information transfer in the atmosphere, being far less affected by these
atmospheric conditions.
 Depending on their wavelengths, these electromagnetic carriers can be transmitted over considerable
distances but are limited in the amount of information they can convey by their frequencies (i.e., the
information-carryingcapacityisdirectlyrelatedtothebandwidthorfrequencyextentofthemodulated
carrier, which is generally limited to a fixed fraction of the carrier frequency).
 In theory, the greater the carrier frequency, the larger the available transmission bandwidth and thus
the information-carrying capacity of the communication system.
 For this reason, radio communication was developed to higher frequencies (i.e., VHF and UHF)
leading to the introduction of the even higher frequency microwave and, latterly, millimetre wave
transmission.
 Therelativefrequenciesandwavelengthsofthesetypesofelectromagneticwavecanbeobservedfrom the
electromagnetic spectrum shown in Figure 1.1.
 Figure1.1:Theelectromagneticspectrumshowingtheregionusedforopticalfiber communications

 Inthiscontextitmayalsobenotedthatcommunicationatopticalfrequenciesoffersanincreaseinthe potential
usable bandwidth by a factor of around 104 over high-frequency microwave transmission.
 Anadditionalbenefitoftheuseofhighcarrierfrequenciesisthegeneralabilityofthecommunication
systemtoconcentratetheavailablepowerwithinthetransmittedelectromagneticwave,thusgivingan
improved system performance.
 A renewed interest in optical communication was stimulated in the early 1960s with the invention of
the laser. This device provided a powerful coherent light source, together with the possibility of
modulation at high frequency.
 The low beam divergence of the laser made enhanced free space optical transmission a practical
possibility. The previously mentioned constraints of light transmission in the atmosphere tended to
restrict these systems to short-distance applications.
 Despitetheproblemssomemodestfreespaceopticalcommunicationlinkshavebeenimplementedfor
applications such as the linking of a television camera to a base vehicle and for data links of a few
hundred meters between buildings.
 There is also some interest in optical communication between satellites in outer space using similar
techniques. Although the use of the laser for free space optical communication proved somewhat
limited, the invention of the laser instigated a tremendous research effort into the study of optical
components to achieve reliable information transfer using a light wave carrier.
 The proposals for optical communication via dielectric waveguides or optical fibers fabricated from
glass to avoid degradation of the optical signal by the atmosphere were made almost simultaneously
in 1966 by Kao and Hockham and Werts. Such systems were viewed as a replacement for coaxial
cable or carrier transmission systems.
 Initiallytheopticalfibersexhibitedveryhighattenuation(i.e.,1000dB𝑘𝑚−1)andwerethereforenot
comparable with the coaxial cables they were to replace (i.e., 5 to 10 dB 𝑘𝑚−1)).
 There were also serious problems involved in jointing the fiber cables in a satisfactory manner to
achievelowlossandtoenabletheprocesstobeperformedrelativelyeasilyandrepeatedlyinthefield. Within
the space of 10 years optical fiber losses were reduced to below 5 dB 𝑘𝑚−1and suitable low- loss
jointing techniques were perfected.
 Inparallelwiththedevelopmentofthefiberwaveguide,attentionwasalsofocusedontheotheroptical
componentswhichwouldconstitutetheopticalfibercommunicationsystem.Sinceopticalfrequencies
 are accompanied by extremely small wavelengths, the development of all these optical components
essentially required a new technology.
 Thus,semiconductoropticalsources(i.e.,injectionlasersandlight-emittingdiodes)anddetectors(i.e.,
photodiodes and to a lesser extent phototransistors) compatible in size with optical fibers were
designed and fabricated to enable successful implementation of the optical fiber system.
 The materials growth and fabrication technology has been developed specifically for
telecommunicationapplicationsanditisnowmature.Fortelecommunicationapplicationssuchlasers are
often provided with a thermoelectric cooler together with a monitoring photodiode in the device
package in order to facilitate current and thus temperature control.
 Although developments in fiber technology have continued rapidly over recent years, certain
previously favoured areas of interest such as the application of fluoride fibers for even longer
wavelength operation in the mid-infrared (2 to 5 μm) and far-infrared (8 to 12 μm) regions have
declinedduetotheirfailuretodemonstratepracticallythetheoreticallypredicted,extremelylowfiber losses
combined with the emergence of optical amplifiers suitable for use with silica-based fibers.
 Animportantdevelopment,however,concernsthediscoveryofthephenomenonofphotonicbandgaps
which can be created in structures which propagate light, such as crystals or optical fibers.
 Oneparticularformofphotoniccrystalfiber,forexample,comprisesamicrostructuredregularlattice of air
holes running along its length.
 Such‘holey’fibershavetheunusualpropertythattheyonlytransmitasinglemodeoflightandhence form an
entirely newsingle-modefibertype which can carry moreoptical powerthan a conventional one.
 Afurtherclassofphotonicbandgapfiberisdefinedbyalargehollowcoreinwhichthelightisguided. Such air
guiding or hollow-core optical fibers could find application in photonic bandgap devices to provide
dispersion compensation on long-haul fiber links or for high-resolution, tunable spectral filters.
 Nevertheless, even without the commercial availability of photonic bandgap devices, the
implementationofawiderangeofconventionalfibercomponents(splices,connectors,couplers,etc.) and
active optoelectronic devices (sources, detectors, amplifiers, etc.) has also moved to a stage of
maturity.
 High-performance, reliable optical fiber communication systems and networks are therefore now
widely deployed within the worldwide telecommunication network and in many more localized
communication application areas.
Thegeneralsystem
 Anopticalfibercommunicationsystemissimilarinbasicconcepttoanytypeofcommunication system.
 AblockschematicofageneralcommunicationsystemisshowninFigure1.2(a),thefunctionofwhich is to
convey the signal from the information source over the transmission medium to the destination.
 The communication system thereforeconsists of a transmitter or modulator linked to the information
source, the transmission medium, and a receiver or demodulator at the destination point.

