Lecture 14

PHY 305
 Unit 6: Nuclear Energy

PHY 305
▪ Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Nuclear energy can be used to
create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom.

▪ The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, held together by the strong force (the strong force
becomes ineffective at distances greater than 3 fm).

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▪ Nuclear energy can be produced in two ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several
parts – or fusion – when nuclei fuse together.

▪ The nuclear energy harnessed around the world today to produce electricity is through nuclear
fission, while technology to generate electricity from fusion is at the R&D phase.

▪ Fission, a nucleus much heavier than iron splits into two lighter ones. The binding energy
per nucleon of the fragments is greater than that of the original nucleus, so energy is
released.

▪ Fusion occurs when nuclei much lighter than iron join to form a heavier one. Once again the
increased binding energy per nucleon results in energy release.

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Nuclear fission is a reaction where the
nucleus of an atom splits into two or more
smaller nuclei, while releasing energy.

For instance, when hit by a neutron, the

nucleus of an atom of uranium-235 splits
into a barium nucleus and a krypton
nucleus and two or three neutrons. These
extra neutrons will hit other surrounding
uranium-235 atoms, which will also split
and generate additional neutrons in a
multiplying effect, thus generating a chain
reaction in a fraction of a second.

Each time the reaction occurs, there is a

release of energy in the form of heat and
radiation. The heat can be converted into
electricity in a nuclear power plant,
similarly to how heat from fossil fuels such
as coal, gas and oil is used to generate Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable,
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▪ Nuclear fusion is the process by which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a single heavier one while
releasing massive amounts of energy. Fusion reactions take place in a state of matter called plasma — a
hot, charged gas made of positive ions and free-moving electrons that has unique properties distinct from
solids, liquids and gases.

The sun, along with all other stars, is Nuclear fusion and plasma physics research are carried out in
powered by a reaction called nuclear more than 50 countries, and fusion reactions have been
fusion. If this can be replicated on successfully achieved in many experiments, albeit without
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earth, it could provide virtually limitless demonstrating
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and
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Energy
How long it will take to
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clean, safe and affordable energy to recreate the process ofand
Sustainable, theClean
starsEnergy
will depend
for All on mobilizing
meet the world’s energy demand. resources through global partnerships and collaboration.
Inside nuclear power plants, nuclear
reactors and their equipment contain
and control the chain reactions, most
commonly fuelled by uranium-235, to
produce heat through fission. The
heat warms the reactor’s cooling
agent, typically water, to produce
steam. The steam is then channelled
to spin turbines, activating an electric
generator to create low-carbon
electricity.

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Pressurized water reactors are the most used in the world.
 Mining, enrichment and disposal of uranium
▪ Because nuclear fuel can be used to create nuclear weapons as well as nuclear reactors, only nations that are
part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) are allowed to import uranium or plutonium, another nuclear
fuel. The treaty promotes the peaceful use of nuclear fuel, as well as limiting the spread of nuclear weapons.

▪ A typical nuclear reactor uses about 200 tons of uranium every year. Complex processes allow some uranium and
plutonium to be re-enriched or recycled. This reduces the amount of mining, extracting, and processing that needs
to be done.

Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus

▪ Uranium is a metal that can be found in rocks all over the world. Uranium has several naturally occurring isotopes, which
are forms of an element differing in mass and physical properties but with the same chemical properties. Uranium has two
primordial isotopes: uranium-238 and uranium-235. Uranium-238 makes up the majority of the uranium in the world but
cannot produce a fission chain reaction, while uranium-235 can be used to produce energy by fission but constitutes less
than 1 per cent of the world’s uranium.

▪ To make natural uranium more likely to undergo fission, it is necessary to increase the amount of uranium-235 in a given
sample through a process called uranium enrichment. Once the uranium is enriched, it can be used effectively as nuclear
fuel in power plants for three to five years, after which it is still radioactiveEnsure Access
and has to beto Affordable,
disposed Reliable, stringent
of following
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guidelines to protect people and the environment. Used fuel, also referredSustainable,
to as spentand
fuel,Clean Energy
can also be for All
recycled into other
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types of fuel for use as new fuel in special nuclear power plants.
To use U-235 as an energy source companies
mine and enrich the ore

1. After the ore is mined it is

mixed with groundwater to
dissolve uranium oxides.
2. The oxide is filtered and dried
and is known as yellow cake
3. Enrichment requires the
uranium be in gaseous form
so it is converted to uranium
hexafluoride
4. Enriched uranium is turned
into uranium oxide and
pressed into pellets for use as
fuel rods
The nuclear fuel cycle is
an industrial process
involving various steps to
produce electricity from
uranium in nuclear power
reactors. The cycle starts
with the mining of
uranium and ends with
the disposal of nuclear
waste.

