AUTHOR：DSALGO

1.Injec ve Func on (One-to-One):A func on where each

 a func on is considered to be a specific type of rela on
element of the domain maps to a unique element in the
between sets.
codomain.
 Formally, a func on f from set A to set B, denoted as
*Let f:XY and f(x1)=f(x2) implies x1=x2
f:A→B,
 assigns to every element x in set A exactly one element y in
Ex: f(x)=2x - Every dis nct x value maps to a unique f(x).
set B. This is o en expressed as f(x)=y.
2.Surjec ve Func on (Onto):: A func on where every element
in the codomain has at least one pre-image in the domain.
*Let f:XY and elements x ∈ X ,y ∈ Y then f(x)=y or
Range(f)=Y
Ex: f(x)=x2 is not onto but f(x)=x3 is onto func on

Every real number y has at least one corresponding x.

3.Bijec ve Func on:A func on that is both injec ve and

surjec ve
Ex: f(x)=3x+2 - Each x has a unique f(x), and every real
 Domain: The set of all valid input values x. number is a f(x).
 Codomain: The set of all possible output values y.
 Range: The set of all actual output values that the func on
can produce

4.Iden ty func on
 if we have a func on f:X→X, then f is called the iden ty
func on if f(a)=a for every element a in X.
 In other words, every element of the set X is mapped to
itself by the func on f.

N:1: solve these are bijec ve or not

i. x2 ii.x3 iii.(x2+1)/(x2+2)

i. Let x1 , x2  R such that f(x1 ) = f(x2 )

(x12 ) = (x22 ) => x12 = x22 => x1 = ± x2

Therefore, if x2 = 1 then x1 = ± 1 So, f is not one-to-one.

 Algebraic Func ons: These involve a finite number of
terms with powers and roots of the independent variable x. ii. Let x1 , x2  R such that f(x1 ) = f(x2 )
 Polynomial Func ons: a0xn+a1xn−1+…+an where n is a (x13) = (x23) => x1 = x2 Therefore f is not one-to-one.
posi ve integer and 0,1,…a0,a1,…,an are constants.
 Ra onal Func ons: g(x)/f(x) where f(x) and g(x) are Let y  R such that y = x 3 => x = (y) 1/3 For  y  R
polynomials.
such that y = f (x)  f is onto. Hence, f is bijec ve
 Irra onal Func ons: Involves radicals, such as f(x)=x1/3 or
f(x)=x1/2.
 Transcendental Func ons: These are not algebraic.
 Trigonometric Func ons: sinx,cosx,tanx,secx,cosecx,cotx.
 Inverse Trigonometric Func ons:  Two func ons, f(x) and f−1(y), are inverses if they "undo"
sin−1x,cos−1x,tan−1x,cot−1x,sec−1x,csc−1x. each other's ac ons
 Exponen al Func ons: ax where a>0.  inverse func on should be injec ve and surjec ve .
 Logarithmic Func ons: logax, the inverse of exponen al
func ons.
 x = (f –1  g–1) (z) [f –1 (y) = x]
Thus, (g  f) –1 (z) = (f –1  g–1) (z).
So, (g  f) –1 = f –1  g –1

 The growth of a func on, o en discussed in the context of

asympto c analysis,
 describes how the func on's value increases as the input
grows towards infinity.
 Here are some common growth rates of func ons
 constant growth , logarrthmic growth , linear growth ,
polynomial growth , exponen al growth ,frac onal growth
 we can analysis the growth of func on using nota on , we
have mainly three types of nota ons in the func ons:
 Big-oh nota on:
composite func on, denoted g∘f, represents the composi on
 It is the method of expressing the upper bound of
of two func ons, f and g.
an function running time.
 It is the measure of the longest amount of time. The
function f (n) = O (g (n))
 f(n) <= c.g(n) where n>n0
 Example: 3n+2=O(n) as 3n+2≤4n for all n≥2

N:1 If f: A -> B and g: B -> C are one-one func ons, show that g
o f is a one – one func on.

1. let x, y ∈ A such that

2. g o f(x) = g o f(y)
3. g(f(x)) = g(f(y))  Big-Omega notation:
4. f(x) = f(y)  It is the method of expressing the lower bound of an
5. x = y Therefore, g o f is one – one func on. function running time.
 It is the measure of the smallest amount of time. The
N.2: If f : A  B, g : B  C are inver ble func ons, then show function f (n) = Ω(g (n))
that g  f : A  C is inver ble and (g  f) –1 = f –1  g –1  f(n) >= c.g(n) where n>n0
 Example: 3n-3= Ω (n) as 3n-3 >=2n for all n≥3
Prove: g  f : A  C

f and g are inver ble func ons then both are one-one and
onto func on
f (x1 ) = f (x2 )  x1 = x2 (from one-one)
g (y1 ) = g (y2 )  y1 = y2 (from one-one)
since (g  f) (x1 ) = (g  f) (x2 )
 g [f(x1 )] = g [f (x2 )]
 f (x1 ) = f(x2 ) [g is one-to-one]
 Theta(Θ) notation:
 x1 = x2 [f is one-to-one]
 It is the method of expressing the both lower and
Since g is onto, for z  C, there exists y  B such that g (y) = z. upper bound of an function running time.
Also f being onto there exists x  A such that f (x) = y.  It is the measure of the average amount of time. The
Hence z = g (y) = g [f (x)] = (g  f) (x) function f (n) = Θ(g (n))
Thus, g  f is one-to-one onto func on and hence (g  f) –1  c1.g(n) <= f(n) <= c2.g(n) where n>n0
exists.g o f is inver ble  Example: 3n-3=O(n) as 2n<= 3n-3 <= 4n for all n≥3
Prove:(g  f) –1 = f –1  g –1