Figure1.2(a):Thegeneralcommunicationsystem
 Inelectricalcommunicationstheinformationsourceprovidesanelectricalsignal,usuallyderivedfrom a
message signal which is not electrical (e.g., sound), to a transmitter comprising electrical and
electroniccomponentswhichconvertsthesignalintoasuitableformforpropagationoverthe

3
 transmissionmedium.Thisisoftenachievedbymodulatingacarrierwhichmaybeanelectromagnetic wave.
 The transmission medium can consist of a pair of wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link through free
space down which the signal is transmitted to the receiver, where it is transformed into the original
electrical information signal (demodulated) before being passed to the destination.
 Itmustbenotedthatinanytransmissionmediumthesignalisattenuated,orsuffersloss,andissubject to
degradations due to contamination by random signals and noise, as well as possible distortions
imposed by mechanisms within the medium itself.
 Therefore, in any communication system there is a maximum permitted distance between the
transmitter and the receiver beyond which the system effectively ceases to give intelligible
communication.
 For long haul applications these factors necessitate the installation of repeaters or line amplifiers at
intervals,bothtoremovesignaldistortionandtoincreasesignallevelbeforetransmissioniscontinued down
the link.
 For optical fiber communications the system shown in Figure 1.2(a) may be considered in slightly
greater detail, as given in Figure 1.2(b).

