INTRODUCTION

Inverse trigonometry, an essential branch of mathematics, evolved through the

contributions of several ancient civilizations and brilliant mathematicians over
centuries.

The origins of trigonometry can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where it was
developed to understand astronomical phenomena and to solve problems in
geometry.

Hipparchus (circa 190-120 BC), the "father of trigonometry," created the first
trigonometric tables, crucial for early astronomical calculations. Ptolemy (circa 100-
170 AD) expanded these methods in his work, the Almagest. Among the Indian
mathematicians, Aryabhata (476-550 AD) introduced the sine function, and
Brahmagupta (598-668 AD) advanced trigonometric methods, setting the stage for
understanding inverse functions. Islamic Scholars like Al-Battani (858-929 AD) and
others built on Greek and Indian work, introducing new trigonometric identities and
methods that involved inverse trigonometric concepts.

The explicit formulation of inverse functions emerged in the 17th century, with
contributions from John Wallis (1616-1703) and Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
Ultimately, Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) formalized inverse trigonometric functions
and introduced the notations used today.

An inverse function essentially reverses the operation of a given function. If a

function f takes an input x and gives an output y the inverse function f −1 takes y as an
input and returns x. In mathematical notation, if f(x) = y, then f −1 (y) = x.. This concept
is crucial for solving equations where the output of a function needs to be traced
back to its input

Inverse functions are not limited to trigonometry. Some common examples include:

y−b
 Inverse Linear Function: If f(x) = mx + b, then f −1 (y) = Inverse
m
 Exponential Function: For f(x) = e x the inverse is the natural logarithm
−1
 f (y)= ln(y)
 Inverse Quadratic Function: If f(x) = x 2 (restricted to non-negative x ), then f −1
(y)=√ y
Definition of Inverse Trigonometry
Inverse trigonometric functions are defined as the
inverse functions of the basic trigonometric functions,
which are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and
cosecant functions. These inverse functions in
trigonometry are used to get the angle with any of
the trigonometry ratios.
They are also termed arcus functions, ant trigonometric
functions or cyclometric functions since, for a given value
of trigonometric functions, they produce the length of arc
needed to obtain that particular value.
The inverse trigonometric functions perform the opposite
operation of the trigonometric functions such as sine,
cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant and cotangent. We
know that trigonometric functions are applicable,
especially to the right-angle triangle. These six important
functions are used to find the angle measure in the right-
angle triangle when two sides of the triangle measures
are known.
The inverse trigonometry functions have major
applications in the field of engineering, physics, geometry
and navigation
 Restricted Ranges
Inverse of a function ‘f ’ exists, if the function is one-one
and onto, i.e, bijective. Since trigonometric functions are
many-one over their domains, we restrict their domains
and co-domains in order to make them one-one and onto
and then find their inverse. The domains and ranges
(principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric
functions are given below:

S.No. Function Domain Range

I. y=sin−1x -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−π π
≤ y≤
2 2

y=cos−1x 1≤x≤1
II.
0≤ y≤ π

III. y= tan−1x All real numbers

−π π
< y<
2 2

IV. y=cot−1x All real numbers 0<y<π

1 ≤ x < ∞ and -∞ <

V. y= sec x
0< y ≤ π ,

x ≤ -1
−1
π
y≠
2

1 ≤ x <∞ and -∞ <

−π π

VI. y=cosec−1x
≤ y≤

x ≤ -1 y≠ 0
2 2
 Principle values of inverse trigonometric
functions
The solution in which the absolute value of the angle is
the least is called the principal solution. For example the
value of Cos 0° is 1, the value of Cos 2 π 4 π ..... is also 1.
The smallest numerical value, either positive or negative
of an inverse trigonometric functions is called the
principal value of the function.Thus, the principal values
−π
∧π
of sin x,
−1 −1
tan x, cosec x are the angles that lie between
−1
2
2
and the principal values of cos−1x, cot x and
−1
sec
−1
x are the
angles that lie between 0 and π .

Principal
Functions Domain For x≥ 0 For x<0
value

y=sin−1x -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−π π π −π
≤ y≤ 0≤ y≤ ≤ y< 0
2 2 2 2

y=cos−1x 1≤x≤1
π π
0≤ y≤ π 0≤ y≤ <y ≤π

All real
2 2

y= tan−1x
numbers
−π π π −π
< y< 0≤ y< < y<0

All real
2 2 2 2

y=cot−1x 0<y<π
numbers
π π
0< y ≤ < y<π
2 2

1 ≤ x < ∞ and
y= sec x
0< y ≤ π ,

-∞ < x ≤ -1
π π
−1
π 0< y< <y ≤π
y≠ 2 2
2
 1 ≤ x <∞ and
−π π

y=cosec−1x
≤ y≤

-∞ < x ≤ -1 y
2 2 π −π
0< y ≤ ≤ y< 0
≠ 0 2 2

Representation of Principle value of sin

−1
x using a
unit circle

Graphical representation ofsin−1 x

Representation of Principle value of cos

−1
x using a
unit circle
 −1
Graphical representation of cos x
Formulas related with Inverse Trignometry
CONCLUSION
Inverse function is valid if the function is One-to-One
(bijective) function.sin−1 x ,cos−1x, ¿ tan−1 x and can be defined for
a restricted domain. These domains are the value of x for
which Sine, Cosine, tangent mappings are One-to-One. All
functions have an inverse function that reverses their
effect. Applying function acting on the Variable x results
in the two 'cancelling’ each other, leaving just the
variable x.
 INTRODUCTION
Linear programming (LP) is an advanced optimization technique within the field of
operations research, formulated to determine the best possible outcome—such as
maximizing profit or minimizing costs—under a given set of linear constraints.
Originating in the 1930s and 1940s, linear programming was pioneered by
mathematician George Dantzig, who introduced the Simplex method in 1947. This
groundbreaking algorithm revolutionized the ability to solve large-scale linear
optimization problems by efficiently navigating the vertices of the feasible region,
defined by the linear constraints, to find the optimal solution.

The foundation of linear programming lies in its formulation, which includes an

objective function, decision variables, and constraints. The objective function is a
linear equation that represents the goal to be achieved. Decision variables are the
unknowns to be determined, representing choices available to the decision-maker.
Constraints are linear equations or inequalities that encapsulate the limitations or
requirements, such as resource availability or production capacities.

The feasible region, formed by these constraints, is a convex polytope within which
the optimal solution lies. The Simplex method, an iterative algorithm, systematically
moves from one vertex of this polytope to another, improving the value of the
objective function at each step, until the best possible solution is identified.

. The term “linear programming” consists of two words as linear and programming.
The word “linear” defines the relationship between multiple variables with degree
one. The word “programming” defines the process of selecting the best solution from
various alternatives.

Today, linear programming continues to be a vital tool in decision-making processes,

helping to solve complex problems related to resource allocation, production
planning, transportation, diet optimization, and financial portfolio design. Its
development has also paved the way for further advancements in optimization
techniques, including integer programming, nonlinear programming, and dynamic
programming, solidifying its place as a cornerstone in the study and application of
operations research and management science.
Definition of Linear Programming
Problems(LPP)
Linear programming problems are a class of optimization issues
where the goal is to achieve the best possible outcome, such as
maximizing profit or minimizing cost, subject to a set of linear
constraints.

The main aim of the linear programming problem is to find the

optimal solution.

Linear programming is the method of considering different

inequalities relevant to a situation and calculating the best value
that is required to be obtained in those conditions. Some of the
assumptions taken while working with linear programming are:

 The number of constraints should be expressed in the

quantitative terms
 The relationship between the constraints and the objective
function should be linear
 The linear function (i.e., objective function) is to be optimized

Components of Linear Programming

1. Decision Variables
Definition: Decision variables are the unknowns that we aim to
solve for in a linear programming problem. They represent the
choices available to the decision-maker.

Characteristics:

 Continuous or Discrete: In standard LP, decision variables

are typically continuous, meaning they can take any non-
 negative real values. In integer programming, they must be
whole numbers.
 Non-Negativity: Decision variables are often required to be
non-negative, reflecting real-world quantities like products,
resources, or time.

Example: In a manufacturing problem:

 x 1 could represent the number of units of product A to produce.

 x 2 could represent the number of units of product B to produce.

2. Objective Function
Definition: The objective function is a linear equation that needs
to be maximized or minimized. It represents the goal of the
optimization, such as maximizing profit or minimizing cost.

Form: Z=c 1 x 1 +c 2 x 1 … … … .+c n x n

c 1,c 2….c n=¿ constraints

x 1, x 2… x n= decision variables

Characteristics:

 Linear Combination: It is a linear combination of decision

variables, each multiplied by a coefficient representing its
contribution to the objective.
 Single Objective: LP deals with a single objective function,
although techniques exist for handling multiple objectives.