(g  f) –1 (z) = x
(g  f) (x) = z  g (f (x)) = z
g (y) = z where y = f (x)
y = g –1 (z)
f –1 (y) = f –1 (g –1 (z)) = (f –1  g–1) (z)
 Idempotent law :
 Boolean algebra works with variables that can have only To prove : a + a = a and a.a = a
two values: true (1) or false (0).
Let a = a + 0 by Iden ty
 It defines opera ons like AND (⋅), OR (+), and NOT (x’) to
= a + a. a by Complement
manipulate these binary variables.
 True is represented by 1 and false by 0. These values are = (a + a).(a + a) by Distribu ve
used to represent the outcomes of logical opera ons. = (a + a).1 by Complement
 Using these opera ons, you can combine true/false = a + a by Iden ty
Now let a = a.1 by Iden ty
statements to form new statements and analyze their truth
= a.(a + a) by Complement
values.
 Applica ons: in digital circuit design, computer = a.a + a.a by Distribu ve
programming, and logical reasoning. = a.a + 0 by Complement
= a.a by Iden ty

De Morgan’s law :
 Fundamental rules defining proper es of logical opera ons
and variables. To prove : (a + b) = a.b
1. Iden ty laws: x+0=x and x⋅1=x To prove the theorem we will show that (a + b) + a.b = 1
2. Complement laws: x+x¯=1 and x⋅x¯=0 Consider ,
3. Associa ve laws: x+(y+z)=(x+y)+z and x⋅(y⋅z)=(x⋅y)⋅z (a + b) + a.b = {(a + b) + a}.{(a + b) + b} by Distribu ve
4. Distribu ve laws:x⋅(y+z)=(x⋅y)+(x⋅z) and x+(y⋅z)=(x+y)⋅(x+z) = {(b + a) + a}.{(a + b) + b} by Commuta ve
= {b + (a + a)}.{a + (b + b)} by Associa ve
= (b + 1).(a + 1) by Complement
 Derived from axioms, they represent algebraic = 1.1 by Dominance
manipula ons applicable to Boolean expressions. =1
 Idempotent laws : a. a + a = a b. a.a = a Also consider
 Boundedness (Dominance) laws : (a) a + 1 = 1 (b) a.0 = 0 (a + b).ab = ab.(a + b) by Commuta ve
 Absorp on laws : (a) a + (a.b) = a (b) a.(a + b) = a = ab.a + ab.b by Distribu ve
 Associa ve laws : = a.(ab) + a.(b b) by Commuta ve
(a) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (b) (a.b).c = a.(b.c) = (a. a).b + a(b. b) by Associa ve
 Uniqueness of complement : = 0. b + a.0 by Complement
a + x = 1 and a.x = 0, then x = a = b.0 + a.0 by Commuta ve
 Involu on law : (a) = a = 0 + 0 by Dominance
 De-Morgan’s laws : (a) (a + b) = a.b (b) (a.b) = a + b = 0 So, ab is complement of (a + b) i.e.(a + b) = a b
 commuta ve laws: (a) a+b=b+a (b) a.b=b.a

 Represents a logical expression as the OR (sum) of one or

Absorp on law : more terms (products).
 Each term is the AND (product) of variables or their
To prove : a.(a + b) = a
complements.
Let a.(a + b) = (a + 0).(a + b) by Iden ty  Example(for algebra): F(x, y, z) = xyz + xyz + xyz
 Example(for kmap): f(a,b,c)=Σm(1,3,5,6) means f equals 1
= a + 0.b by Distribu ve
for minterms 1, 3, 5, and 6, and equals 0 for all other
= a + 0 by commuta ve+Dominance
minterms.
= a by Iden ty
To prove : a + a.b = a
 Represents a logical expression as the AND (product) of
Let a + a.b = a.1 + a.b by Iden ty
one or more terms (sums).
= a.(1 + b) by Distribu ve
 Each term is OR (sum) of variables or their complements.
= a.1 by Commuta ve +Dominance
 Example(for kmap): f(a,b,c)=ΠM(0,2,4,7) means f equals 0
= a by Iden ty law
for maxterms 0, 2, 4, and 7, and equals 1 for all other
maxterms.
 Example(for algebra):: F(x, y, z) = (x + y + z)(x + y+ z)(x+ y
+ z)(x+ y+ z) (x+ y+ z')
 N:4: F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15)

 The Karnaugh Map also called as K Map is a graphical F(A, B, C, D) = B’C’ + D

representa on
 that provides a systema c method for simplifying the
boolean expressions.
 For a boolean expression consis ng of n-variables, number
of cells required in K Map = 2n cells.

N.5: F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15) + Σd(0, 2, 14)

F(A, B, C, D) = AD + B’D + B’C’ + A’D’

 No zeros allowed.
 No diagonals.
 Only power of 2 number of cells in each group.
 Groups should be as large as possible.
 Every one must be in at least one group.
 Overlapping allowed.
 Wrap around allowed.
 Fewest number of groups possible.

N:3 F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15)

F(A, B, C, D) = BD + C’D + B’D’