Figure1.2(b):Theopticalfibercommunicationsystem
 The information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage
which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.
 The optical source which provides the electrical–optical conversion may be either a semiconductor
laser or light-emitting diode (LED).
 The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the receiver consists of an optical
detectorwhichdrivesafurtherelectricalstageandhenceprovidesdemodulationoftheopticalcarrier.
Photodiodes (p–n, p–i–n or avalanche) and, in some instances, phototransistors and photoconductors
are utilized for the detection of the optical signal and the optical–electrical conversion.
 Thus,thereisarequirementforelectricalinterfacingateitherendoftheopticallinkandatpresentthe signal
processing is usually performed electrically.
 Theopticalcarriermaybemodulatedusingeitherananalogordigitalinformationsignal.Inthesystem shown
in Figure 1.2(b) analog modulation involves the variation of the light emitted from the optical source
in a continuous manner. With digital modulation, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained
(i.e., on–off pulses).
 Analogmodulationwithanopticalfibercommunicationsystemislessefficient,requiringafarhigher signal-
to-noiseratioatthereceiverthandigitalmodulation.Thelinearityneededforanalogmodulation is not
always provided by semiconductor optical sources, especially at high modulation frequencies.
 For these reasons, analog optical fiber communication links aregenerally limited to shorter distances
and lower bandwidth operation than digital links.
 Figure1.3:Adigitalopticalfiberlinkusing asemiconductorlasersourceandanavalanchephotodiode (APD)
detector
 Figure 1.3 shows a block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link. Initially, the input digital
signal from the information source is suitably encoded for optical transmission.
 The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the semiconductor laser with the encoded
digital signal. Hence a digital optical signal is launched into the optical fiber cable.
 The avalanche photodiode (APD) detector is followed by a front-end amplifier and equalizer or filter
toprovidegainaswellaslinearsignalprocessingandnoisebandwidthreduction.Thesignalobtained is
decoded to give the original digital information.
Advantagesofopticalfibercommunication
Communicationusinganopticalcarrierwaveguidedalongaglassfiberhasanumberofextremelyattractive features,
several of which were apparent when the technique was originally conceived.
 Enormouspotentialbandwidth:Theopticalcarrierfrequencyintherange1013to1016Hz(generally
inthenearinfraredaround1014Hzor105GHz)yieldsafargreaterpotentialtransmissionbandwidth than
metallic cable systems.
 Small size and weight: Optical fibers have very small diameters which are often no greater than the
diameter of a human hair. Even when such fibers are covered with protective coatings, they are far
smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cables.
 Electrical isolation: Optical fibers which are fabricated from glass, or sometimes a plastic polymer,
are electrical insulators and therefore, they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems.
 Immunityto interferenceand crosstalk: Optical fibers form adielectric waveguide and aretherefore
free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radio-frequency interference (RFI), or switching
transients giving electromagnetic pulses (EMPs).
 Signalsecurity:Thelightfromopticalfibersdoesnotradiatesignificantlyandthereforetheyprovide a high
degree of signal security.
 Low transmission loss: The development of optical fibers over the last 20 years has resulted in the
productionofopticalfibercableswhichexhibitverylowattenuation (lossesaslowas0.15dB 𝑘𝑚−1) or
transmission loss in comparison with the best copper conductors.
 Ruggedness and flexibility: Although protective coatings are essential, optical fibers may be
manufacturedwithveryhightensilestrengths.Cablestructureshavebeenwhichhaveprovedflexible,
compact and extremely rugged.
 System reliability and ease of maintenance: The low-loss property of optical fiber cables which
reduces the requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal
strength. With fewer optical repeaters or amplifiers, system reliability is generally enhanced and the
reliability of the optical components is no longer a problem.
 Potentiallowcost:Theglasswhichgenerallyprovidestheopticalfibertransmissionmediumismade from
sand – not a scarce resource.
Opticalfiber waveguides:
Opticalfibercableis alsocalled asOpticalfiberwaveguides. ThestructureisillustratedinFigure2.1,which shows a
transparent core with a refractive index n1 surrounded by a transparent cladding of slightly lower refractive
index n2.

Figure2.1:Opticalfiberwaveguideshowingthecoreofrefractiveindexn1,surroundedbythecladdingofslightly lower
refractive index n2