Example: In a profit maximization problem:

Maximize Z=40 x 1+30 x 2

3. Constraints
Definition: Constraints are linear inequalities or equations that
represent the limitations or requirements of the problem. They
restrict the values that the decision variables can take.

Characteristics:

 Linear Equations/Inequalities: Constraints must be linear.

 Feasibility Region: The set of all possible solutions that
satisfy the constraints forms the feasible region.

Example: In a resource allocation problem:

2 x 1+ x2 ≤100 ( machine hours)

3 x 1+ 2 x 2 ≤90 (labour hours)

4. Non-Negativity Restriction
Definition: This condition ensures that the decision variables
cannot take negative values. This is often a realistic assumption
since negative quantities of resources or products are not
practical.

Form: x 1≥0

Characteristics:

 Practicality: Ensures solutions are realistic and applicable in

real-world scenarios.
 Feasibility: Helps define the feasible region by limiting the
decision variables to non-negative values.

5. FEASIBLE REGION
The common region determined by all the constraints of LPP
is called feasible region or it is the set of all possible points
of optimization problem that satisfy the problem's
constraints, potentially including inequalities, equalities and
integer.

6. FEASIBLE SOLUTION
The point in the feasible Region is feasible solution. It is a set
of values for the decision variables that satisfies all of the
constraints in an optimization problem or It is the optimal
Solution to a linear programming problem with the largest
objective function value (for a maximization problem).

Solving Linear Programming Problems

Linear programming problems can be solved using various
methods such as:

1. Graphical Method: This is useful for problems with two

decision variables. The feasible region is plotted, and the
optimal solution is found at one of the vertices of this region.
2. Simplex Method: This is an iterative algorithm used for
larger problems. It starts at a feasible solution and moves
towards the optimal solution by improving the objective
function value at each step.
3. Dual Simplex Method: A variant of the simplex method
used when the initial solution is not feasible but the optimal
solution is required quickly.
4. Interior-Point Methods: These methods move through the
interior of the feasible region rather than along the edges,
and are often more efficient for very large problems.
Linear Programming Simplex Method
The simplex method is one of the most popular methods to solve
linear programming problems. It is an iterative process to get the
feasible optimal solution. In this method, the value of the basic
variable keeps transforming to obtain the maximum value for the
objective function. The algorithm for linear programming simplex
method is provided below:

Step 1: Establish a given problem. (i.e.,) write the inequality

constraints and objective function.

Step 2: Convert the given inequalities to equations by adding the

slack variable to each inequality expression.

Step 3: Create the initial simplex tableau. Write the objective

function at the bottom row. Here, each inequality constraint
appears in its own row. Now, we can represent the problem in the
form of an augmented matrix, which is called the initial simplex
tableau.

Step 4: Identify the greatest negative entry in the bottom row,

which helps to identify the pivot column. The greatest negative
entry in the bottom row defines the largest coefficient in the
objective function, which will help us to increase the value of the
objective function as fastest as possible.

Step 5: Compute the quotients. To calculate the quotient, we

need to divide the entries in the far right column by the entries in
the first column, excluding the bottom row. The smallest quotient
identifies the row. The row identified in this step and the element
identified in the step will be taken as the pivot element.

Step 6: Carry out pivoting to make all other entries in column is

zero.

Step 7: If there are no negative entries in the bottom row, end

the process. Otherwise, start from step 4.
Step 8: Finally, determine the solution associated with the final
simplex tableau.

Graphical Method
The graphical method is used to optimize the two-variable linear
programming. If the problem has two decision variables, a
graphical method is the best method to find the optimal solution.
In this method, the set of inequalities are subjected to constraints.
Then the inequalities are plotted in the XY plane. Once, all the
inequalities are plotted in the XY graph, the intersecting region
will help to decide the feasible region. The feasible region will
provide the optimal solution as well as explains what all values
our model can take

Detailed Example of a Linear Programming

Problem

Problem Statement

A company produces two products, A and B. The profit per unit of

product A is $40 and for product B is $30. The production process
involves two resources: machine hours and labor hours.

 Product A requires 2 machine hours and 3 labor hours per unit.

 Product B requires 1 machine hour and 2 labor hours per unit.
 The company has 100 machine hours and 90 labor hours
available per week.

Solution

Decision Variables

 x 1: Number of units of product A to produce.

 x 2: Number of units of product B to produce.

Objective Function

Maximize the total profit : Z=40 x 1+30 x 2

Constraints

Machine hour’s constraint: 2 x 1+ x2 ≤100

Labor hour’s constraint: 3 x 1+ 2 x 2 ≤90

Non-negativity constraints: x 1 ≥ 0 & x 2 ≥ 0

Graph of the solution

Plot the Constraints

Constraint 1: 2 x 1+ x2 =100

This line is plotted by finding x 2for a range of x 1.

