Microprocessors

COURSE PCC-EE 503

NIRMAL MURMU
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
Course Outcomes
At the end of this course, students will demonstrate the ability
to,
CO1: Understand the basic concept and architecture of Microprocessors.

CO2: Do assembly language programming with clear understanding of

algorithms.
CO3: Develop knowledge of interfacing of peripherals like I/O, A/D, D/A,
timer etc.
CO4: Develop systems using microprocessor and understand
microcontroller.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

 Syllabus
Module 1: 8085 Microprocessor Architecture (8 Hours)
Microprocessor Architecture-8085 microprocessor CPU architecture, pin diagram,
temporary registers, ALU, timing and control unit, machine cycles, bus interfacing,
memory maps, special function registers, stack memory.

Module 2: Data transfer techniques (4 Hours)

Data transfer techniques: Programmed data transfer, concept of interrupt,
Interrupts of 8085, interrupt priority, interrupt driven data transfer, 8259
programmable interrupt controller, DMA transfer, 8257 DMA controller.

Module 3: Interfacing issues (8 Hours)

Interfacing- Basic principles of interfacing memory and I/O devices, 8255A
programmable peripheral interface, Interfacing of D/A and A/D converter, Concept
of serial data transfer, 8251 USART; concept of timer and counter, 8253
programmable timer interval IC.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Syllabus
Module 4: Instruction set and programming (14 Hours)
Programming of 8085 mocroprocessors: Addressing modes, instruction
set, assembly language programming, simple numerical operations, data
sorting examples, block data movement.

Module 5: 8051 microcontroller introductions (6 Hours)

Microcontroller- 8051 basics, architecture, Internal RAM, SFR area,
Instruction set and basic interfacing programes.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Prerequisite
Understanding of
◦ Digital system
◦ Digital number system
◦ Digital Logic

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

References
[1] Ramesh S. Goankar, “Microprocessor Architecture,
Programming and Applications with 8085”, 5th Edition, Prentice
Hall
[2] K. Uday Kumar and B. S. Umashankar, ”8085 Microprocessor”,
Pearson India, 2008.
[3] D. V. Hall, “Microprocessors & Interfacing”, McGraw Hill
Higher Education, 1991.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Virtual Lab:
8085 Simulator: http://vlabs.iitb.ac.in/vlabs-
dev/labs_local/microprocessor/labs/exp7/procedure.php

8051 Simulator: http://vlabs.iitb.ac.in/vlabs-dev/labs/8051-

Microcontroller-Lab/labs/index.php

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Introduction to
Microprocessor
and Computer
H I S TO RY
O P E R AT I O N
M E T H O D S U S E D TO S TO R E D ATA I N 𝜇 - P R O C E S S O R B A S E D S Y S T E M

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Topic Timeline

Microprocessor Microprocessor
Applications
& Mini Brief History Architecture
Example
Computer Brief

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Basic Concepts of
Microprocessors
Differences between:
◦ Microcomputer – a computer with a microprocessor as its
CPU. Includes memory, I/O etc.
◦ Microprocessor – silicon chip which includes ALU, register
circuits & control circuits
◦ Microcontroller – silicon chip which includes microprocessor,
memory & I/O in a single package.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

What is a Microprocessor?
The word comes from the combination micro and
processor.
o Processor means a device that processes whatever. In this
context processor means a device that processes numbers,
specifically binary numbers, 0’s and 1’s.
▪ To process means to manipulate. It is a general term that describes all
manipulation. Again in this content, it means to perform certain operations
on the numbers that depend on the microprocessor’s design.

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What about micro?
Micro is a new addition.
o In the late 1960’s, processors were built using discrete
elements.
▪ These devices performed the required operation, but were too large and
too slow.
o In the early 1970’s the microchip was invented. All of the
components that made up the processor were now placed on
a single piece of silicon. The size became several thousand
times smaller and the speed became several hundred times
faster. The “Micro”Processor was born.