Theopticalfiber waveguidesconsistof;
a) Core:Itisthecentralregionofthefiber.Itconsistsofhighrefractiveindex[n1](e.g.,Glass) material. Light is
guided in this region.
b) Cladding: It is the outer optical material, surrounding the core. Its refractive index is slightly lesser
than the core region. i.e., n2< n1. The cladding supports the waveguide structure while also, when
sufficiently thick, substantially reducing the radiation loss into the surrounding air.
c) Buffercoating:Itistheplasticcoatingthatprotectsthefiber.Itdoesnothaveanyopticalproperties.
Lightguidingcharacteristicsofopticalfiberwaveguideisdependentonrefractiveindexofcoreandcladding. Optical
fibers work on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR). Refractive index of core, n1 must be always
greater than refractive index of cladding, n2.
Inessence,thelightenergytravelsinboththecoreandthecladdingallowingtheassociatedfieldstodecayto a
negligible value at the cladding–air interface.
RayTheorytransmission
In Ray theory, the Light in Fiber Optics is considered as a simple ray, shown by a Line. Light travels at the
speed of 𝑐 = 3 ∗ 108𝑚𝑠−1in free space.
Whenlighttravelsthroughaopticalmaterialitexhibitscertainbehaviourexplainedbythelawsofreflection and
refraction.
 Refractive Index(n): It is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in free space to the velocity of
light in any optically transparent material. It is denoted by ‘n’ and it is a dimensionless quantity.
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
Mathematically;𝑛=
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑐
𝑛= where𝑐=3∗108𝑚𝑠−1andv=velocityoflightinanymedium.
𝑣
Note: Refractive index indicated the amount of bending (refraction) at the interface of two different
mediums/ materials.
Materialname Refractive
index(n)
Air 1
Glass 1.5
Diamond 2
Silicon(Si) 3.5
 GaAs 3.7
AlGaAs 3.4
HigherIndexmediumiscalled“Opticallydensermedium” Lower
Index medium is called “Optically rarer medium”
Speedoflightinanyopticalmaterialisinverselyproportionaltorefractive index.

 Reflection:

Lawsofreflectionstates that;
1stLaw:Incidentray,reflectedrayandnormaltothereflectivesurface,allliesinthesameplane. 2 nd Law:
The Angle of Incidence= the Angle of Reflection
i.e.,𝜃1=𝜃2where𝜃1istheAngle ofincidenceand𝜃2istheAngleof reflection

 Refraction:
When light rays enter from one medium to any other medium having a different refractive index, the
velocity of light changes. As a result, bending of light occurs and it is called as Refraction of light.

Let‘O’bethepointofincidence.Dottedlineindicatesnormallinetotheinterface. Where 𝜑1=

Angle of incidence =Angle of reflection (using law of refection)
𝜑2=Angleofrefraction
** Snell’sLaw: It states that theproduct ofrefractiveindexand sineofincidenceanglein medium 1 must
be equal to the product of refractive index and sine of refracted angle in medium 2.
i.e., 𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑1=𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑2
**Note:Allanglesaremeasuredwithrespecttonormalline.

 Critical Angle:
Itistheangleofincidence,whichresultsin90ºofangleofrefraction. Itisdenotedby 𝜃𝑐. i.e., when
𝜃𝑖= 𝜃𝑐then, 𝜃𝑟= 90° ad shown in the figure.

Note:𝑛1>𝑛2
 Mathematicalexpression:
UsingSnell’slawattheinterfaceofmedium1andmedium2
𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖=𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟
Usethecondition,𝜃𝑖=𝜃𝑐when𝜃𝑟=90°
𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐=𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛90°= 𝑛2
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐=
𝑛 1
𝑛
Thus, critical angle,𝜃𝑐 =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 2 )
𝑛1

 TotalInternalReflection(TIR)
The Light is guided inthe optical fiber based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR). The
two necessary conditions required for TIR are;
i. Theangleofincidence must begreaterthan criticalangle. i.e.,𝜃𝑖>𝜃𝑐.
ii. The ray of light must enter from higher refractive index medium (optically denser(core))
tolower refractive index (optically rarer(cladding)) medium. It is shown in the figure.

 NumericalAperture
LightcollectingandgatheringabilityofopticalfiberiscalledNumericalaperture.ItisdenotedbyNA.
Mathematically;
NA=√𝑛2−𝑛2where,𝑛1=refractiveindexofcore>𝑛2
1 2
𝑛2=refractiveindexofcladding.

 RelativeRefractiveindexdifference (∆)
Relativerefractiveindexdifferencebetweencore andcladding refractiveindices(𝑛1&𝑛2)isgivenby,
𝑛2−𝑛22
∆= 1
2𝑛12
RelationbetweenNAandRelativerefractiveindexdifference (∆):
W.K.T.NA=√𝑛2−𝑛2→𝑁𝐴2=𝑛2−𝑛2
1 2 1 2
Relativerefractiveindexdifference(∆)
 𝑛12−𝑛22
∆=
2𝑛12
𝑁𝐴2
∆= 2 →𝑁𝐴2=2𝑛2∆1
2𝑛 1
𝑁𝐴=𝑛1√2∆

