UNIT-V:

Learning with Neural Networks: Introduction to Artificial Neuron,

Architectures, Learning Methods,Taxonomy of NN Systems, a,
Applications. Back Propagation Network- Background, Back-
Propagation Learning, Back-Propagation Algorithm.

What is Artificial Neural Network?

The term "Artificial Neural Network" is derived from Biological neural networks that develop the
structure of a human brain. Similar to the human brain that has neurons interconnected to one another,
artificial neural networks also have neurons that are interconnected to one another in various layers of the
networks. These neurons are known as nodes.

The given figure illustrates the typical diagram of Biological Neural Network.

The typical Artificial Neural Network looks something like the given figure.

Dendrites from Biological Neural Network represent inputs in Artificial Neural Networks, cell nucleus
represents Nodes, synapse represents Weights, and Axon represents Output.

Relationship between Biological neural network and artificial neural network:

 Biological Neural Artificial Neural
Network Network
Dendrites Inputs
Cell nucleus Nodes
Synapse Weights
Axon Output
An Artificial Neural Network in the field of Artificial intelligence where it attempts to mimic the
network of neurons makes up a human brain so that computers will have an option to understand things
and make decisions in a human-like manner. The artificial neural network is designed by programming
computers to behave simply like interconnected brain cells.

There are around 1000 billion neurons in the human brain. Each neuron has an association point
somewhere in the range of 1,000 and 100,000. In the human brain, data is stored in such a manner as to be
distributed, and we can extract more than one piece of this data when necessary from our memory
parallelly. We can say that the human brain is made up of incredibly amazing parallel processors.

We can understand the artificial neural network with an example, consider an example of a digital logic
gate that takes an input and gives an output. "OR" gate, which takes two inputs. If one or both the inputs
are "On," then we get "On" in output. If both the inputs are "Off," then we get "Off" in output. Here the
output depends upon input. Our brain does not perform the same task. The outputs to inputs relationship
keep changing because of the neurons in our brain, which are "learning."

The architecture of an artificial neural network:

To understand the concept of the architecture of an artificial neural network, we have to understand what a
neural network consists of. In order to define a neural network that consists of a large number of artificial
neurons, which are termed units arranged in a sequence of layers. Lets us look at various types of layers
available in an artificial neural network.

Artificial Neural Network primarily consists of three layers:

Input Layer:

As the name suggests, it accepts inputs in several different formats provided by the programmer.

Hidden Layer:

The hidden layer presents in-between input and output layers. It performs all the calculations to find
hidden features and patterns.
Output Layer:

The input goes through a series of transformations using the hidden layer, which finally results in output
that is conveyed using this layer.

The artificial neural network takes input and computes the weighted sum of the inputs and includes a bias.
This computation is represented in the form of a transfer function.

It determines weighted total is passed as an input to an activation function to produce the output.
Activation functions choose whether a node should fire or not. Only those who are fired make it to the
output layer. There are distinctive activation functions available that can be applied upon the sort of task
we are performing.

Advantages of Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

Parallel processing capability:

Artificial neural networks have a numerical value that can perform more than one task simultaneously.

Storing data on the entire network:

Data that is used in traditional programming is stored on the whole network, not on a database. The
disappearance of a couple of pieces of data in one place doesn't prevent the network from working.

Capability to work with incomplete knowledge:

After ANN training, the information may produce output even with inadequate data. The loss of
performance here relies upon the significance of missing data.

Having a memory distribution:

For ANN is to be able to adapt, it is important to determine the examples and to encourage the network
according to the desired output by demonstrating these examples to the network. The succession of the
network is directly proportional to the chosen instances, and if the event can't appear to the network in all
its aspects, it can produce false output.

Having fault tolerance:

Extortion of one or more cells of ANN does not prohibit it from generating output, and this feature makes
the network fault-tolerance.

Disadvantages of Artificial Neural Network:

Assurance of proper network structure:

There is no particular guideline for determining the structure of artificial neural networks. The appropriate
network structure is accomplished through experience, trial, and error.
Unrecognized behavior of the network:

It is the most significant issue of ANN. When ANN produces a testing solution, it does not provide insight
concerning why and how. It decreases trust in the network.

Hardware dependence:

Artificial neural networks need processors with parallel processing power, as per their structure.
Therefore, the realization of the equipment is dependent.