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Was there ever a “mini”-
processor?
No.
o It went directly from discrete elements to a single chip.
However, comparing today’s microprocessors to the ones built
in the early 1970’s you find an extreme increase in the
amount of integration.

So, What is a microprocessor?

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Definition of the Microprocessor
The microprocessor is a programmable device that
takes in numbers, performs on them arithmetic or
logical operations according to the program stored in
memory and then produces other numbers as a
result.

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Definition (Contd.)
Lets expand each of the underlined words:
o Programmable device: The microprocessor can perform
different sets of operations on the data it receives depending
on the sequence of instructions supplied in the given
program.
o By changing the program, the microprocessor manipulates the
data in different ways.

o Instructions: Each microprocessor is designed to execute a

specific group of operations. This group of operations is
called an instruction set. This instruction set defines what the
microprocessor can and cannot do.

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Definition (Contd.)
Takes in: The data that the microprocessor
manipulates must come from somewhere.
o It comes from what is called “input devices”.
o These are devices that bring data into the system from the
outside world.
o These represent devices such as a keyboard, a mouse,
switches, and the like.

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Definition (Contd.)
Numbers: The microprocessor has a very narrow view
on life. It only understands binary numbers.
o A binary digit is called a bit (which comes from binary digit).

o The microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of bits

together. This group of bits is called a “word”.

o The number of bits in a Microprocessor’s word, is a measure of

its “abilities”.

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Definition (Contd.)
Words, Bytes, etc.
o The earliest microprocessor (the Intel 8088 and Motorola’s
6800) recognized 8-bit words.
o They processed information 8-bits at a time. That’s why they
are called “8-bit processors”. They can handle large
numbers, but in order to process these numbers, they broke
them into 8-bit pieces and processed each group of 8-bits
separately.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Definition (Contd.)
Words, Bytes, etc.
o Later microprocessors (8086 and 68000) were designed with
16-bit words.
o A group of 8-bits were referred to as a “half-word” or “byte”.
o A group of 4 bits is called a “nibble”.
o Also, 32 bit groups were given the name “long word”.

o Today, all processors manipulate at least 32 bits at a time and

there exists microprocessors that can process 64, 80, 128 bits

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Definition (Contd.)
Arithmetic and Logic Operations:
o Every microprocessor has arithmetic operations such as add
and subtract as part of its instruction set.
o Most microprocessors will have operations such as multiply
and divide.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Definition (Contd.)
Arithmetic and Logic Operations:
o Some of the newer ones will have complex operations such as
square root.
o In addition, microprocessors have logic operations as well.
Such as AND, OR, XOR, shift left, shift right, etc.
o Again, the number and types of operations define the
microprocessor’s instruction set and depends on the specific
microprocessor.

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Definition (Contd.)
Stored in memory :
o First, what is memory?
o Memory is the location where information is kept while not in
current use.
o Memory is a collection of storage devices. Usually, each storage
device holds one bit. Also, in most kinds of memory, these storage
devices are grouped into groups of 8. These 8 storage locations can
only be accessed together. So, one can only read or write in terms of
bytes to and form memory.
o Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold.
o It is measured in Kilos, Megas and lately Gigas. A Kilo in computer
language is 210 = 1024. So, a KB (KiloByte) is 1024 bytes. Mega is
1024 Kilos and Giga is 1024 Mega.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Definition (Contd.)
Stored in memory :
o When a program is entered into a computer, it is stored in
memory. Then as the microprocessor starts to execute the
instructions, it brings the instructions from memory one at a
time.

o Memory is also used to hold the data.

o The microprocessor reads (brings in) the data from memory
when it needs it and writes (stores) the results into memory
when it is done.

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Definition (Contd.)
Produces: For the user to see the result of the
execution of the program, the results must be
presented in a human readable form.
o The results must be presented on an output device.

o This can be the monitor, a paper from the printer, a simple

LED or many other forms.