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Nuclear fuel is extremely dense.

It’s about 1 million times greater

than that of other traditional
energy sources and because of
this, the amount of used nuclear
fuel is not as big as you might
think.

All of the used nuclear fuel

produced by the U.S. nuclear
energy industry over the last 60
years could fit on a football field
at a depth of less than 10 yards!

That waste can also be

reprocessed and recycled,
although the United States does
not currently do this. However,
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on used fuel.
 When the fuel is removed from the
reactor it is still radioactive. Spent
fuel is stored at power plants under
water in spent fuel pools or in dry
casks.

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▪ However, the byproduct of nuclear energy is radioactive material. Radioactive material is a collection of unstable atomic
nuclei. These nuclei lose their energy and can affect many materials around them, including organisms and the
environment. Radioactive material can be extremely toxic, causing burns and increasing the risk for cancers, blood
diseases, and bone decay.

▪ Radioactive waste is what is left over from the operation of a nuclear reactor. Radioactive waste is mostly protective
clothing worn by workers, tools, and any other material that have been in contact with radioactive dust. Radioactive
waste is long-lasting. Materials like clothes and tools can stay radioactive for thousands of years. The government
regulates how these materials are disposed of so they don't contaminate anything else.

▪ Used fuel and rods of nuclear poison are extremely radioactive. The used uranium pellets must be stored in special
containers that look like large swimming pools. Water cools the fuel and insulates the outside from contact with the
radioactivity. Some nuclear plants store their used fuel in dry storage tanks above ground.

▪ The storage sites for radioactive waste have become very controversial in the United States. For years, the government
planned to construct an enormous nuclear waste facility near Yucca Mountain, Nevada, for instance. Environmental
groups and local citizens protested the plan. They worried about radioactive waste leaking into the water supply and
the Yucca Mountain environment, about 130 kilometers (80 miles) from the large urban area of Las Vegas, Nevada.
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Although the government began investigating the site in 1978, it stopped Access
planning fortoaAffordable, Reliable,
nuclear waste facility in Yucca
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Mountain in 2009. Sustainable, and Clean Energy for All
• LOW LEVEL WASTE: • HIGH LEVEL WASTE:

• Includes items that have become • Spent (used) reactor fuel that can no longer
contaminated with radioactive material. create electricity because fission has slowed
This is typically contaminated protective but is still thermally hot and highly
clothing and shoe covers, wiping rags, mops, radioactive, emitting beta and gamma
filters, reactor water treatment residues radiation. Waste materials remaining after
• Also includes medical tubes, injection spent fuel is reprocessed and from military
needles, lab animal carcasses and tissues weapons
• Can be stored on site until quantities are • MUST BE STORED ON-SITE in specially
sufficient to send to a low level waste designed pools made of reinforced concrete
disposal site in appropriate containers with 40 feet of water or in dry casks
where it is buried.
• Burial sites must be far from ground or
surface water (or lined with an
impermeable layer to prevent
contamination via leaks) and in seismically Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable,
stable areas Ensure Access
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Nuclear waste

The operation of nuclear

power plants produces
waste with varying levels
of radioactivity. These
are managed differently
depending on their level
of radioactivity and
purpose.

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 Activity and half-Life

The activity (symbol R) is simply the absolute value of the decay rate

The SI unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq), with 1 Bq = 1 Decay/s

.An older unit often still used is the Curie (Ci), defined as the activity
of naturally occurring radium and equal to about that is, 37 billion
decays per second

N: Number of nuclei at a time t

No: Number of nuclei at a time t = 0
λ: Radioactive constant

Half-life t1/2 is defined as the time for

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 Nuclear Energy Trends

PHY 305
As the world attempts to transition its energy systems away
from fossil fuels towards low-carbon sources of energy, we
have a range of energy options: renewable energy
technologies such as hydropower, wind and solar, but also
nuclear power.