Difficulty of showing the issue to the network:

ANNs can work with numerical data. Problems must be converted into numerical values before being
introduced to ANN. The presentation mechanism to be resolved here will directly impact the performance
of the network. It relies on the user's abilities.

How do artificial neural networks work?

Artificial Neural Network can be best represented as a weighted directed graph, where the artificial
neurons form the nodes. The association between the neurons outputs and neuron inputs can be viewed as
the directed edges with weights. The Artificial Neural Network receives the input signal from the external
source in the form of a pattern and image in the form of a vector. These inputs are then mathematically
assigned by the notations x(n) for every n number of inputs.

Afterward, each of the input is multiplied by its corresponding weights ( these weights are the details
utilized by the artificial neural networks to solve a specific problem ). In general terms, these weights
normally represent the strength of the interconnection between neurons inside the artificial neural
network. All the weighted inputs are summarized inside the computing unit.

If the weighted sum is equal to zero, then bias is added to make the output non-zero or something else to
scale up to the system's response. Bias has the same input, and weight equals to 1. Here the total of
weighted inputs can be in the range of 0 to positive infinity. Here, to keep the response in the limits of the
desired value, a certain maximum value is benchmarked, and the total of weighted inputs is passed
through the activation function.
The activation function refers to the set of transfer functions used to achieve the desired output. There is a
different kind of the activation function, but primarily either linear or non-linear sets of functions. Some of
the commonly used sets of activation functions are the Binary, linear, and Tan hyperbolic sigmoidal
activation functions. Let us take a look at each of them in details:

Binary:
In binary activation function, the output is either a one or a 0. Here, to accomplish this, there is a threshold
value set up. If the net weighted input of neurons is more than 1, then the final output of the activation
function is returned as one or else the output is returned as 0.

Sigmoidal Hyperbolic:
The Sigmoidal Hyperbola function is generally seen as an "S" shaped curve. Here the tan hyperbolic
function is used to approximate output from the actual net input. The function is defined as:

F(x) = (1/1 + exp(-????x))

Where ???? is considered the Steepness parameter.

Working of ANN:
Forward Propagation:

· Inputs are passed through the network, layer by layer.

· Each neuron computes a weighted sum of its inputs, applies an activation function, and passes the
output to the next layer.

Error Calculation:

· The difference between the predicted output and the actual output is calculated using a loss
function (e.g., Mean Squared Error).

Backward Propagation:

· Errors are propagated backward through the network.

· Weights are adjusted using optimization algorithms like Gradient Descent.

Learning:

· The network iteratively updates weights to minimize the error, eventually learning the underlying
data patterns.

Types of Artificial Neural Network:

There are various types of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) depending upon the human brain neuron and
network functions, an artificial neural network similarly performs tasks. The majority of the artificial
neural networks will have some similarities with a more complex biological partner and are very effective
at their expected tasks. For example, segmentation or classification.
Feedback ANN:
In this type of ANN, the output returns into the network to accomplish the best-evolved results internally.
As per the University of Massachusetts, Lowell Centre for Atmospheric Research. The feedback
networks feed information back into itself and are well suited to solve optimization issues. The Internal
system error corrections utilize feedback ANNs.

Feed-Forward ANN:
A feed-forward network is a basic neural network comprising of an input layer, an output layer, and at
least one layer of a neuron. Through assessment of its output by reviewing its input, the intensity of the
network can be noticed based on group behavior of the associated neurons, and the output is decided. The
primary advantage of this network is that it figures out how to evaluate and recognize input patterns.

Learning Methods in ANN

The learning method refers to the process by which an ANN adjusts its parameters (weights and biases)
to improve its performance on a specific task. There are three main learning paradigms:

1. Supervised Learning
· The network is trained using labeled data (input-output pairs).
· The objective is to minimize the error between predicted outputs and actual outputs.
· Steps:
1. Forward propagation: Pass input data through the network to get predictions.
2. Error calculation: Compute the loss (e.g., Mean Squared Error or Cross-Entropy).
3. Backpropagation: Adjust weights and biases to reduce the error.
· Examples:
· Image classification
· Spam email detection

2. Unsupervised Learning
· The network is trained on data without labels.
· The goal is to discover hidden patterns or structures in the data.
· Common approaches:
· Clustering (e.g., K-Means, SOMs)
· Dimensionality reduction (e.g., PCA, Autoencoders)
· Examples:
· Customer segmentation
· Anomaly detection

3. Reinforcement Learning
· The network learns by interacting with an environment and receiving feedback in the form of
rewards or penalties.
· Objective: Maximize cumulative rewards by learning optimal actions.
· Examples:
· Game playing (e.g., AlphaGo)
· Robot navigation
 Learning and Adaption

Learning Rules in Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)

The learning rule in an ANN defines how the network's weights and biases are adjusted to minimize
errors and improve performance during the training process. It is essentially the strategy that guides the
learning process by updating the parameters of the network.