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A Microprocessor-based system
From the above description, we can draw the
following block diagram to represent a
microprocessor-based system:

Input Output

Memory

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Inside The Microprocessor
Internally, the microprocessor is made up of 3 main
units.
o The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
o The Control Unit.
o An array of registers for holding data while it is being
manipulated.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Organization of a
microprocessor- based system
Let’s expand the picture a bit.

I/O
Input / Output
Register
ALU
Array
System Bus

Control Memory

ROM RAM

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

 Memory
Memory stores information such as instructions and
data in binary format (0 and 1). It provides this
information to the microprocessor whenever it is
needed.
Usually, there is a memory “sub-system” in a
microprocessor-based system. This sub-system includes:
o The registers inside the microprocessor
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
▪ used to store information that does not change.
o Random Access Memory (RAM) (also known as Read/Write
Memory).
▪ used to store information supplied by the user. Such as programs and data.

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 Memory Map and Addresses
The memory map is a picture representation of the
address range and shows where the different memory
chips are located within the address range.
0000 0000
EPROM Address Range of EPROM Chip
3FFF
4400
Address Range

RAM 1 Address Range of 1st RAM Chip

5FFF
6000
RAM 2 Address Range of 2nd RAM Chip
8FFF
9000
RAM 3 Address Range of 3rd RAM Chip
A3FF
A400

Address Range of 4th RAM Chip

RAM 4

F7FF
FFFF

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 Memory
To execute a program:
o the user enters its instructions in binary format into the
memory.
o The microprocessor then reads these instructions and whatever
data is needed from memory, executes the instructions and
places the results either in memory or produces it on an output
device.

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 The three cycle instruction
execution model
To execute a program, the microprocessor “reads” each
instruction from memory, “interprets” it, then
“executes” it.

To use the right names for the cycles:

o The microprocessor fetches each instruction,
o Decodes it,
o Then executes it.

This sequence is continued until all instructions are

performed.
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
 Machine Language
The number of bits that form the “word” of a
microprocessor is fixed for that particular processor.
o These bits define a maximum number of combinations.
▪ For example an 8-bit microprocessor can have at most 28 = 256 different
combinations.

However, in most microprocessors, not all of these

combinations are used.
o Certain patterns are chosen and assigned specific meanings.
o Each of these patterns forms an instruction for the
microprocessor.
o The complete set of patterns makes up the microprocessor’s
machine language.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

 The 8085 Machine Language
The 8085 (from Intel) is an 8-bit microprocessor.
o The 8085 uses a total of 246 bit patterns to form its instruction
set.
o These 246 patterns represent only 74 instructions.
▪ The reason for the difference is that some (actually most) instructions have
multiple different formats.

Because it is very difficult to enter the bit patterns

correctly, they are usually entered in hexadecimal
instead of binary.
o For example, the combination 0011 1100 which translates into
“increment the number in the register called the accumulator”,
is usually entered as 3C.

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 Assembly Language
Entering the instructions using hexadecimal is quite
easier than entering the binary combinations.
o However, it still is difficult to understand what a program
written in hexadecimal does.
o So, each company defines a symbolic code for the instructions.
o These codes are called “mnemonics”.
o The mnemonic for each instruction is usually a group of letters
that suggest the operation performed.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

 Assembly Language
Using the same example from before,
o 00111100 translates to 3C in hexadecimal (OPCODE)
o Its mnemonic is: “INR A”.
o INR stands for “increment register” and A is short for accumulator.

Another example is: 1000 0000,

o Which translates to 80 in hexadecimal.
o Its mnemonic is “ADD B”.
o “Add register B to the accumulator and keep the result in the
accumulator”.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Assembly Language
It is important to remember that a machine language
and its associated assembly language are completely
machine dependent.
o In other words, they are not transferable from one
microprocessor to a different one.

For example, Motorolla has an 8-bit microprocessor

called the 6800.
o The 8085 machine language is very different from that of the
6800. So is the assembly language.
o A program written for the 8085 cannot be executed on the
6800 and vice versa.

