S.L.

DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL

KHAGARIA

PHYSICS PROJECT
Submitted to:- Submitted by :-
SUNIL KUMAR SINGH Satyam

Class: - XII

ROLL No.: -
 CONTENTS

1. CERTIFICATE
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3. INVESTIGATORY PROJECT (Various Factors on
which the Internal Resistance/EMF of the Cell
Depends)
• INTRODUCTION
• INTERNAL RESISTANCE
• PRACTICAL
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT (Light Dependent
Resistance)
✓ DISCOVERY
✓ MECHANISM
✓ PRINCIPLE
✓ PRACTICAL
 This is to certify that SATYAM, a student of class
XII has successfully completed the project in
physics under the guidance of SUNIL KUMAR
SINGH SIR during the academic session 2024-25.

……………………… ………………………
Signature of Signature of
Subject Teacher External Examiner

…………………………
Signature of Principal
In the accomplishment of this project successfully,
many people have best owned upon me their
blessings and the heart pledged support, this time
I am utilizing this to thank all the people who have
been concerned with the project.
I would like to thank my principal and my physics
teacher SUNIL KUMAR SINGH SIR whose valuable
guidance has helped me patch this project and
make it a full-proof success. His suggestions and
his instructions have served as the major
contributors towards the completion of the
project.
Then I would like to thank my parents, my elder
brother and sister who have helped me with their
valuable suggestions and guidance.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my
classmates who have helped me a lot.
There is a great need of batteries in our daily use. It is
used in electronic appliances and its use is increasing
day by day. Thus, the batteries need to be made more
powerful so that their potential can be increased
greatly.
This project report is based on practical analysis of the
factors affecting the internal resistance of a cell.
When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased,
we can increase the potential difference across it, and
hence make it more reliable.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Internal resistance is defined as the resistance offered
by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of ions.
➢ Its S.I. unit is Ohm(Ω).

For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r),

connected to an external resistance (R) such that (I)
is the current flowing through the circuit then
E=V+Ir
Internal Resistance,
r=E–V
I
OBJECTIVE:- To study the various factors on
which the internal resistance of a cell depends.

APPARATUS:- A potentiometer, a battery (or

battery eliminator), two one-way keys, a rheostat,
a galvanometer, a resistance box, an ammeter, a
cell (Leclanche cell), a jockey, a setsquare,
connecting wires and sandpaper.

THEORY:- The internal resistance of a cell is the

resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of
ions.
The internal resistance of a cell:-
➢ Is directly proportional to the distance between
the electrodes.
➢ Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of
the electrodes in electrolyte.
 ➢ Decreases with increase in temperature of
electrolyte.
➢ Is inversely proportional to concentration of
electrolyte.

The internal resistance of a cell is given by:-

r=(E-V)/I

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
PROCEDURE:-
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with
sand paper and make tight connections
according to the circuit diagram.
2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell
and make sure that e.m.f. of the battery is
more than that of the cell, otherwise null or
balance point will not be obtained.
To study variation of internal resistance with
distance of separation :-
4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16
cm.
5. Tak2222e maximum current from the battery,
making rheostat resistance small.
6. Without inserting a plug in key K3, adjust the
rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the
last wire of the potentiometer.
7. Determine the position of the null point
accurately using a set square and measure the
balancing length (l1) between the null point
and the end P.
8. Next introduce plugs in both keys K1 and K2. At
the same time, take out a small resistance
(1-5 W) from the shunt resistance box
connected in parallel with the cell.
9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire
and obtain the null point.
10. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire
and obtain the null point.
11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.
12. Then remove the plugs of keys K1 and K2.
Wait for some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.
13. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to
obtain another set of observations.
To study variation of internal resistance with
area of electrode:-
14. Keeping all other factors constant, increase
the area of electrodes in the electrolyte by
dipping them into the electrolyte at different
depths for each observation.
 15. Obtain three such observations by repeating
steps 7 to 10. Record your readings.
To study variation of internal resistance with
concentration of electrolyte:-
16. Keeping all other factors constant, decrease
the concentration of electrolyte by adding
distilled water for different observations.
17. Obtain three such observations by repeating
step 7 to 10. Record your readings.

