Module- 2

MATERIAL FOR MEMORY & DISPLAY SYSTEMS

1. What are memory devices. Explain the Classification of electronic memory devices
with examples.

A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. According to the device
structure, electronic memory devices can be divided into four primary categories:
 Transistor-type,
 Capacitor-type,
 Resistor-type
 Charge transfer type.

Transistor-Type Electronic Memory: Transistor-type memory devices are a type of electronic

memory that uses transistors to store information. A transistor type semiconducting electronic
memory device containing a electronic circuit, including a complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS)transistor and capacitor(C). In a transistor-type memory device, each
transistor represents one bit of information, which is a 0 or a 1. When a transistor is turned on, it
represents a 1, and when it's turned off, it represents a 0. E.g., Dynamic Random Access Memory
or DRAM.
Capacitor-type electronic memory device: Capacitor-type memory devices are a type of
electronic memory that uses capacitors to store information. Capacitors have two parallel
plate electrodes and charges are stored in these electrodes under an applied electric field.In
a capacitor-type memory device, each capacitor represents one bit of information, which is
a 0 or a 1.When a capacitor is charged, it represents a 1, and when it's discharged, it
represents a 0.E.g., Ferroelectric Random Access Memory or FeRAM
Resistor-type electronic memory device: Resistor-type memory devices are a type of
electronic memory that uses resistors to store information. Resistors are electronic
components that resist the flow of electrical current.In a resistor-type memory device, each
resistor represents one bit of information, which is a 0 or a 1. The resistors are arranged in a
particular pattern to store the information. E.g., PROM.
Charge transfer type electronic memory device: Charge transfer-type memory devices are a

type of electronic memory that uses the transfer of electrical charges to store information.
A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A)
complex, characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a
partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The
conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D–
A components. To store data, electrical charges are transferred to the capacitor in each
memory cell, which represents a 1 or a 0, E.g. Flash memory is used in many consumer
electronics such as USB flash drives and memory cards.
2. Explain the types of organic memory devices by taking p-type and n-type
semiconducting materials. OR Explain the organic memory devices of p-type and
n-type by taking examples of pentacene.

Acene derivatives: Pentacene & Perfluoropentacene

 Acenes are the polycyclic aromatic compounds consisting of linearly fused benzene
rings.
 Examples: naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene, Pentacene, perfluoropentacene etc.
 The most important member of the acene family is pentacene.
 It is a linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings.
 Pentacene’s have π conjugated system with holes as majority carriers and are
considered as p-type semiconductor.
 There is continuous delocalisation of π electrons and lateral overlapping of π
electrons between the molecules.

Pentacene
 An Organic molecule with π conjugated system with electron
withdrawing substituent groups and possess electrons as major charge
carrier is called n- type semiconductor.
 When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced by fluorine atoms the
resulting molecule is perfluoropentacene.
 An Organic molecule with π conjugated system with electron withdrawing substituent
groups and possess electrons as major charge carrier is called n-type semiconductor.
  Organic molecules exhibit fast switching speeds hence have high data transfer rates
 But less stable than other memory materials, not suitable for long-term storage as
they may get decomposed.

3. Discuss the use of Polyimide Polymeric material for Organic memory device. OR
Discuss the application of Polyimide Polymeric material for organic memory
device.
 Polymer molecules are increasingly being used in memory devices due to their
unique properties, such as flexibility, low cost, and compatibility.
 Polyimides are the class of polymer with donor triphenylamine and acceptor
phthalimide.
 It is then sandwiched between two electrodes typically made of metals like gold and
aluminium.
 When a voltage is applied to the device electrons are transferred from the donor to
the acceptor forming donor-acceptor complex
 This creates a dipole moment within the material and changes its electronic
structure, that is there is transition from a low-conducting state to a high-conducting
state, thus leading to storage of information.
 Therefore, field induced charge transfer from triphenylamine to phthalimide unit
exhibit switching behaviour (bistable states on/off).
 These are used in different types of memory device, such as volatile DRAM AND
SRAM devices and non- volatile Flash devices.
 Polymeric materials can be easily processed into various shapes and sizes they can
store data for long periods without losing information.
 It has slow switching speeds compared other organic materials.
4. What are photoactive and electroactive materials. Explain working principle of
photoactive and electroactive materials in display system.
Photoactive materials are those materials which respond to light when they are
exposed to light. They can absorb light and result in a change in their optical,
electronic, or magnetic properties.
Electroactive materials, on the other hand, are those materials that exhibit a strong
response to an electric field. In presence of electric field, they can undergo a change
in electrical properties such as change in shape or generating an electric current.