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 Assembly Language
How does assembly language get translated into
machine language?
o There are two ways:
o 1st there is “hand assembly”.
▪ The programmer translates each assembly language instruction into its
equivalent hexadecimal code (machine language). Then the hexadecimal code
is entered into memory.
o The other possibility is a program called an “assembler”, which
does the translation automatically.

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Microprocessor Controlled
Temperature System

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A Historical Background
The mechanical age
◦ abacus : 500 B.C.
◦ calculator(with gears and wheels) : Pascal
The Electrical age
◦ Hollerith machine(1889):12-bit code on punched card
◦ ENIAC(Electronics Numerical Integrator and Calculator) :
▪ 1946, Moore school of EE at Univ. of Pennsylvania
▪ first general-purpose, programmable electronic computer
▪ 17,000 vacuum tube, 500 miles of wire, 6000 switches
▪ about 100,000 operations per second, 30 tons
▪ hardware programmable : rewiring, switching
▪ life of vacuum tube(3000 hours) : maintenance

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A Historical Background
Stored Program concept(machines): Dr. John von
Neumann
◦ program instruction should be stored in memory unit, just like
the data

EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic

Computer):1952
UNIVAC(Universal Automatic Computer) :
◦ delivered to Bureau of Census(1951), CBS(1952)

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A Historical Background
Bipolar Transistor : 1948 by William Shockley, John
Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain at Bell labs(1956, Novel
physics award)
2nd-Generation Computer : TR
◦ IBM : 7070/7090(1958), 1401(1959)
◦ mainframe : describe CPU portion of computer
◦ mainframe computer : designed to handle large volumes of
data while serving hundreds of users simultaneously
◦ built on circuit boards mounted into rack panels(frame)

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A Historical Background
Integrated Circuit : 1958 by Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments and Dr. Robert Noyce of Fairchild
Semiconductor
digital IC(RTL, register-to-transistor logic) : in the
1960s
3rd-Generation Computer : IC
◦ IBM : 32-bit 360 series(1964)
minicomputer : low-cost, scaled-down mainframe
◦ DEC : PDP-8(Programmed Data Processor)

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A Historical Background
INTEL(Integrated Electronics) : 1968
◦ Robert Noyce and Gorden Moore
◦ 4000 family : 1971.11.15
◦ 4001 : 2K ROM with 4-bit I/O port
◦ 4002 : 320-bit RAM with 4-bit output port
◦ 4003 : 10-bit serial-in parallel-out shift register
◦ 4004 : 4-bit processor

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A Historical Background
Programming Advancements
◦ machine language – binary code
◦ assembly language – mnemonic code : UNIVAC
◦ high-level programming language
◦ FLOW-MATIC : 1957 by Grace Hopper
◦ FORTRAN(FORMular TRANslator) : 1957, IBM
◦ COBOL(Computer Business Oriented Language)
◦ RPG(Report Program Generator)
◦ BASIC, C/C++, PASCAL, ADA
◦ Visual BASIC

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A Historical Background
The microprocessor age
◦ 4004(1971, world’s 1st) : 4-bit, P-channel MOSFET technology
◦ 4096 4-bit(nibble) wide memory, 45 instructions, 50KIPs
◦ 8008(1972, extended 8-bit version of 4004, 16Kbytes)
◦ 8080(1973, 1st modern 8-bit) :
◦ 2.0 × 10−6 sec, TTL-compatible, 64K bytes memory
◦ one of 1st Microcomputer : MITS Altair 8800, Kit, 1975
◦ 8085(1977, 1.3𝜇𝑠, internal clock generator & system controller)

The modern microprocessor

◦ 16-bit : 8086(1978), 8088(1979)
◦ IBM sold the idea of a Personal Computer : 1981.8, 8088
◦ 32-bit : 80386, 80486
◦ 64-bit : pentium ~