Common Learning Rules in ANN

1. Hebbian Learning Rule
· Based on the principle: "Neurons that fire together, wire together."
· When two neurons are activated simultaneously, the weight of the connection between them is
strengthened.

· Δwij​: Change in weight between neurons i and j

· η: Learning rate
· xi​: Input signal
· yj: Output signal
· Application: Pattern recognition, associative memory.

2. Perceptron Learning Rule

· A supervised learning rule used for binary classification.
· Adjusts weights based on the difference between the actual output and the target output.
 ·
· t: Target output
· o: Actual output
· x: Input value
· Application: Linearly separable problems.

3. Delta Rule (Widrow-Hoff Rule)

· Also called the Least Mean Squares (LMS) rule.
· Minimizes the error by updating weights in the direction of the negative gradient of the error
function.

·
· Similar to the Perceptron rule, but used with continuous outputs and differentiable activation
functions.
· Application: Linear regression, simple neural networks.

4. Backpropagation Learning Rule

· A supervised learning rule used for training multi-layer neural networks.
· Involves forward propagation to compute output and backward propagation to adjust weights
based on the error gradient.
· Key Steps:
· Calculate the error using a loss function.
· Compute gradients of the error with respect to weights using the chain rule.
· Update weights to minimize the error.

·
· E: Error
· Application: Multi-layer Perceptrons (MLPs), deep learning models.

5. Competitive Learning Rule

· Neurons compete to be activated, and only the "winning" neuron updates its weights.
· Steps:
· Determine the neuron with the highest activation (winner).
· Update weights for the winning neuron only.
· Application: Clustering, Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs).

6. Boltzmann Learning Rule

· A stochastic learning rule used in Boltzmann Machines.
 · Adjusts weights based on probabilities derived from energy minimization.
· Suitable for unsupervised learning tasks.

7. Reinforcement Learning Rule

· The network learns by interacting with the environment and receiving feedback in the form of
rewards or penalties.

·
· r: Reward signal
· Application: Dynamic decision-making, robotics.

Taxonomy of Neural Network (NN) Systems

The taxonomy of Neural Network (NN) systems provides a structured classification based on various
criteria, such as architecture, learning paradigms, functionality, and application areas. This classification
helps in understanding and selecting the appropriate type of neural network for a specific task.

1. Based on Learning Paradigm

a. Supervised Learning Networks
· Trained with labeled data where the input-output pairs are known.
· Objective: Minimize the error between predicted and actual outputs.
· Examples:
· Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP)
· Radial Basis Function Networks (RBFN)
b. Unsupervised Learning Networks
· Trained with unlabeled data to discover patterns or structures.
· Objective: Group similar data or reduce dimensions.
· Examples:
· Self-Organizing Maps (SOM)
· Autoencoders

c. Reinforcement Learning Networks

· Learn by interacting with an environment, receiving feedback as rewards or penalties.
· Objective: Maximize cumulative rewards.
· Examples:
· Deep Q-Networks (DQN)
· Policy Gradient Networks

2. Based on Architecture
a. Feedforward Networks
· Data flows in one direction, from input to output.
· No loops or cycles in the network.
· Examples:
· Single-Layer Perceptron
· Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP)

b. Recurrent Networks
· Allow cycles or loops, enabling the network to retain memory of previous states.
· Suitable for sequential or temporal data.
· Examples:
· Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)
· Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
· Gated Recurrent Units (GRU)

c. Convolutional Networks
· Specialized for processing grid-like data, such as images.
· Employ convolutional layers for feature extraction.
· Examples:
· Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
· Fully Convolutional Networks (FCN)

d. Modular Networks
· Composed of multiple smaller networks working together.
· Each module addresses a specific part of the problem.
· Examples:
· Mixture of Experts
· Ensembles of Networks
3. Based on Processing Mode
a. Static Networks
· Input-output mapping is fixed after training.
· No time dependency or temporal context.
· Examples:
· Feedforward Neural Networks

b. Dynamic Networks
· Incorporate temporal context or sequences in their processing.
· Examples:
· Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN)
· Echo State Networks