Working Principle

 Photoactive and electroactive materials absorb or emit light in UV or Visible

region. The OLED display system consists of these materials.
 When an external electric field is applied electrons migrate from the light emitting
layer to the anode, leaving behind the holes in the light emitting layer. From the
anode these electrons then move towards the cathode through the external circuit
and then back to the light emitting layer through the conducting layer.
 The light-emitting layer is excited by the recombination energy of electrons and
holes and then the light-emitting layer emits light as the electrons return back to
their ground state during recombination.
 One of the electrodes consists of transparent material in order to extract light from
the light emitting layer.
5. What are optoelectronic devices. Explain the working principle and any two
applications of it.
Optoelectronic devices are electronic devices that can strongly interact with light. They can
absorb light and converting light into electrical signals or generate light from electrical
energy.

Working Principle
Optoelectronic devices are special types of semiconductor devices that are able to convert
light energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to light energy. If the photon has an
energy larger than the energy a gap, the photon will be absorbed by the semiconductor,
exciting an electron from the valence band into the conduction band, where it is free to
move. A free hole is left behind in the valence band. When the excited electron is
returning to valence band, extra photon energy is emitted in the form a light. This principle
is used in Optoelectronic devices.

Application
 Laser Diodes and LEDs.

6. What are nanomaterials. Explain any four properties and applications of

(polythiophene-P3HT) suitable for optoelectronic devices.
Nanomaterials are the materials whose size lies between 1-100 nm.

Properties
 P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits
conductivity due to holes therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
 Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) can absorb light in visible region and eject electrons
and can be considered as donor molecules to donate electrons in organic electronic
devices.
 P3HT has a crystalline structure and conjugated backbone results in
delocalisation of pi electrons along the polymer chain and h a s good charge-
transport properties required for Optoelectronics.
 P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14
eV.
 The presence of hexyl groups, P3HT is soluble in organic solvents, hence can be
used in fabrication.
Applications
 It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium batteries.
 Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
 Manufacture of smart windows.
 Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices.

7. What are nanomaterials. Explain any four properties and applications of [9-Vinyl
Carbazole] (PVK) suitable for optoelectronic devices.
Nanomaterials are the materials whose size lies between 1-100 nm.
Properties
 It is a semiconducting polymer which can emit light when external electric field is
applied across it.
 It is a good hole transporting material; it allows movement of positive charges (holes)
within the material.
 Soluble in organic solvents.
 The PVK film is temperature resistant thermoplastic, and can be used up to
temperature 160-170oC.
 Its electrical conductivity increases when exposed to electromagnetic radiation. The
electrical conductivity can be controlled by amount of incident radiation.
Applications
 OLED s and memory devices.

 Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.

 Fabrication of Solar cells
 Insulation technology

8. Write a note on nanomaterial (silicon nanocrystals) suitable for optoelectronic

devices.
Nanomaterials are the materials whose size lies between 1-100 nm.
 Reducing the size of a metal or semiconductor crystals to the nanoscale results in
unique electronic and optical properties such as high quantum efficiencies,
controllable wavelength, and improved light absorption.
 Higher light emitting efficiencies.
 Tuneable electronic structure.
 Larger surface area-Volume ratio.
Applications
 Construction of solar cells and photodetectors
 Neuromorphic computing

9. What are liquid crystals. Explain the classification of liquid crystals with suitable
examples.

Liquid Crystal is a unique state of matter in which the degree of molecular ordering lies
intermediate between crystalline solid state and completely disordered liquid state.
Liquid crystals are classified into two main categories, namely
(i) Thermotropic Liquid Crystals: The class of compounds that exhibit liquid crystalline
behaviour on variation of temperature. E.g., Cholesteryl benzoate exhibits liquid crystal
behaviour in between 145.5 oC- 178.5 oC. These are further classified into Nematic, Chiral
Nematic and Sematic Liquid crystals.
(a) Nematic Liquid Crystals: These are formed by compounds which are optically inactive.
The molecules are elongated shape with thread like structure and are approximately parallel
to each other. In this phase molecules maintain a preferred orientational direction but position
order is absent.Eg. Para-azoxyanisole (PAA) which exhibits liquid crystal behaviour in the
temperature range 118oC-135oC.

(b)Chiral Nematic or Cholesteric: These are formed by compounds which are optically active
and have chiral centres. The molecules arrange themselves in layers as to form helical
structure and don’t have positional order or orientation order. E.g., Cholesteryl formate.

(c)Smectic Mesophase: These are soap like molecules. There is small amount of positional
order and orientational order. The molecules are arranged in regularly spaced layers, Within
the layers they tend to point along the director.