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A Historical Background
Microcontroller : hidden computer, one chip
microcomputer
◦ a microprocessor with on-chip memory and I/O
Supercomputer :
◦ most powerful computer available at any given time
◦ Cray-1 : ECL, 130 MFLOPS(millions of floating-point operations
per second)
Parallel Processor : Gigaflops(GFLOPS)
◦ hypercube : arrangement of processors in the form of an n-
dimensional cube
DSP(Digital Signal Processor) :
◦ perform complex mathematical computations on converted
analog data

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A Historical Background
RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
◦ a small(<128) no. of instructions
CISC(Complex Instruction Set Computer)
◦ a large no. of variable length instructions
◦ multiple addressing modes
◦ a small no. of internal processor registers
◦ instructions that require multiple no. of clock cycle to execute
Intel’s i860 RISC processor(Cray on a chip)
◦ 82 instructions, each 32 bits in length
◦ four addressing modes
◦ 32 general-purpose registers
◦ all instructions execute in one clock cycle

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8086 (1978)
20-bit address bus : 1M byte(1024Kbytes) memory
instruction : over 20,000 variation
◦ 4004 : 45, 8085 : 246
A separate BIU and EU
◦ Fetch and Execute instruction simultaneously
16-bit Internal processor registers
◦ with the ability to access the high and low 8 bits separately if
desired
Hardware multiply and divide built in
Support for an external math coprocessor
◦ perform floating-point math operations as much as 100 times
faster than the processor alone via software emulation

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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
8088
8086(1978) : 16-bit data bus
◦ requirement of two separate 8-bit memory
banks to supply its 16-bit data bus
◦ quite expensive memory chip at the time
8088(1979) : external 8-bit data bus
IBM announced the PC : 1981.8
◦ 8088, 16K memory(expandable 64K), 4.77MHz(clock speed)
◦ PC standard

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80186/80188
High-Integration CPUs
◦ schematic diagram for IBM’s original PC
◦ 8088 microprocessor
◦ several additional chips are required
◦ 80186 = 8086 + several additional chips
◦ added 9 new instructions
◦ clock generator
◦ programmable timer
◦ programmable interrupt controller
◦ circuitry to select the I/O devices

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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
80286 (1982)
Some instruction executed : 250ns(4.0MIPS) at 8MHz
24-bit address bus : 16M byte memory
added 16 new instructions
Real Mode: 1st powered on
◦ functions exactly like an 8086
◦ uses only its 20 least significant address lines(1M)

Protected :
A “Fatal Flaw” ?
◦ once switched to Protected mode, should not be able to switch back to
Real mode
◦ 286 chips are operated in Real mode and thus function only as fast 8086s

IBM AT(advanced technology) Computer :1984

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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
80386
Flexible 32-bit Microprocessor(1986) : data bus, registers
Very large address space : 32-bit address bus(4G byte physical)
◦ 64 terabyte virtual
◦ 4G maximum segment size

Integrated memory management unit

◦ virtual memory support, optional on-chip paging
◦ 4 levels of protection

Added 16 new instructions

Real Mode, Protected mode
Virtual 8086 mode : in a protected and paged system
386SX : 16-bit external data bus, 24-bit address bus
386EX : 16-bit external data bus, 26-bit address bus
◦ 1995, called embedded PC
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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
80486
Intel released 80486 in 1989
Maintaining compatibility : standard(8086,286,386)
◦ polished & refined 386 : twice as fast as 386
Redesigned using RISC concept :
◦ frequently used instruction : a single clock cycle
◦ new 5-stage execution pipeline
Highly integrated
◦ 8K memory cache
◦ floating-point processor(equivalent of the external 387)
Added 6 new instructions : for used by OS

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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
80486
486SX :
◦ for low-end applications that do not require a
coprocessor or internal cache
◦ clock speed limited 33MHz
486DX2 & DX4 :
◦ internal clock rate is twice or 3 times external clock
rate
◦ 486DX4 100 : internal 100MHz, external 33MHz
Overdrive Processor:
◦ 486DX2 or DX4 chips with overdrive socket pin-outs
◦ to upgrade low-speed 486DX, SX with 486DX2, DX4