4. Based on Data Representation

a. Continuous-Valued Networks
· Process continuous numerical inputs and outputs.
· Examples:
· Regression Networks

b. Discrete-Valued Networks
· Process categorical or binary data.
· Examples:
· Classification Networks

5. Based on Functional Purpose

a. Classification Networks
· Separate input data into distinct categories.
· Examples:
· Feedforward Neural Networks (FFNN)
· Support Vector Networks (SVM-inspired)

b. Regression Networks
· Predict continuous values based on input data.
· Examples:
· Linear Regression Networks
· Bayesian Neural Networks

c. Clustering Networks
· Group similar data points together.
· Examples:
· Self-Organizing Maps (SOM)
· k-Means with NN

d. Generative Networks
· Create new data samples from learned distributions.
· Examples:
 · Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs)
· Variational Autoencoders (VAEs)

6. Based on Application
a. Vision Systems
· Examples: CNNs for object detection, image recognition.

b. Speech and Audio Processing

· Examples: RNNs and LSTMs for speech recognition.

c. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

· Examples: Transformers, BERT, GPT.

d. Control Systems
· Examples: Reinforcement learning networks in robotics.

Summary Table of Taxonomy

Criterion Categories Examples
Learning Paradigm Supervised, Unsupervised, Reinforcement MLP, SOM, DQN
Architecture Feedforward, Recurrent, Convolutional, Modular MLP, RNN, CNN
Processing Mode Static, Dynamic FFNN, RNN
Data Regression,
Continuous-Valued, Discrete-Valued
Representation Classification
Classification, Regression, Clustering,
Functional Purpose GAN, SOM
Generative
Applications Vision, Speech, NLP, Control CNNs, Transformers, RL
This taxonomy provides a comprehensive view of neural network systems, aiding in selecting the right
model for specific tasks.

Single-Layer Neural Network System

A Single-Layer Neural Network (SLNN) is the simplest type of artificial neural network where
computation is performed using a single layer of neurons. It is primarily used for solving linearly
separable problems and serves as the foundation for understanding more complex neural network
architectures.

Structure of a Single-Layer Neural Network

Input Layer:

· Accepts input data features.

· Each feature is connected to the neurons in the output layer via weighted connections.

Output Layer:

· Computes the final output by summing the weighted inputs and applying an activation function.

Weights and Bias:

 · Weights (www): Control the influence of each input feature.
· Bias (bbb): Allows the network to adjust outputs independently of inputs.

Activation Function:

· Introduces non-linearity (if applicable).

· Common activation functions for single-layer networks:
· Step Function: Binary classification.
· Linear Function: Regression tasks.

Functioning of a Single-Layer NN
Forward Pass:

· Compute the weighted sum of inputs:

·
Prediction:

· The output y is compared with the target value in supervised learning.

Learning in Single-Layer Neural Networks

Learning involves adjusting the weights and bias to minimize the error. Common learning methods
include:

Perceptron Learning Rule:

· For binary classification.

Delta Rule (Gradient Descent):

·
· E: Error (e.g., Mean Squared Error).

Limitations of Single-Layer NN
Linear Separability:

· Can solve only linearly separable problems (e.g., AND, OR logic gates).
· Fails for non-linear problems (e.g., XOR).

Limited Expressive Power:

 · Cannot model complex relationships in data.

Applications
· Simple binary classification tasks.
· Pattern recognition with linearly separable data.
· Logical operations like AND, OR.

Example: Perceptron
A perceptron is a classic single-layer neural network:

· Inputs: Features of the dataset.

· Weights: Adjusted to separate data points into two classes.
· Activation Function: Step function.

XOR Problem:
· Challenge: Single-layer networks cannot solve XOR because it is not linearly separable.
· Solution: Introduce multi-layer networks to address non-linear problems.

