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Ruby Data
Processing
Using Map, Reduce, and Select
—
Jay Godse
Ruby Data Processing
Using Map, Reduce, and Select

Jay Godse
Ruby Data Processing: Using Map, Reduce, and Select
Jay Godse
Kanata, Ontario, Canada

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-3473-0 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-3474-7

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3474-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018934400

Copyright © 2018 by Jay Godse

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not
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While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal
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Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author����������������������������������������������������������������������������������v
About the Technical Reviewer������������������������������������������������������������vii
Acknowledgments�������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi
Prerequisites��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv

Chapter 1: Basic Ruby��������������������������������������������������������������������������1

The Command Line�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Object Scope���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
String��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Array���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
Special Methods����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
Hash����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Block-passing Syntax�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
Reading from Files����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11

Chapter 2: Function Overview and Simple Examples�������������������������13

Map���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
Reduce����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Simple Reduce Examples�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������19
uniq���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19
reverse����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
max����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Select������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
iii
Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Complex Solutions������������������������������������������������������������25

Debugging Blocks for Map, Reduce, and Select�������������������������������������������������25
Debugging Map Blocks����������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
Debugging Reduce Blocks�����������������������������������������������������������������������������26
Debugging Select Blocks�������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
FizzBuzz��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
Sum of Odd Cubes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
Sort a List of Names by Surname�����������������������������������������������������������������������33
Convert a List of Names to CSV��������������������������������������������������������������������������36
Generate a Random List of Names���������������������������������������������������������������������39
Clean a Data Set�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Annotate a Sequence of Sales with Running Total����������������������������������������������46
Pascal’s Triangle�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
Reverse Polish Notation Parser���������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Generate a List of Team Name Bars��������������������������������������������������������������������62
Find Intersection Points of Two Functions����������������������������������������������������������67
Group by Area Code���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75
Sliding Window Average��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Denormalize a Data Set��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Pythagorean Triplets�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84

Chapter 4: Reverse-Engineering Complex Solutions��������������������������89

Solution for Pascal’s Triangle������������������������������������������������������������������������������90

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������97

iv
About the Author
Jay Godse is an active software and web applications developer with
expertise in Ruby, Rails, various databases, and Ansible. He also is
active on Stack Overflow as an active contributor. He graduated with an
engineering degree and then went to work as a digital circuit designer.
After a year of that, he switched to software development, and he has
been there ever since in some form. His early work was mostly real-time
telecommunication device control and provisioning using languages
such as C and Protel. He then transitioned into designing distributed
computing systems using languages such as C++. After that, he moved into
web applications. Along the way, he did stints as a software development
manager and a software architect. But for the last nine years, he has
written web applications in Ruby and DevOps applications in Ansible and
Powershell.

v
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone has more than 24 years
of experience in security, web/mobile
development, cloud, and IT architecture. His
true IT passions are security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching
how to program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java,
VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for more than
20 years.
He holds a Master of Science in Computing
Science from the University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect, information security manager, PCI/SCADA
auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect for many years.
Technical skills include security, Android, cloud, Java, MySQL, Drupal,
Cobol, Perl, web and mobile development, MongoDB, D3, Joomla,
Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python, Pro Rails, Django CMS, Jekyll,
Scratch, and more.
He worked as visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the
Networking Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto
University). He holds four international patents (PKI, SIP, SAML, and Proxy
areas).
He currently works as chief information security officer (CISO) for
Cargotec Oyj and is member of ISACA Finland Chapter Board.
Massimo has reviewed more than 45 IT books for different publishers,
and in addition to reviewing this book he is also the coauthor of
Pro Android Games (Apress, 2015).

vii
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge a few people who helped make me a better
programmer and a better writer. Thanks go to Kevin Szabo and Ronnie
Taylor, both of whom helped me be a better programmer, and to Christina
Hardy, who helped me to become a better writer. And thanks also go to
Mark Powers and the publication team at Apress who helped produce this
book.

ix
Introduction
I wrote mostly reactive software for many years, but there was always
a user interface or reporting component that had string manipulation,
data synthesis, or data formatting. Since I was not trained as a computer
scientist, I did not learn of higher-order functions such as map(), reduce(),
and select() that were found in languages like Lisp or Smalltalk. Also,
Ruby, Python, C++, and JavaScript were not around when I was in school.
As a result, I struggled with cumbersome, error-prone imperative code for
some tasks.
A few years after learning Ruby, but while still using the imperative
programming style for data processing, I discovered the Ruby Enumerable
library and started using its higher-order functions, such as map(),
reduce(), and select(). What happened to my data-processing code?

• Code became more straightforward because data-­

processing tasks could be expressed with a cascading
pipeline of map, reduce, and select stages. Each stage
in the pipeline was simple to develop and debug.

• Code volume was reduced by half.

• Code was naturally more robust, and debugging took

much less time.

• By thinking of solutions in terms of map, reduce, and

select, I was able to envision and solve more complex
problems.