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Pentium
Increasing the complexity of the IC: to scale the chip
down
◦ if every line could be shrunk in half, same circuit could be
built in one-forth the area
Superscaler : support 2 instruction pipelines(5 stage)
◦ ALU, address generation circuit, data cache interface
◦ actually execute two different instruction simultaneously
Pentium(1993) : originally labeled P5(80586)
◦ 60, 66MHz(110MIPS)
◦ 8K code cache, 8K data cache
◦ coprocessor : redesign(8-stage instruction pipeline)
◦ external data bus : 64 bit(higher data transfer rates)
◦ added 6 new instructions : for used by OS

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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
Pentium pro
Codenamed P6 : 1995
◦ basic clock frequency : 150, 166MHz
Two chips in one : two separate silicon die
◦ processor(large chip), 256K level two cache
Superscaler processor of degree three(12 stage)
Internal cache :
◦ level one(L1) : 8K instruction and data cache
◦ level two(L2) : 256K(or 512K)
36-bit address bus : 64G byte memory
Has been optimized to efficiently execute 32-bit code
◦ bundled with Windows NT : server market

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Pentium II and Pentium II Xeon
Microprocessor
Pentium II microprocessor released in 1997
Pentium II module : small circuit board
◦ Pentium pro with MMX : no internal L2 cache
◦ 512K L2 cache(operated at speed of 133MHz)
main reason :
◦ L2 cache found main board of Pentium : 60, 66MHz
◦ not fast enough to justify a new microprocessor
◦ Pentium pro : not well yield
266~333MHz with 100MHz bus speed : in 1998
◦ bottleneck : external bus speed 66MHz
◦ use of 8ns SDRAM

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Pentium II and Pentium II Xeon
Microprocessor
New version of Pentium II called Xeon : mid-
1998
◦ for high-end workstation and server applications
main difference from Pentium II:
◦ L1 cache size : 32K bytes
◦ L2 cache size : 512K, 1M, 2M
change in Intel’s strategy :
◦ professional version and home/business version of
Pentium II microprocessor

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Pentium III Microprocessor
Used faster core than Pentium II
◦ is still P6 or Pentium pro processor
Two version :
◦ bus speed : 100MHz
◦ slot 1 version mounted on a plastic cartridge
◦ 512K cache : one-half the clock speed
◦ socket 370 version called flip-chip : looks like the older
Pentium package → Intel claim cost less
◦ 256K cache : clock speed

Clock frequency : 1 GHz

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Pentium 4 Microprocessor
release in late 2000 : used Intel P6 architecture
main difference :
◦ clock speed : 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 GHz
◦ support to use RAMBUS memory technology
◦ DDR(double-data-rate) SDRAM : both edge
◦ interconnection : from aluminum to copper
◦ copper : is better conductor → increase clock frequency
◦ bus speed : from current max. of 133MHz to 200MHz or higher

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented
the first IC in 1959.
In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove
resigned from Fairchild Semiconductors.
They founded their own company Intel (Integrated
Electronics).
Intel grown from 3 man start-up in 1968

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
4-bit microprocessors
◦ INTEL 4004 • 1st Generation
▪ Introduced in 1971. • Clock speed of 108
▪ It was the first microprocessor by Intel. KHz
▪ It was a 4-bit µP. • Represent signed
▪ Its clock speed was 740KHz. numbers in the range
▪ It had 2,300 transistors. -8 to +7
▪ It could execute around 60,000 instructions per second. • Use in controlling
devices
◦ INTEL 4040
▪ Introduced in 1974.
▪ It was also 4-bit µP.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
8-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL 8008
▪ Introduced in 1972.
▪ It was first 8-bit µP.
▪ Its clock speed was 500 KHz.
• 2nd Generation
• Clock speed of 200
▪ Could execute 50,000 instructions per second.
KHz – 5 MHz
o INTEL 8080 • Represent signed
▪ Introduced in 1974. numbers in the range
▪ It was also 8-bit µP. −128 to +127
▪ Its clock speed was 2 MHz.
▪ It had 6,000 transistors.
▪ Was 10 times faster than 8008.
▪ Could execute 5,00,000 instructions per second.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
8-BIT microprocessors
o INTEL 8085
▪ Introduced in 1976.
▪ It was also 8-bit µP.
▪ Its clock speed was 3 MHz
▪ Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 16-bit.
▪ It had 6,500 transistors.
▪ Could execute 7,69,230 instructions per second.
▪ It could access 64 KB of memory.
▪ It had 246 instructions.
o Some other microprocessors like 6800 from Motorola, Z-80
from Zilog