(d)Discotic Liquid Crystal: These molecules have disk like or plate like structure. Disc-
shaped molecules have a tendency to lie on top of one another forming either discotic
nematic phases (with discs oriented similarly) or columnar phases (which, obviously, have
column-like structure).

(ii) Lyotropic liquid crystals: The compounds which transforms into liquid crystal phase
when mixed with solvent. They have both polar lyophilic and nonpolar lyophobic end. They
are obtained from mixing a compound in a solvent and increasing the concentration of
compound till liquid crystal phase is obtained. Such compounds are known as lyotropic liquid
crystals. E.g., Soap- water mixture.

10. Mention any four properties and applications of Liquid crystals in display systems
Properties of Liquid Crystals
 The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied
electric field.
 The molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes
them to change their orientation slightly.
 Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.
 Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.
 It exhibits thermal expansion.

Applications of liquid crystals in LCDs

1. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for
the display of images and text through the use of electrical currents that control
the orientation of the crystals.
2. Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications
such as temperature sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
3. Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as
variable optical attenuators, phase shifters, and tuneable filters.
4. Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where
 the drug is encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to
specific target cells

11. Discuss the working of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

1. In Display system, a layer of liquid crystal (nematic) is sand witched between two
transparent electrodes. The electrodes are coated by Indium tin oxide.
2. These two electrodes are placed between two polarized glass filter.
3. In the absence of electric field, when backlight falls on the first polarized glass filter,
it will rotate the liquid crystal by changing the angle of polarization. When light
reaches the second polarizer the angle of polarization matches with plane of second
polarized glass filter and comes out of that. Hence it gives a brighter appearance to
display.
4. When electric field is applied across the plates, the liquid crystal molecules will
rearrange themselves to the applied electric field and hence rotation of plane polarised
light is affected.
5. Thus, light passing through first polariser cannot pass through second polariser and
gives dark display.
6. LCD can display images in colour by using colour filters. Each pixel of an LCD
contains three sub-pixel containing red, green and blue colours. By adjusting voltage
applied to the subpixel, the LCD can produce millions of different colours.
7. In the segment arrangement if electric field is applied to A, B, G, E, D Segments, the
number 2 will display.
12. What is OLED. Mention any four properties and applications of OLED.
OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched
between two electrodes. OLEDs operate by converting electrical current into
light via an organic emitter.
Properties
Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them
suitable for use in curved or flexible displays.
High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can
produce deep blacks and bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich
colors.
Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they
can switch on and off quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video
content.
Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the
image quality is maintained even when viewed from different angles.
Applications
Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors,
smartphones, and other electronic devices.
Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various
applications, including automotive lighting, street lighting, and
architectural lighting.
Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them
suitable for use in wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness
trackers.
Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as
dashboard displays, interior lighting, and taillights.
13. What is QLED. Mention any four properties and applications of QLED.
Quantum light emitting diodes are a form of light emitting technology used for creating large
area displays. In QLED the light emitting is from the quantum dots such as cadmium selenide
nano crystals. They emit light under applied electric field.

Properties
Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD
displays because they do not require as much backlighting.
High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the
difference between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater,
resulting in more detailed and lifelike images.
Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays
because they do not suffer from the same issues of backlight burnout or color
fading over time.
Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which
means that they can display fast-moving images without motion blur.

Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for

the creation of flexible displays that can be bent or curved.
Applications of QLED
Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions,
monitors, smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image
quality and color accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.

Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various

applications, including automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural
lighting.
Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications,
such as in MRI machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.
Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising
displays, such as digital billboards to produce high-quality and eye-catching
visuals.
14. Write a note on light emitting electrochemical cells.
A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC or LEEC) is a solid-state device that generates
light from an electric current .LECs are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected
by (e.g. sandwiching) an organic semiconductor containing mobile ions. These are organic
molecule containing electronic device which emits light when an electric current is applied
across it. Light emission in these devices is due to the moment of ions as a result of
electrochemical redox reactions.
Properties
1. LEC is a simple single layer device. It can emit light from just a single active layer.
2. Light emission in these devices is due to movement of ions as a result of
electrochemical Redox reaction under applied external field.
3. The light emitter in LEC is immobile and in direct contact with both electrodes.
4. Operated at low voltage and have high efficiencies.
Applications
 They are mainly used as lightning devices
 They can be used in display devices.

15. Discuss the applications of Liquid crystals in display systems.

Applications of liquid crystals in LCDs

1. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the
display of images and text through the use of electrical currents that control the
orientation of the crystals.
2. Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as
temperature sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
3. Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as variable
optical attenuators, phase shifters, and tuneable filters. These devices are used in
optical communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
4. Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is
encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells.

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