 Acceptanceangle(𝜽𝒐)
Itisthemaximumentranceangleatwhicharayoflightcanstrikethefiberaxisinordertobe propagated. It is
denoted by ‘𝜃𝑜’.
Mathematically; 𝑁𝐴
Acceptanceangle,𝜃=𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ),whereNA=√𝑛2−𝑛2,n=R.Iofoutsidemedium,ifoutside
𝑜 (𝑛 1 2
mediumisair,thenn=1. Proof:
Considerarayoflight‘A’,entersthefibercorefromamediumofrefractiveindex‘n’atanangle‘𝜃𝑜’
withrespecttofiberaxis.Thisangleisknownasacceptanceangle.
Hence, a ray should strike the interface (Air-fiber core) within the angle 𝜃𝑜to propagate the light
throughthecoreofthefiber.Whentheentranceangleis𝜃𝑜thentherayoflightstrikeshecore-cladding
interface at an angle of ‘𝜃𝑐’, where 𝜃𝑐is the critical angle given by,
𝑛
𝜃𝑐 =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 2 ).Itisshowninthefigure.
𝑛1

Apply Snell’slaw at thesurroundingmedium (n)and fibercore(𝑛1)interface;

𝑛3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜=𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟
From triangleOXY, refractedangle𝜃𝑟=90°− 𝜃𝑐
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜=𝑛1sin(90°−𝜃𝑐)
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜=𝑛1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 ……………. (1)
W.K.Tfrom criticalangledefinition
𝑛1 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =𝑛2 Thus, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =√1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃=√1−( )
𝑐 𝑛1 𝑐 𝑐 𝑛2
2 2 √𝑛2−𝑛2
𝑛 −𝑛 1 2 𝑁𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 =√ 1 𝑛22= = ………….. (2)
1 𝑛1 𝑛1
WhereNA=NumericalApertureoffiber=√𝑛2−𝑛2
1 2
𝑁𝐴
Substitute = inequation(1)
𝑛1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜=𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐∗𝑛1
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝐴 ∗𝑛 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =𝑁𝐴
𝑜 1
𝑛1 𝑜 𝑛
𝑁𝐴
𝜃𝑜 =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ),If outside mediumisAir,thenn=1andwe get
𝑛
Acceptanceangle,𝜃𝑜=𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(𝑁𝐴)whereNA=√𝑛2−𝑛2=𝑛1√2∆.
1 2
 Acceptance Cone
RotatingtheAcceptanceangle‘𝜃𝑜’aroundthefiberaxis,aconeshapedpatternisobtained.Itiscalled as
Acceptance Cone of the fiber input. The figure shows the acceptance cone of the fiber input.

From the figure the total cone angle=2𝜃𝑜Acceptance

angle, 𝜃𝑜= half of cone angle
Theconeofacceptanceistheanglewithinwhichthelightis acceptedinto thecoreandisableto propagate along
the fiber core by TIR.

 Skewrays
Light rays which are transmitted without passing through the fiber axis are called skew rays.
Theserays follow a helical path, through the fiber as shown in the figure.

The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than that of meridional rays, Acceptance angle of skew
rays is given by,
𝑁𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑠= where𝜃𝑎𝑠is the acceptanceangle of skewrays.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

 Meridionalrays
Lightrayswhicharetransmittedthroughthemeridianplanesofthefiber(fiberaxis)arecalledas meridional
rays.
Theseraysfollowazig-zagpaththroughthefiberasshowninthefigure.Itisthedefaultraypaththat is
considered in the laws of geometrical optics.
ElectromagneticModeTheoryforopticalpropagation
Light rays propagateas an Electromagneticwave along the fiber. The two components, the electric field and
magneticfieldformpatternsacrossthefiber.Thesepatternsarecalledas‘Modes’oftransmission(TEmodes & TM
modes).
Mode: The mode of a fiber refers to the number of paths forthe light rays within the optical fiber cable. It is
obtained by solving Maxwell’s Equations.
Modesina planarguide
The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide. Assume it consists of a slab of dielectric with
refractive index 𝑛1sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive index 𝑛2.
In orderto obtain an improved model foroptical propagation it is usefultoconsidertheinterferenceofplane
wavecomponentswithinthisdielectricwaveguide.Theconceptualtransitionfromraytowavetheorymaybe
aidedbyconsiderationofaplanemonochromaticwavepropagatinginthedirectionoftheraypathwithinthe guide
(see Figure).