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
16-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL 8086
▪ Introduced in 1978.
▪ It was first 16-bit µP.
▪ Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz, depending on the version.
▪ Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit.
▪ It had 29,000 transistors.
▪ Could execute 2.5 million instructions per second.
▪ It could access 1 MB of memory.
• 3rd Generation
▪ It had 22,000 instructions.
• Clock speed of 5
▪ It had Multiply and Divide instructions.
MHz– 8 MHz
• Represent signed
numbers in the range
−32,768 to +32,767

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
16-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL 8088
▪ Introduced in 1979.
▪ It was also 16-bit µP.
▪ It was created as a cheaper version of Intel’s 8086.
▪ It was a 16-bit processor with an 8-bit external bus.
◦ INTEL 80186 & 80188
▪ Introduced in 1982.
▪ They were 16-bit µPs.
▪ Clock speed was 6 MHz.
◦ INTEL 80286
▪ Introduced in 1982.
▪ It was 16-bit µP.
▪ Its clock speed was 8 MHz.

◦ Some other microprocessors like 68000 from Motorola, Z-8000 from

Zilog

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
32-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL 80386
▪ Introduced in 1986.
▪ It was first 32-bit µP.
▪ Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 32-bit.
▪ It could address 4 GB of memory.
◦ INTEL 80486
▪ Introduced in 1989.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.
▪ It had 1.2 million transistors.
▪ Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 100 MHz depending upon the various versions.

• 4th Generation
• Clock speed of 16
MHz– 150 MHz
• Represent signed
numbers in the range
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA ±2×109
History of
Microprocessors
32-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL PENTIUM
▪ Introduced in 1993.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.
▪ It was originally named 80586.
▪ Its clock speed was 66 MHz.
◦ INTEL PENTIUM PRO
▪ Introduced in 1995.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.
▪ INTEL PENTIUM II
▪ Introduced in 1997.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
32-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL PENTIUM II XEON
▪ Introduced in 1998.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.
▪ INTEL PENTIUM III
▪ Introduced in 1999.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.
◦ INTEL PENTIUM IV
▪ Introduced in 2000.
▪ It was also 32-bit µP.
◦ INTEL DUAL CORE
▪ Introduced in 2006.
▪ It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
▪ It has two cores.
▪ Both the cores have there own internal bus and L1 cache, but share the external bus and L2 cache
◦ Some other microprocessors like 68020 from Motorola, Z-8000 from Zilog

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

History of
Microprocessors
64-BIT microprocessors
◦ INTEL CORE 2
▪ Introduced in 2006.
▪ It is a 64-bit µP. • 5th Generation
◦ INTEL CORE I3 • Clock speed of 2
▪ Introduced in 2007.
GHz– 3.6 GHz ~
• Represent signed
▪ It is a 64-bit µP.
numbers in the range
◦ INTEL CORE I5 − 9.2 x 1018 to +9.2 x
▪ Introduced in 2009. 1018
▪ It is a 64-bit µP.
◦ INTEL CORE I7
▪ Introduced in 2010.
▪ It is a 64-bit µP.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Evolution of Intel
Microprocessors

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Evolution of Intel
Microprocessors

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Evolution of Intel
Microprocessors