OBSERVATION:-
S.No. Ammeter Position of Null Point Shut Internal
Reading (cm) Resistance Resistance
(A) With R (l1) Without R (l2) R (Ω) R(Ω)
1. 0.3 660.5 35.5 1 0.94
2. 0.3 660.5 77.2 2 1.77
3. 0.3 660.5 108.3 3 2.51

Table for effect of separation between electrodes:-

S.No. Separation Balancing Balancing Internal r/d
between point l2 point Resistance
electrodes (cm) l2(cm) r(Ω)
d (cm)
1. 1.2 326.6 276.9 0.456 0.38
2. 2.5 320.7 219.1 0.95 0.38
3. 3.7 660.5 350.9 1.406 0.38
Table for effect of temperature:-
S.No. Temperature l1 (cm) l2 (cm) Resistance Internal Tr
T (oC) R(Ω) Resistance ΩK
r(Ω)
1. 1.2 326.6 276.9 0.456 0.38 301.44
2. 2.5 320.7 219.1 0.95 0.38 291.96
3. 3.7 660.5 350.9 1.406 0.38 283.87

RESULT AND INFERENCES:-

1) The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and
is equal to E = 0.98 Volt.
2) The internal resistance of a cell is directly
proportional to the separation between the
electrodes.
3) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the area of the electrodes dipped in
electrolyte.
4) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the temperature of electrolytes.
5) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the concentration of the
electrolyte.
PRECAUTIONS:-
i) The connections should be neat, clean and
tight.
ii) The plugs should be introduced in the keys
only when the observations are to be taken.
iii) The positive poles of the battery E and
cells E1 and E2 should, all be connected to the
terminal at the zero of the wires.
iv) The jockey key should not be rubbed along
the wire. It should touch the wire gently.
v) The ammeter reading should remain
constant for a particular set of observation.
If necessary, adjust the rheostat for this
purpose.
SOURCES OF ERROR:-
1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform
cross-section and material density throughout
its length.
3. End resistances may not be zero.
In societies, sometimes street lights glow in the
daytime for no reason. In mine areas, people face
many difficulties due to the absence of light at
night. In frontier and hilly areas, people face many
problems due to damaged street lights.
To solve these problems, a device was invented in
which the lights glow at night, and in the daytime,
they are turned off automatically and don't glow.
Due to the use of it, we can solve the above
problems and can also save electricity men’s
power.
Photo resistors, or light dependent resistors have
been in use for many years. Photo resistors have
been seen in early forms since the nineteenth
century when photoconductivity in selenium was
discovered by Smith in 1873.
Since then, many variants of photoconductive
devices have been made.
Much useful work was conducted by T. W. Case in
1920 when he published a paper entitled
"Thalofide Cell - a new photo-electric cell".
Other substances including PbS, PbSe and PbTe
were studied in the 1930s and 1940s,
In 1952, Rollin and Simmons developed their
Photoconductors using Silicon and Germanium.
A photoresistor or photocell is a component that
uses a photoconductor between two contacts.
When it is exposed to light a change in resistance
is noted. Photoconductivity is the mechanism
behind the photoresistor, which results from the
generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material used for
the photoconductor.
The different types of material used for light
dependent resistors are semiconductors, but when
used as a photo-resistor, they are used only as a
resistive element and there are no p-n junctions.
Accordingly, the device is purely passive.
There are two types of photoconductors and hence
Photoresistor:-
1. Intrinsic photoresistors:- This type of
photoresistor uses a photoconductive material
that involves excitation of charge carriers from
the valence bands to the conduction band.
2. Extrinsic photoresistor:- This type of
photoresistor uses a photoconductive material
that involves excitation of charge carriers
between an impurity and the valence band or
conduction band. It requires shallow impurity
dopants that are not ionised in the presence
of light.
Extrinsic photoresistors or photocells are
generally designed for long wavelength
radiation, often infra-red, but to avoid thermal
generation they need to be operated at low
temperatures.
 PRINCIPLE
This project is based on Light Dependent
Resistance (L.D.R.). Light Dependent Resistance
[LDR] is a resistance, in which opposing power of
current depends on the presence of quantity of
light present, i.e. the resistance of LDR increases or
decreases, according to quantity of light which falls
on it.

If the LDR is placed in darkness, the resistance of

LDR increases and when light falls on it, the
resistance of LDR decreases and act as a
conductor.
Any LDR in the presence of light and dark changes
its resistance and the change depend on the
different types of LDR.

ADVANTAGES:-
1. Collection of parts of the circuit are
easily available.
2. Accuracy of this circuit is more than
accuracy of other circuits.
3. By using laser, it can be used for
security purposes.
4. It can be used to stop the wastage of
electricity.
5. The cost of circuit is low.
6. This circuit saves the men's power.
USES:-
➢It can be used in street lights.
➢It can be used in mines areas.
➢It can be used in hilly areas.
➢By using laser, it can be used for safety
purposes.
➢It can be used in frontier areas.
➢It can be used in houses.
➢It can be used in jail lights.
 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS

AIM:- To study the variations, in current flowing in a

circuit containing an LDR, because of variation:-
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used
to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at
a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp, (of
fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

APPARATUS:-
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), Connecting Wires,
Source of different power rating(bulbs), Bulb
Holder, Metre scale, Multi Meter Battery.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Choose a specific position for the source
and mount it using a holder, make sure it
is stable.
2. Select the bulb with the lowest power
rating and connect it to the holder as
shown in the figure.
3. Connect the LDR, battery (6V) and the
multimeter in series.
4. Set the multimeter to ohm section and
select suitable range and measure the
resistance with a bulb on.
5. Similarly switch to current section and
move to micro ampere in themultimeter.
This gives the value of the current.
6. Repeat these steps with different power
sources at different distances and note
down observations.
OBSERVATIONS :-
The experiment has been conducted by
using various sources with different power
ratings. Voltage of the battery = 6 V.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE :-
(a) Variation in current of LDR with lamps
of different power, keeping distance
fixed.
FOR d=10 cm
S.No. Distance Source(Bulb) Resistance(Ω) Current(mA)
between Of power
LDR and inputs(W)
the source
d(cm)
1. 10 15 1310 4.58
2. 10 30 770 7.00
3. 10 60 285 21.00
4. 10 100 195 30.00
 FOR d=20 cm
S.No. Distance Source(Bulb) Resistance(Ω) Current(mA)
between Of power
LDR and inputs(W)
the source
d(cm)
1. 20 15 2800 2.14
2. 20 60 650 9.00
3. 20 100 435 13.79

FOR d=30 cm
S.No. Distance Source(Bulb) Resistance(Ω) Current(mA)
between Of power
LDR and inputs(W)
the source
d(cm)
1. 30 15 4300 1.4
2. 30 60 1000 6.00
3. 30 100 660 9.00
(b)Variation in current of LDR with
distance :-

FOR 15 W POWER SOURCE

S.No. Distance Resistance(Ω ) Current(µA)
Between LDR
and the
source d(cm)
1. 4 1010 5.94
2. 6 1350 4.44
3. 8 1490 4.03
4. 10 1610 3.73
5. 12 1740 3.45
6. 14 1880 3.19
7. 16 2300 2.61
8. 18 2540 2.36
9. 20 2800 2.14
10. 22 3000 2.00
11. 24 3240 1.85
FOR 60 W POWER SOURCE
 FOR 100 W POWER SOURCE
S.No. Distance Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
between
LDR and the
source d(cm)
1. 4 80 75
2. 6 130 46
3. 8 170 35
4. 10 205 29
5. 12 270 22
6. 14 300 20
7. 16 360 16
8. 18 410 14
9. 20 460 13
10. 22 525 11
11. 24 585 10

CONCLUSION & RESULT:-

1. The LDR resistance decreases with
increase in intensity of light and hence
there is an increase in the flow of
current.
2. There is an increase in the current as
the distance from the source decreases.
 3. The intensity decreases as the distance
from the source increases.
4. The error lies within the experimental
limit.
SOURCES OF ERROR:-
1. The LDR may not be perpendicular to the
source.
2. Connections may be faulty.
3. The experiment should be conducted in a
dark room.
4. Measurements should be taken
accurately.