Applications:
· Image and Speech Recognition
· Natural Language Processing
· Autonomous Systems
· Medical Diagnostics
· Financial Forecasting

Back Propagation Network: Background

A Back Propagation Network (BPN) is a type of artificial neural network trained using the
Backpropagation Algorithm. It is a multi-layer feedforward network where the learning process involves
propagating errors backward to update weights and biases, enabling the network to learn complex patterns
and relationships.

Background and Motivation

Limitations of Single-Layer Networks:

· Single-layer networks like the Perceptron can only solve linearly separable problems.
· Real-world problems often involve non-linear relationships, requiring more complex models.

Introduction of Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs):

· Multi-layer networks include one or more hidden layers between the input and output layers.
· These networks can approximate non-linear functions, enabling the solution of complex tasks such
as image recognition and language processing.
Need for Efficient Training:

· Training MLPs requires a method to update weights across multiple layers.

· Gradient-based optimization methods, such as Backpropagation, were introduced to address this
challenge.

Key Components of a Back Propagation Network

Layers:

· Input Layer: Receives raw data features.

· Hidden Layer(s): Intermediate layers that extract and transform features.
· Output Layer: Produces the final result.

Activation Functions:

· Introduce non-linearity to the network.

· Examples: Sigmoid, ReLU, Tanh.

Weights and Biases:

· Adjustable parameters that the network learns during training.

Loss Function:

· Measures the error between predicted and actual outputs.

· Examples: Mean Squared Error (MSE), Cross-Entropy Loss.

Learning Mechanism: Gradient Descent

The gradient descent algorithm is used to minimize the error by updating weights in the direction of the
negative gradient of the loss function.

The Role of Backpropagation

The Backpropagation algorithm enables efficient computation of the gradient for multi-layer networks:

Forward Propagation:

· Compute outputs from input through hidden layers to the output layer.

Error Calculation:

· Compare predicted outputs with actual outputs to compute the error.

Backward Propagation:

· Propagate the error back through the network using the chain rule of calculus to compute gradients
of the loss with respect to weights.

Weight Updates:

· Adjust weights using:

 ·

Historical Context
Development:

· The concept of Backpropagation was introduced in the 1970s.

· It gained widespread attention after being popularized by Rumelhart, Hinton, and Williams in
1986.

Impact:

· Revolutionized neural network training.

· Made it feasible to train deep networks with hidden layers, unlocking capabilities for solving non-
linear and complex problems.

Advantages
· Handles multi-layer architectures.
· Effective for non-linear problems.
· Widely applicable in classification, regression, and function approximation tasks.

Limitations
· Computationally expensive for deep networks.
· Sensitive to hyperparameters like learning rate.
· Prone to issues like vanishing gradients in deep networks.

Back-Propagation Learning
Back-propagation learning is a supervised learning algorithm used in training multi-layer neural
networks, such as Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs). The method systematically adjusts the weights of the
network to minimize the error between the predicted and actual outputs.

Overview of Back-Propagation Learning

Objective:

· Minimize the error or loss function by updating the weights of the network through gradient
descent.

Error Signal:

· The error is propagated backward from the output layer to the input layer to compute gradients
efficiently.
Learning Process:

· The process involves two main phases: forward pass and backward pass.

Steps in Back-Propagation Learning or Algorithm

Initialization:

· Randomly initialize the weights and biases of the network with small values.

Forward Pass:

· Pass the input data through the network to compute the output:

·
· zj​: Weighted sum of inputs.
· yj​: Output of the neuron after applying the activation function f.

Compute the Error:

· Compare the predicted output with the target output using a loss function:

·
· E: Error or loss.
· tk: Target output.
· ok​: Predicted output.

Backward Pass:

· Compute the gradients of the loss function with respect to weights using the chain rule.
· Propagate the error backward from the output layer to the input layer.

·
Update Weights and Biases:

· Adjust the weights and biases to reduce the error:

 ·
Iterate:

· Repeat the process for all training examples (epoch) until the error converges or a stopping
criterion is met.

Characteristics of Back-Propagation Learning

Supervised Learning:

· Requires labeled data for training.

Iterative:

· The algorithm updates weights iteratively based on the error gradient.

Gradient-Based Optimization:

· Uses gradient descent or its variants (e.g., Stochastic Gradient Descent, Adam).

Activation Function:

· The activation function must be differentiable (e.g., Sigmoid, Tanh, ReLU).

Advantages
· Efficient for training multi-layer neural networks.
· Applicable to non-linear and complex problems.
· Provides a systematic way to update weights.

Limitations
· Vanishing Gradient Problem:
· Gradients can become very small in deep networks, slowing convergence.
· Overfitting:
· The network may memorize training data without generalizing well to unseen data.
· Computational Cost:
· Training can be slow for large datasets or deep networks.

Applications
· Image recognition (e.g., handwriting recognition).
· Natural language processing (e.g., sentiment analysis).
· Time-series prediction (e.g., stock price forecasting).
Difference Between Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Biological
Neural Network (BNN)
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Biological Neural Networks (BNNs) are both inspired by the
functioning of the human brain but differ significantly in their structure, function, and operation. Below is
a comparison of the two:

Aspect Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Biological Neural Network (BNN)

Inspired by the human brain but
Naturally occurring in biological organisms,
Origin entirely artificial, designed for
primarily in the brain and nervous system.
computation.
Composed of artificial neurons
Made of biological neurons, each connected by
Components (nodes) that are interconnected with
synapses to other neurons.
weighted edges.
Artificial neurons are simple
Biological neurons are complex cells capable of
Neurons computational units that perform
electrical impulses and chemical signaling.
mathematical operations.
Neurons in ANNs are connected by Neurons in BNNs are connected by synapses that
Connections weighted edges, and each weight is transmit signals via electrical impulses and
adjusted during training. neurotransmitters.
Learning is performed via Learning happens through biological processes like
Learning algorithms like backpropagation, synaptic plasticity, which strengthens or weakens
Mechanism adjusting weights based on error synaptic connections based on experience (e.g.,
signals. Hebbian learning).
ANN processes inputs through
mathematical functions and BNN processes inputs through electrical impulses,
Processing
activation functions (e.g., sigmoid, action potentials, and neurotransmitter release.
ReLU).
ANNs can process information very BNNs are slower compared to ANNs, though the
Speed quickly, depending on computational human brain can perform highly complex tasks in
resources and algorithms. real-time.
ANNs are highly adaptive but are BNNs are extremely adaptable, capable of learning
Adaptability limited by the algorithms and new patterns, generalizing from experiences, and
computational power. adjusting over time.
ANNs rely on training data and are
Error BNNs are robust and can handle noisy or
sensitive to the quality and quantity
Tolerance incomplete information more effectively.
of data.
ANNs are computationally intensive
BNNs are energy-efficient compared to artificial
Energy and require substantial energy in
systems, with the human brain consuming around
Efficiency hardware, especially for large
20 watts of power.
models.
ANNs have a simplified architecture BNNs have a vastly more complex structure with
Structure consisting of layers (input, hidden, billions of neurons and trillions of synapses in the
output). human brain.
ANNs generalize well if properly BNNs are highly generalized and capable of
Generalization trained on diverse datasets, but they performing complex reasoning, abstraction, and
can overfit or underfit. multitasking across various domains.
ANNs have a degree of fault BNNs exhibit significant fault tolerance, with the
Fault
tolerance, but their performance can brain continuing to function even with damaged
Tolerance
degrade if too many neurons are neurons or synapses.
 damaged.
ANNs can process information in
BNNs naturally process information in parallel due
Parallelism parallel using parallel computing or
to the massively parallel architecture of the brain.
specialized hardware (e.g., GPUs).
ANNs are updated through pre-
BNNs exhibit neuroplasticity, where synaptic
defined algorithms (e.g.,
Plasticity connections change and reorganize over time as a
backpropagation), with changes
result of learning or injury.
occurring only during training.

Summary of Key Differences

Neural Units:

· ANN: Artificial neurons are simple computational models.

· BNN: Biological neurons are complex cells with electrical and chemical processes.

Learning:

· ANN: Learning is algorithmic (e.g., backpropagation, gradient descent).

· BNN: Learning is biological, through processes like synaptic plasticity.

Speed and Efficiency:

· ANN: Fast, especially in specialized hardware.

· BNN: Slower but highly efficient in terms of energy consumption.

Adaptability:

· ANN: Adaptable within limits of the algorithm and training data.

· BNN: Highly adaptable, capable of complex and general learning from experience.

Fault Tolerance:

· ANN: Limited fault tolerance; performance decreases with failure.

· BNN: Highly fault-tolerant, as seen in the human brain’s ability to adapt to damage.