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Microprocessor
µ(Central Processing Unit) : controls memory and I/O through a
series of connections called busses
buses : select an I/O and memory device, transfer data between
an I/O device or memory and microprocessor, and control the I/O
and memory system
memory and I/O : controlled through instructions that are stored
in the memory and executed by the microprocessor
performs three main tasks for computer system ;
◦ data transfer between itself and memory or I/O
◦ simple arithmetic and logic operations
◦ program flow via simple decisions
stored program concept(Von Neumann): has made
microprocessor and computer system very powerful devices

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Simple Arithmetic And Logic
Operations
data : are operated upon
from memory system or
internal registers
data width : byte, word,
doubleword
µ : contains numeric
coprocessor(from 80486,
floating point arithmetic)

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Decisions

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Bus
bus : A common group of wires that interconnect
components in a computer system (Fig. 1-10)
Address, Data , Control bus

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Bus
address bus : requests a memory location from memory or an
I/O location from I/O devices (Fig. 1-10, Table 1-5)
◦ 16-bit I/O address(port address, port no.) : 0000~FFFFH

data bus : transfer information between microprocessor and

its memory and I/O address space (Fig. 1-10)
advantage(wider data bus) : speed in application that use
wide data (Fig. 1-11)
control bus : contains lines that
◦ select the memory and I/O
◦ cause them to perform a read or write operation
◦ MRDC. MWTC, IORC, IOWC

memory read : send memory an address through address bus,

send MRDC, read data through data bus

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Future of Microprocessors
No one can really make accurate prediction :
◦ success of Intel family should continue for quite a few years
what may occur is : will occur
◦ a change to RISC technology,
◦ but more likely a change to a new technology being
developed jointly by Intel and Hewlett-Packard
new technology :
◦ even will embody CISC instruction set of 80X86 family ,
◦ so that software for system will survive
basic premise behind this technology : many 
◦ will communicate directly with each other, allowing parallel
processing without any change to instruction set or program

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Microprocessor-based
Personal Computer System
Bus : set of common connection that carry the same
type of information(address, data, control)

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Memory and I/O system
Expanded Memory (EMS)
XMS( 100000H~)
High Memory Area(HMA,
100000~10FFEFH)
Upper Memory Block
(UMB,A0000~100000H )
Transient Program Area
(basic memory)

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

I/O space
I/O space : allows computer to access up to
64K different 8-bit I/O devices
I/O port address: addresses an I/O device
I/O devices : allow microprocessor to
communicate between itself and outside world
Two major section
◦ ~03FFH : reserved for system devices
◦ ~00FFH : components on main board
◦ 0100~03FFH : devices located on plug-in cards
◦ 0400F~FFFFH : for user

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The microprocessor-based
personal computer system
Bus : set of common connection that carry the same
type of information(address, data, control)

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Memory and I/O system
Expanded Memory (EMS)
XMS( 100000H~)
High Memory Area(HMA,
100000~10FFEFH)
Upper Memory Block
(UMB,A0000~100000H )
Transient Program Area
(basic memory)

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

I/O space
I/O space : allows computer to access up to
64K different 8-bit I/O devices
I/O port address: addresses an I/O device
I/O devices : allow microprocessor to
communicate between itself and outside world
Two major section
◦ ~03FFH : reserved for system devices
◦ ~00FFH : components on main board
◦ 0100~03FFH : devices located on plug-in cards
◦ 0400F~FFFFH : for user

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

Intel Microprocessor

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

The Future of Microprocessors
No one can really make accurate prediction :
◦ success of Intel family should continue for quite a few years
what may occur is : will occur
◦ a change to RISC technology,
◦ but more likely a change to a new technology being
developed jointly by Intel and Hewlett-Packard
new technology :
◦ even will embody CISC instruction set of 80X86 family ,
◦ so that software for system will survive
basic premise behind this technology : many 
◦ will communicate directly with each other, allowing parallel
processing without any change to instruction set or program

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
Summary
What is microprocessor?
Difference between microprocessor and mini
computer
Brief history of development

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA