CHAPTER 2: CROSS – SECTION ELEMENTS

4.0 Introduction
Cross – section elements are those features of the highway which form its effective width and
which affect vehicle movement. Of primary interest are:
• the number and width of traffic lanes.
• the central reservation
• Shoulders
• Camber of the carriageway
• Lay – bys
• Side slopes
Also related to the cross-section are cycle tracks and footpaths. Many roads in Kenya,
particularly those providing access as their major function, carry a considerable number of
pedestrians and cyclists who make use of the shoulders and carriageway edges because separate
facilities for them are not provided. From a traffic safety point of view this is an undesirable
situation and cycle tracks and/or footpaths should be included in the cross-section where
appropriate (at the cost of the width of the shoulders).
The type of cross-section to be used in the development of any road project depends on:
i. Urban or rural location
ii. Terrain
iii. The functions of the road, for example, through route or local access
iv. New road or treatment of an existing road
v. Traffic volume and mixture
vi. Number and type of trucks
vii. Provision for public transport
viii. Walking and cycling needs
ix. Creating accessible environments for all
x. Place function and associated space requirements (for roadside vending and other
roadside amenities)
xi. Environmental constraints, for example, topography, existing public utility services,
existing road reserve widths, significant vegetation, geology

CSEN 412 Page 1

xii. Space provision for on-street parking.
xiii. Lane widening on low radius curves and junctions;
xiv. Provision of space in the median for bridge piers to support overpass structures;
xv. Accommodation of barrier systems and their associated dynamic deflection or working
width requirements;
xvi. Accommodation of traffic movements at intersections, U-turn facilities, interchanges,
collector-distributor roads, and local roads;
Typical highway cross – sections

Figure 4.1 Road cross-section terminology

Figure 4.2 Cross-section Type 1- Dual carriageway

CSEN 412 Page 2

 Figure 4.3 Cross-section Types 1I-VIII Single carriageway

4.1 Traffic lanes

The number of traffic lanes to be used in a specific situation is depended on the volume and type
of traffic that has to be handled. Normally the minimum number is two. Even though traffic
volumes may be light, safety considerations and ease of traffic operation require two lanes.

3-lane roads are constructed when the design volume exceeds the capacity of a 2 – lane road but
is not sufficient to justify a 4 – lane facility. 3 lane road should only be constructed in rural areas
where it is practical to provide nearly continuous overtaking sight distances.

3-lane two-way facilities should never be constructed in urban areas because of their high
accident potential i.e. in heavy traffic drivers often want to use the middle lane as the opposing
traffic and attempt to overtake regardless of the hazardous conditions.
Four or more lanes are needed to enable vehicles to overtake on lanes not used by opposing
traffic. Normally these highways have dual carriageways separated by a central reservation.
4.1.1 Through lanes
Through lanes are the most common lane type. All roadways have at least one lane in each
direction to provide unimpeded traffic flow from Point A to Point B.
Established or common practice in Kenya can be useful in determining and documenting lane
width selection where a range of width values is provided. Table 4-2 gives ranges of widths for
the road classes gazetted in Kenya.

CSEN 412 Page 3

 Table 4.1: Through lanes width ranges (m)

Notes:
i. 3.75m on urban arterials and urban collectors provide increased benefit on high speed,
free-flowing arterials. On interurban roads, 3.75 m lanes provide increased benefit
where there are higher truck volumes.
ii. On UC (urban collector) multilane facilities with width constraints, narrower inside lanes of
3.5 m may be permitted to allow for wider outside lanes for bicycles, pedestrians, and
transit. Narrower lanes also allow shorter pedestrian crossing times because of reduced
crossing distances.
iii. On urban streets, through lanes of 3.0 m may be used as a speed reduction strategy and they
also allow shorter crossing times for pedestrians. If there is considerable truck and bus
volume traffic, width of 3.5 is recommended.
4.1.2 Auxiliary lanes
An auxiliary lane is primarily for the acceleration or deceleration of vehicles entering or leaving
the through travelled way. They are normally provided for at-grade intersections on multilane
divided highways with access control. Where roadside conditions and right of way allow,
auxiliary lanes may be provided on other through roadways.
Justification for an auxiliary lane depends on many factors, including speed; traffic volumes;
capacity; type of highway; design and frequency of intersections and crash history.

CSEN 412 Page 4

A dedicated deceleration lane is advantageous because it removes slowing vehicles from the
through lane. An acceleration lane on the other hand may not be as advantageous as entering
drivers can wait for an opportunity to merge without disrupting through traffic. However,
acceleration lanes for right-turning vehicles provide a benefit by allowing the turn to be made in
two movements.
A lane width of 3.5 m should be provided.

4.2 Central reservations

Most dual carriageways have at least two traffic lanes in each direction divided by a central
reservation at least 1.75 m wide even in urban areas where space is restricted.

There is considerable difference of opinion between major highway authorities as to the

desirable width of the central reservation. While it has been proved that the wider the central
reservation the greater the reduction in head- on collisions, it has not been possible to establish
any overall relationship between total number of accidents and the reservation width.

A reservation width of 12 –15m is needed to bring an approaching high speed vehicle under
control to avoid the possibility of becoming involved in a head-on collision on the other
carriageway.

In rural areas consideration should always be given to varying the width in order to obtain a safe,
pleasing and economic design that fit the topography. Where possible shrubs should be grown in
as this reduce headlight glare and acts as cross barriers.

The reservation surfacing should contrast with the carriageway and distinctly visible during day
and night in wet and dry weather. For widths wider than 1.75m, grass is most suitable, but below
1.75m, use raised medians with contrasting bituminous or concrete.

CSEN 412 Page 5

4.3 Shoulders
A shoulder is that portion of a road way adjacent to the travelled way that is primarily used as a
refuge area by parked vehicles. Well designed and properly maintained shoulders are necessary
on all rural and suburban arterial roads carrying appreciable amounts of high speed traffic.

The shoulder widths vary. About 3.35m is needed by a lorry to enable a tyre to be changed
without danger to operator. Passenger cars require less but form greater part of the total
stoppages hence widths of 3m are usually recommended for major highway design purposes.
This allows a 1m gap between the parked cars and the edge of the carriageway.

The best though expensive is to extend the road base beyond the edge of the carriageway. This
makes the shoulder stable, high structural strength to carriageway and shoulder can be used as a
slow traffic lane when carrying out maintenance work on carriageway.
Shoulder surfacing must be distinctly different from the carriage way otherwise motorists will
use it as a regular traffic lane. Surfacing can be of grass, bituminous with coloured stone
chippings.
Table 4.2: Recommended widths of shoulder

CSEN 412 Page 6

4.4 Bus Stops, Lay-bys, and Parking Bays
Lay-bys clear of the lanes for through traffic considerably reduce the interference between buses,
taxis, and other traffic. Bus lay-bys serve to remove buses from the traffic lanes and parking bays
are spaces provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside the roadway.
Pedestrian crashes at bus stops are common but can be reduced significantly by good design of
the bus stop area. Ideally a bus stop or a lay-by should be designed as a short auxiliary lane with
adequate entry and exit tapers and separated from the travelled way by means of a separator from
the through lanes. A further safeguard is the use of pedestrian guardrails to prevent passengers
from crossing the road until they are well clear of the bus and have a clear vision of the road.
The location and design of lay-bys should provide ready access in the safest and most efficient
manner possible. To be fully effective, lay-bys should incorporate:
i. A deceleration lane or taper to permit easy entrance to the loading area.
ii. A standing space sufficiently long to accommodate the maximum number of vehicles
expected to occupy the space at one time.
iii. A merging lane to enable easy re-entry into the through-traffic lanes.
The deceleration lane should be tapered at an angle flat enough to encourage the bus or taxi
operator to pull completely clear of the through lane as in Figure 4.4. A taper of 10:1,
longitudinal to transverse, is a desirable minimum.
A loading area should provide 15 m of length for each bus. The width should be at least 3.5 m
and preferably 4.0 m. The merging or re-entry taper may be somewhat more abrupt than the
deceleration taper but, preferably, should not be sharper than 6:1.
The total length of lay-bys for a two-bus loading area of minimum design should be as shown in
Figure 4.4 and in the Standard Detail Drawings. These lengths of lay-bys expedite bus
manoeuvres, encourage full compliance on the part of bus and taxi drivers, and lessen
interference with through traffic. Sufficient footpaths should also be provided at bus lay-bys.

CSEN 412 Page 7

Figure 4.4: Bus lay-bys and parking bays

4.5 Camber
The term camber is used in highway engineering to describe the convexity of the carriageway
cross – section. The objective of cambering is to drain water to avoid ponding on the road
surface. Today high quality roads have average cross – slopes of between 1 in 40 and 1 in 48 …1
in 60.
Modern 2-lane roads have either parabolic or circular cross – sections. This helps avoid swaying
of commercial vehicles as they cross and re-cross the crown during an overtaking manoeuvre.

On dual carriageways, it is desirable for each carriageway to be cambered. This minimizes the
sheeting of water during rainstorms and keeps the difference between the low and high points in
the carriageway cross - section to minimum.
Where carriageways are sloped in one direction to drain from the median space to the outside,
savings are effected in drainage structures and treatment of intersecting roadways is easier.
Another possible arrangement for dual carriageways is that each carriageway should have a one
– way cross – slope draining towards the central reservation.
Advantage

CSEN 412 Page 8

Outer lanes used by commercial vehicles are more free of surface water. All surface water
collected in a single drainage (more economic}
Disadvantage
Drainage passing over the inner high-speed lanes causes splashing on windscreens.

4.6 Side – slopes

From the traffic safety aspect, the flatter the side slopes the better, since vehicles driving onto
them can more easily be brought under control. In cut sections also the horizontal sight distance
at curves is considerably increased by the use of flatter side – slopes.
The flatter the side slopes the easier it is to grow grass on them and the less chance there is of
erosion. Slopes of 3 horizontal to 1 vertical are quite pleasant.
4.7 Motorcycle Lanes
In Kenya, the share of the motorcycle in the total road traffic has increased compared to other
modes of road transportation. It is considered a cheap mode of transport compared to other
modes, provides door-to-door connectivity, has a small size, and has high manoeuvrability.
Generally, motorcycles share the carriageway with other motorised vehicles. Provision of
separate lanes where there are large numbers of motorcycles can reduce the potential for
conflicts with larger vehicles. Motorcycle lanes if required should be installed on the outside lane
of the main carriageway for each direction of traffic flow. Motorcycle lanes may be separated
from the rest of the road by painted lines or physical barriers.
Warrant analysis for motorcycle lanes on road class UA and UC should be:
i. High ADT volumes of more 15,000 vehicles per day;
ii. More than 30% of the traffic in mainstream comprises motorcycles; and
iii. Crash frequency of more than 5 KSI crashes involving motorcyclists.
The geometric design of motorcycle lane is affected by the physical characteristics and the
proportion of various sizes of motorcycle. The recommended design vehicle for motorcycle lane
for typical Kenya traffic is of capacity less than 250 cc.

CSEN 412 Page 9

:Note:
You are encouraged to explore the Road design manuals and refrence materials to study other
cross section elements. They include footpaths, Medians, Transit lanes, Refuge islands, service
roads and more.

CSEN 412 Page 10