As the refractive index within the guide is 𝑛1, the optical wavelength in this region is reduced to λ/𝑛1, while
the vacuum propagation constant is increased to 𝑛1k.
When θ is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the equivalent ray and the guide axis, the plane
wave can be resolved into two component plane waves propagating in the z and x directions, as shown in
Figure.
Thecomponentofthephasepropagationconstant inthezdirection 𝛽𝑧isgivenby:𝛽𝑧=𝑛1kcosθ The
component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction 𝛽𝑥is: 𝛽𝑥= 𝑛1k sin θ
 Thecomponentoftheplanewaveinthexdirectionisreflectedattheinterfacebetweenthehigherand lower
refractive index media.
 Whenthetotalphasechangeaftertwosuccessivereflectionsattheupperandlowerinterfaces(between the
points P and Q) is equal to 2mπ radians, where m is an integer, then constructive interference occurs
and a standing wave is obtained in the x direction.
 In this illustration it is assumed that the interference forms the lowest order (where m = 0) standing
wave, where the electric field is a maximum at the center of the guide decaying towards zero at the
boundary between the guide and cladding.
 The optical wave is effectively confined within the guide and the electric field distribution in the x
direction does not change as the wave propagates in the z direction.
 Thestablefield distributionin the x directionwith only aperiodiczdependenceisknownas amode.
 A specific mode is obtained only when the anglebetween the propagation vectors or the rays and the
interface have a particular value.
 Tovisualizethedominantmodespropagatinginthezdirectionwemayconsiderplanewaves corresponding
to rays at different specific angles in the planar guide.
 Theseplanewavesgiveconstructiveinterferencetoformstandingwavepatternsacrosstheguide following a
sine or cosine formula.
 Figureshowsexamplesofsuchraysform=1,2,3,togetherwiththeelectricfielddistributionsinthe x
direction.

 The‘m’ denotes thenumberof zerosin this transverse field pattern. Inthis way m signifies theorder of
the mode and is known as the mode number.
 When light is described as an electromagnetic wave it consists of a periodically varying electric field
E and magnetic field H which are orientated at right angles to each other.
 ThetransversemodesshowninFigureillustratethecasewhentheelectricfieldisperpendiculartothe
direction of propagation and hence 𝐸𝑧= 0, but a corresponding component of the magnetic field H is
in the direction of propagation.
 Inthisinstancethemodes aresaid tobetransverseelectric(TE).
 When acomponent oftheEfield is inthedirection ofpropagation, but 𝐻𝑧=0, themodesformedare called
transverse magnetic (TM).
 The mode numbers are incorporated into this nomenclature by referring to the TE and TM modes, as
illustrated for the transverse electric modes shown in Figure.
 Whenthetotalfieldliesinthetransverseplane,transverseelectromagnetic(TEM)wavesexistwhere both
𝐸𝑧and 𝐻𝑧are zero.
 AlthoughTEMwavesoccurinmetallicconductors(e.g.coaxialcables)theyareseldomfoundin optical
waveguides.
Insimplewords moderefersto Numberof paths.
Accordingtonumberofmodesopticalfiberscanbeclassifiedintotwo types;
i. Singlemode fibers
ii. Multimodefibers
Single Modefibers:
Singlemodefibersallowpropagationoflightraysby onlyone path,asshown inthe figure

Thecoreradiusis verysmall. It isof theorder of 10µm

Thelaunching of optical powerinto single-mode fiberis verydifficult as thecoreradius is small. It supports
larger bandwidth.
Intermodal dispersion is absent. Ideally very low loss. It is used for long distance communication. Optical
source used must be LASER.
Multi-Modefibers:
Multimode fibers allow propagation of light rays by multiple paths i.e., multiple light rays are carried
simultaneously through the multi-mode fiber core, as shown in the figure. These suffer from intermodal
dispersion.

Comparisonbetweensinglemodeandmultimodefibers:
Singlemodefiber Multimodefiber
Coreradius issmall (𝑎≅10𝜇𝑚) Coreradius is large(𝑎≅50𝜇𝑚)
Supportsone modeof propagation Supportshundredsofmodes
OpticalsourceisLASER OpticalsourceisLED
Supportslarger bandwidth Supportslesser bandwidth
Intermodaldispersionis absent Intermodaldispersionis present
The launching of optical power into the Thelaunchingofopticalpowerintothefiber is
fiberisverydifficultasthecoreradiusis easier as the core radius is large
small
Lowtransmissionloss Hightransmissionloss
Usedforlongdistancecommunication Ex: Usedforshortdistancecommunication Ex:
telecommunication, broadcasting LAN
Suitableforintegrated optics Notsuitableforintegratedopticaltechnology
Less expensive More expensive
ClassificationofOpticalFibers basedonR.I. profile:
Dependingontherefractiveindexdistributioninthecoreandcladdingregions,opticalfiberisclassifiedinto two types.
They are:
1. Stepindex fibers
2. Gradedindexfibers
StepIndex Fibers
In step index fibers the refractive index of the core isconstant through out its region but there is an
abruptchange in the refractive index at the core-cladding interface.
Mathematically,therefractiveindex(R.I)profilefor astepindexfiberisgiven by,

𝑛(𝑟)=𝑛1;|𝑟|<𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
𝑛2;|𝑟|≥𝑎(𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

Wherer=radialdistancefromthefiberaxis,a=radiusofthecore,𝑛1=refractiveindexofthecore,𝑛2= refractive index of

the cladding
InStepindexfiberslightraypropagatesasMeridonalraysinzig-zagpattern.Thebending(refraction)oflight takes
place only at core cladding interface. Data transmission is slow.
Therayof lighttravelsataconstant velocity,
𝑐
𝑣=
𝑛1
Dependingonthenumberofmodes,step indexfibers areclassified into;
i. Singlemode Step index fiber
ii. MultimodeStep index fiber
InSinglemodeStepindexfibers,singlerayoflightpropagatesthroughstepindexfibercore.Theraypathis meridional
and propagates in zig-zag pattern.

In MultimodeStepindexfibers,multiplerays oflight can becarriedsimultaneously through stepindexfiber core.

The ray path is skew rays and propagates in helical pattern.

GradedIndexFibers
Ingradedindexfibers (GRIN)therefractiveindex ofcoregraduallyvarieswithrespecttofiberaxis.
IntheGRINfibersthebendingoflight(refraction)takesplaceateverypointinitscoreregion.Thereforethe ray of light
propagates in helical path and these rays are called as skew rays.

TherefractiveindexprofileofGRINfiberisgiven by
𝑟 𝛼
𝑛(𝑟)=𝑛1(1−2∆( ));|𝑟|<𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
𝑎
1⁄
𝑛2(1 −2∆) 2≅𝑛2;|𝑟|≥𝑎(𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

Wherer=radialdistancefromthefiberaxis, a=
radius of the core,
𝑛1= refractiveindexofthecore,
𝑛2=refractiveindexofthecladding
∆=Relativerefractiveindexdifferenceand𝛼istheprofileparameter
In GRINfibersthevelocityoftherayoflightcontinuouslychangesinthecoreregion.TheR.Iofthecoreis maximum at
the center of fiber axis.
1
Thevelocity of light waveisminimum (𝑣=∝ )at theaxis and maximum tcore-cladding interface.
𝑛1

Ingradedindexfibers,datatravelsathigher speedthanthatofstepindex fibers.

Dependingonnumberof modes,GRINfibers areclassified into
i. SinglemodeGRIN fibers
ii. MultimodeGRINfibers
ComparisonbetweenStepandGradedIndexFibers:

Parameters StepIndexfiber Gradedindex fiber

Refractiveindexofcore Constant Not constant

NumericalAperture Constant Variesw.r.tfiberaxis

RayPath Zig-zag(meridionalray) Helicalpath(Skewray)

Pulse spreading More Less

Coupling efficiency High Low

Datarate Slow transmission Highdata rate

Relative refractive index 𝑛1−𝑛2 𝑛2−𝑛212

∆= ∆=
difference 𝑛1 2𝑛2
1
 Attenuationof light Typically,less(0.34dB/kmat 1300 More(0.6dB/km at 1300nm)
nm)

Materialsused Plastic orglass Glass

Bandwidthefficiency 10-20MHz 1 GHz

V-numberandNumberofguided modes:
V-numberiscalledasthenormalisedfrequency.Itisadimensionlessparameterusedtodeterminethe maximum
possible modes of a fiber.
Itgivesarelationbetweenoperatingwavelength(λ),coreradius(a)andnumericalapertureoftheopticalfiber.
2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= .𝑁𝐴
λ
TofindthenumberofguidedmodesinMultimodefibersV-numberisused.Numberofguidedmodesin multimode step
index fiber is;
𝑉2
𝑀𝑔=
2
Numberofguidedmodesin multimodegradedindexfiberis;
𝛼 𝑉2
𝑀𝑔=( ).
𝛼+ 2 2
Where𝛼is profileparameter.For parabolicvariation𝛼=2, then

𝑉2
𝑀𝑔=
4
Singlemodeoperation and Cut-off wavelength:
Atsinglemodeoperation,cut-offwavelengthλ=λ𝑐and𝑉=V𝑐then
2𝜋𝑎
V𝑐= .𝑁𝐴
λ𝑐
WhereV𝑐isthenormalized V-numberforsinglemodeoperation.
V λ
Nowconsider 𝑐= .Thus,Cut-offwavelengthis
V λ𝑐
𝑉.λ 2𝜋𝑎.𝑁𝐴
𝑐λ= =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
Forstepindexfibers,𝑉𝑐=2.405

Forsinglemodegradedindexfiberwithparabolicprofile(𝛼=2),𝑉𝑐=2.405√2
ModeField diameter (MFD):
Forsinglemodefibersoperatingnearthecut-offwavelength λ𝑐,thefieldcanbeapproximatedby“Gaussian
distribution”.
In singlemodeoptical fiber,light-ray propagates as asinglegaussian pulsealong thelength ofthefiberwith
maximum intensity at the center of the fiber core.

Figureshowsthe electric field distributionE(r)asafunctionofradialdistancefromfiber axis.

ModeFielddiameterrepresentation

The MFD is the distance between the opposite field amplitude points where the field intensity is (1/𝑒) times
maximum field intensity ‘E0’
MDFis twicethe spotsize (𝜔0)
𝑀𝐷𝐹=2.𝜔0
Modefielddiameteris slightlygreaterthan single modecore diameter.
Fiber Materials:
Thefollowing requirements must besatisfied forfibermaterials;
i. Itmustbepossible tomakelong,thin andflexible fibersfrom materials.
ii. Thematerialmust beoptically transparent
iii. Physicallycompatiblematerialsthathaveslightlydifferentrefractiveindicesforcoreandcladding must
be available.
The Materials that satisfy these properties are: glass and plastics. The refractive index of glass can be varied
by adding dopants such as 𝐺𝑒𝑂2, 𝑃2𝑂5, 𝐵2𝑂3, and F.
Photonic CrystalFibers:
 Photoniccrystalfibersarealsocalledasmicrostructuredfibers.
 Thephotoniccrystal fibershave airholes in the cladding and in some cases thecoreregion along the
entire length of the fiber.
 MaterialsusedinfabricationareSi,Geor GaAs.
 ThelightguidingcharacteristicsofPCFaredeterminedby
 Sizeandspacing betweentheair holes
 Refractiveindexof itsconstituent materials.
 TherearetwotypesofPCF’s
  Indexguidingfiber
 Photonicbandgap fiber

Indexguiding fiber
Ahighsolidindexcoreissurroundedbycladdingwithembeddedholes. The
holes have a diameter ‘d’ and pitch ‘A’.

Coreand cladding aremadeup ‘silica’. Air holes lowerthe refractiveindex of cladding. This microstructure
arrangement creates step index fibers.
Photonic band gapfiber
Thephotonicbandgapfiberhasahallowcorethatissurroundedbyacladdingregionwhichcontainsairholes along the
length of the fiber.
Diameteroftheairholes is‘d’andspacingbetweentheairholesiscalleda pitch‘A’

Herethehallowcoreactsasadefectinthephotonicbandgapstructure,whichcreatestheregioninwhichthe light can

propagate.

******