Nuclear energy and renewable technologies typically emit

very little CO2 per unit of energy production, and are also
much better than fossil fuels in limiting levels of local air
pollution.

But whilst some countries are investing heavily in

increasing their nuclear energy supply, others are taking
their plants offline. The role that nuclear energy plays in the
energy system is therefore very specific to the given
country.

How much of our energy comes from nuclear power? How

is its role changing over time? In this unit, we look at levels
and changes in nuclear energy generation across the Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable,
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of energy.
Nuclear energy – alongside hydropower –
is one of our oldest low-carbon energy
technologies.

Nuclear power generation has been

around since the 1960s, but saw massive
growth globally in the 1970s, 80s and 90s.
In the interactive chart shown we see
how global nuclear generation has
changed over the past half-century.

Following fast growth during the 1970s to

1990s, global generation has slowed
significantly. In fact, we see a sharp dip in
nuclear output following the Fukushima
tsunami in Japan in 2011, as countries
took plants offline due to safety concerns.

But we also see that in recent years,

production has once again increased. Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable,
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The global trend in nuclear energy
generation masks the large
differences in what role it plays at
the country level.

Some countries get no energy at

all from nuclear – or are aiming to
eliminate it completely – whilst
others get the majority of their
power from it.

This map shows the amount of

nuclear energy generated by
country. We see that France, the
USA, China, Russia and Canada all
produce relatively large amounts
of nuclear power.

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This map shows the share of
primary energy that comes from
nuclear sources.

In 2019, just over 4% of global

primary energy came from
nuclear power.

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In the previous slides, we looked at the
role of nuclear in the total energy mix.
This includes not only electricity, but
also transport and heating. Electricity
forms only one component of energy
consumption.

Since transport and heating tend to be

harder to decarbonize – they are more
reliant on oil and gas – nuclear and
renewables tend to have a higher share
in the electricity mix versus the total
energy mix.

This interactive chart shows the share of

electricity that comes from nuclear
sources.

Globally, around 10% of our electricity

comes from nuclear. But some countries Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable,
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70% of electricity in France, and more
than 40% in Sweden.
 Safety

Two centuries ago we discovered how to use the energy from fossil fuels to make our work
more productive. It was the innovation that started the Industrial Revolution. Since then, the
increasing availability of cheap energy has been integral to the progress we’ve seen over the
past few centuries. It has allowed work to become more productive, and people in
industrialized countries are much richer than their ancestors, work much less, and enjoy
much better living conditions than ever before. Energy access is therefore one of the
fundamental driving forces of development. The United Nations rightly says that “energy is
PHY 305 central to nearly every major challenge and opportunity the world faces today.”
 ▪ But while energy from fossil fuels brought many benefits it unfortunately also has major negative consequences. There are
three main categories of negative consequences.

1. The first is air pollution: at least five million people die prematurely every year as a result of air pollution. Fossil fuels
and the burning of biomass – wood, dung, and charcoal – are responsible for most of those deaths. Eliminating fossil
fuels could cut premature deaths from air pollution by around two-thirds. That’s three to four million deaths per year.

2. The second is accidents. This includes accidents that happen in the mining and extraction of the fuels (coal, uranium,
rare metals, oil and gas) and it includes accidents that occur in the transport of raw materials and infrastructure, the
construction of the power plant, or their deployment.

3. The third is greenhouse gas emissions: fossil fuels are the main source of greenhouse gases, the primary driver of
climate change. In 2018, 87% of global CO2 emissions came from fossil fuels and industry.

All energy sources have negative effects. But they differ enormously in size: as we will see, in all three aspects, fossil fuels are
the dirtiest and most dangerous, while nuclear and modern renewable energy sources are vastly safer and cleaner.

From the perspective of both human health and climate change, it matters less whether
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renewable energy, and more that we stop relying on fossil fuels. Sustainable, and Clean Energy for All
 How do fossil fuels, nuclear energy and renewables stack up in terms of safety?

Death rate for nuclear includes an estimated

4000 deaths from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster
in Ukraine (based on estimates from the
WHO); 574 deaths from Fukushima (one
worker death, and 573 indirect deaths from
the stress of evacuation); and estimated
occupational deaths (largely from mining and
milling)

We see massive differences in the death rates

of nuclear and modern renewables compared
to fossil fuels.

Nuclear energy, for example, results in 99.8%

fewer deaths than brown coal; 99.7% fewer
than coal; 99.6% fewer than oil; and 97.5%
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Nuclear energy and renewables are far, far safer than fossil fuels
Looking at deaths per terawatt-hour:

▪ Coal: 25 people would die prematurely every year;

▪ Oil: 18 people would die prematurely every year;
▪ Gas: 3 people would die prematurely every year;
▪ Nuclear: In an average year nobody would die. A death rate of 0.07 deaths
per terawatt-hour means it would take 14 years before a single person
would die. As we will explore later, this might even be an overestimate.
▪ Wind: In an average year nobody would die – it will take 29 years before
someone died;
▪ Hydropower: In an average year nobody would die – it will take 42 years
before someone died;
▪ Solar: In an average year nobody would die – only every
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It’s reported that in the days
which followed the Chernobyl
disasters, residents in
surrounding areas were
uninformed of the radioactive
material in the air around them.
In fact, it took at least three days
for the Soviet Union to admit an
accident had taken place, and
did so after radioactive sensors
at a Swedish plant were
triggered from dispersing
radionuclides. It’s estimated that
the delayed reaction from the
Soviet government and poor
precautionary steps taken
(people continued to drink
locally-produced, contaminated
milk, for example) led to
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In the case of Fukushima, the
Japanese government responded
quickly to the crisis with evacuation
efforts extending rapidly from a
three kilometre (km), to 10km, to
20km radius whilst the incident at
the site continued to unfold. In
comparison, the response in the
former Soviet Union was one of
denial and secrecy. A massive earthquake off the coast of Japan caused a
tidal wave that broke down the seawall surrounding
the power plant. The earthquake and tsunami cut off
supply of electricity to the plants cooling systems. The
fuel overheated and caused explosions. There were
releases of radiation into the environment. People
were evacuated and many were exposed to radiation

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Three Mile Island
The worst nuclear
accident in the United
States. No deaths or
injuries were directly
linked to the accident.

The Three Mile Island

nuclear power plant, near
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is
capable of generating 892
net megawatts of
electricity. That is enough
to power more than
800,000 homes and
businesses. In 1979, part of
the Three Mile Island
facility suffered a
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What is nuclear radiation?
• Radiation is energy moving
through space in the form of
waves and particles. It is emitted
by unstable isotopes

• It can be ionizing or non-ionizing

• Ionizing radiation can knock

electrons from an atom, creating
ions. Alpha and beta particles +
gamma rays are emitted from
ionizing radioactive materials
 Types of ionizing radiation
• Beta particles
(electrons/positrons) are
small but can be stopped by • Because they create ions,
aluminum metal. They can ionizing radiation can cause
travel several meters but chemical changes in living
deposit less energy than alpha cells, possibly leading to
particles cancer

• Gamma rays are waves of • Alpha particles are not very

energy without mass or penetrating but can damage
charge. They travel the very delicate tissue. They
farthest but can be stopped deposit he most energy.
by lead, water or concrete However, A piece of paper or
your skin can stop them.
 Exposure to radiation

• The unit used to measure ionizing radiation in the US

is the millirem (mrem). The international unit is the
millisievert (mSv). Both measure the risk that the
radiation will cause damage to a person

• We use the curie (Ci) or becquerel (Bq) to measure

the amount of radioactivity in a substance. We use
the rad or gray (Gy) to talk about the energy in
radiation actually absorbed by a person
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 Public Opinion

PHY 305
Public opinion on nuclear energy
tends to be very negative. Many
people still remember the two
major nuclear disasters in
history: Chernobyl and
Fukushima.

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Even though nuclear energy is safer, cleaner, and more efficient than coal, oil, and natural gas, it continues to be
abandoned in the United States. Pop culture has played a large role in the way nuclear energy and weapons are
perceived to the general public.

One of the most recognizable instances of nuclear is in television on The Simpsons. The two-unit nuclear reactor is
notorious for being badly run. It is famous for its safety violations, spillage of radioactive waste, constant flashing lights, and
creation of mutants.

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This characterization of nuclear energy is
important because it shows how negatively
it is perceived by people. Comedians are
allowed to show power plants like this
because that is how people think they are
run.

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