Constraint 2: 3 x 1+ 2 x 2=90

This line is plotted by finding x 2for a range of x 1.

Identify the Feasible Region

The feasible region is the area where both constraints are
satisfied simultaneously. It is the shaded area in the plot.

Identify the Vertices of the Feasible Region

The vertices of the feasible region, where the constraint lines

intersect or meet the axes, are:

1. (0, 45)
2. (25, 50)
3. (40, 20)
4. (50, 0)

Evaluate the Objective Function at Each Vertex

To find the optimal solution, evaluate the objective function Z=40

x 1+30 x 2

at each vertex:

1. At (0, 45): Z=40(0)+30(45)=1350

2. At (25, 50): Z=40(25)+30(50)=1000+1500=2500
3. At (40, 20): Z=40(40)+30(20)=1600+600=2200
4. At (50, 0): Z=40(50)+30(0)=2000

The maximum value of ZZZ is 2500 at the vertex (25, 50).

Therefore, the optimal solution is to produce 25 units of product A
and 50 units of product B to achieve the maximum profit of
$2500.

Applications of Linear Programming:

1.Manufacturing

Production Planning: Determining the optimal mix of products

to manufacture in order to maximize profit or minimize costs
while considering constraints such as labor, materials, and
production capacity.

Inventory Management: Optimizing the levels of inventory to

minimize holding and shortage costs while meeting demand.

2. Transportation and Logistics

Routing: Finding the most efficient routes for transportation to
minimize costs or time, known as the Transportation Problem.

Scheduling: Optimizing schedules for shipping and delivery to

ensure timely delivery while minimizing costs.

Fleet Management: Allocating vehicles to different routes or

tasks in an optimal manner.

3. Finance
Portfolio Optimization: Allocating investments across different
assets to maximize return or minimize risk, considering
constraints like budget, risk tolerance, and regulatory
requirements.

Loan and Credit Management: Optimizing the allocation of

loans and credits to maximize returns or minimize risks.

4. Operations Research
Resource Allocation: Distributing limited resources (such as
workforce, machinery, or budget) across various projects or
departments to achieve the best possible outcome.
Supply Chain Optimization: Managing the flow of goods,
information, and finances in a supply chain to minimize costs and
improve efficiency.

5. Energy Sector
Power Generation: Optimizing the mix of energy sources (e.g.,
coal, gas, renewable) to meet demand at minimum cost while
considering environmental regulations.

Load Balancing: Distributing electricity in a grid to ensure stable

supply and minimize transmission losses.

6. Telecommunications
Network Design: Designing communication networks to
minimize costs and maximize coverage or data flow.

Bandwidth Allocation: Optimizing the distribution of bandwidth

among users or applications to ensure efficient use and quality of
service.

7. Agriculture
Crop Planning: Determining the optimal mix of crops to plant to
maximize yield or profit while considering constraints like land,
water, labor, and market demand.

Livestock Management: Optimizing feeding and breeding

schedules to maximize productivity and minimize costs.

8. Healthcare
Staff Scheduling: Allocating medical staff to shifts and tasks to
ensure adequate coverage and minimize costs.

Resource Allocation: Distributing medical resources (e.g., beds,

equipment, medication) to maximize patient care and minimize
costs.

Example Application: Diet Problem

One classic example of LP in action is the "Diet Problem," which

involves determining the optimal combination of foods to meet
nutritional requirements at the minimum cost. Here’s a brief
outline:

Conclusion
Linear programming stands as a cornerstone of optimization
techniques, offering a robust framework for identifying the best
possible outcomes within mathematical models characterized by
linear relationships. By optimizing a linear objective function while
adhering to a set of linear constraints, it provides a systematic
approach to decision-making and resource allocation. This
method has broad applicability across numerous domains
including economics, business, engineering, logistics, and military
strategy, effectively solving problems related to production
scheduling, transportation, network flows, and financial planning.

The strength of linear programming lies in its ability to simplify

complex problems, enabling efficient and practical solutions. Its
widespread use is further bolstered by the availability of
sophisticated algorithms and software tools, which have
significantly enhanced its accessibility and implementation. As
industries and technologies continue to evolve, the relevance and
utility of linear programming remain profound, ensuring it
remains a vital tool in the arsenal of modern problem-solving and
optimization strategies.