However, I couldn’t find any but the most trivial examples of how to
use these functions to solve data-processing problems. It took me a lot

xi
Introduction

of time-consuming trial and error with map, reduce, and select to solve
these kinds of problems.
I decided to write this book to

• codify my learning and help you understand it more

quickly and effectively than I did; and

• show you my problem-solving approaches to help you

solve your data-processing problems.

I’ll also admit that I was forced to learn many of the programming
nuances of these functions as I wrote the examples.

Who This Book Can Help

This book can help those who

• want to become more skilled in writing data-processing

code by becoming more fluent in using map, reduce
and select;

• are willing to type in all the code in the examples and

run the code using the irb Ruby command line and a
text editor;

• are willing to carefully read and try the examples in this

book and to reflect and ponder the outputs, and even
tweak the programs independently to try to understand
what is happening;

• are open to learning a different way to approach data-­

processing problems; and

• are willing to try failed approaches to learn the nuances

of these functions.

xii
 Introduction

Who This Book Might Not Help

This book might not help you if you want

• recipes for standard problems via a cookbook; or

• a reference for data-processing solutions.

xiii
Prerequisites
You should be familiar with some Ruby programming or at least some
programming in another language. If you don’t know Ruby, search out
the book Learn Ruby the Hard Way1 and go through it as prescribed by its
author, Zed Shaw.
If you are fluent with Python, you might benefit from this book if you
go slowly and look up Ruby information online as you move through
this book.
An internet connection helps if you want to search for online help
using Google, Bing, or another search engine.
You should have a computer with Ruby 2.2.x installed. Windows works,
as do Linux and Mac OSX.
You should have a good syntax-highlighting text editor. I recommend
Notepad++ on Windows or gedit on Linux or Macintosh, both of which are
free. Sublime works on Windows, Linux, or Macintosh and is slightly better,
but costs about $70 at the time of this writing.

1
http://learnrubythehardway.org/book/

xv
CHAPTER 1

Basic Ruby
This section will acquaint or refresh you with basic ways to use the Ruby
command line, as well as some relevant Ruby coding.
If you are comfortable programming in Ruby and understand the Ruby
Enumerable Library reasonably well, you can skip this section.

The Command Line

After you install Ruby, you can fire up the interactive command line in
Windows, Linux, or Mac OSX. I’m using Windows.

C:\>  irb
irb(main):001:0>

For brevity, I won’t write the full irb prompt every time.
You can execute Ruby statements line by line. The value returned by
each expression is preceded by ⇒.

irb> a = 4
=> 4
irb> a
=> 4
irb> a + 7
=> 11

© Jay Godse 2018 1

J. Godse, Ruby Data Processing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3474-7_1
Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

You can choose to put multiple statements on one line, separated by a

semicolon.

irb> list = ["one", "two","three"];1

=>1
irb> list
=>["one", "two", "three"]

You can also have a statement that spans multiple lines.

irb> [2,3,4,5].each do |n|

irb>    if n%2==0
irb>        puts "even"
irb>    else
irb>        puts "odd"
irb>    end
irb> end
=> "even"
=> "odd"
=> "even"
=> "odd"

You can put the code into a file called sample.rb, located in the same
directory or folder from which you ran irb.

1  [2,3,4,5].each do |n|
2      if n%2 == 0
3          puts "even"
4      else
5          puts "odd"
6      end
7  end

2
 Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

Then, with irb:

irb> load "sample.rb"

irb> end
=> "even"
=> "odd"
=> "even"
=> "odd"
irb>

You could also copy the code block from your text editor and paste it
directly into your command line and get the same result, as long as you use
only spaces for indentation. (Using tabs for indentation will work fine if
you load the file from the command prompt, but if you paste tabs directly
into irb, it will generate errors).
You can either type the code samples from this book into irb directly
or type them into a text editor and then load the file as just shown.

Object Scope
When you are in a Ruby program, the general method of executing a
method f on an object obj is as follows:

obj.f

That is true whether you are in a Ruby program or the command

line. When code is in the main program file, or in the irb command-line
interpreter, there is an implied context for many functions, such as puts.
That is why you can do this:

puts "Hello world"

You don’t need to specify a class to qualify puts, because puts is a

method of the underlying context object.

3
Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

String
Strings are basic constructs in all languages. Let’s look at a few basic
operations used in this book. Try them out on the irb command line for
yourself.
length or size
This yields the size of the string.
downcase
This converts all letters to lowercase.
upcase
This converts all letters to uppercase.
capitalize
This capitalizes the first letter of a string.
split()
This searches a substring for the argument string
and splits the string into a array comprising
substrings on both sides of the split argument,
while the substring of the split argument is
discarded. If there are no matches, an array is
returned with the whole string:
irb> base_string = "abc def ghi"
irb> base_string.split(" ")
=> ["abc","def","ghi"]
irb> base_string.split(" ")
=> ["abc def","ghi"]
irb> base_string.split(" d")
=> ["abc","ef ghi"]
irb> base_string.split("efghi")
=> ["abc def ghi"]

4
 Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

join()

This joins each element of an array of strings with

the string in the join argument as the separator.

irb> stringlist = ["This", "is", "a", "sentence"]

irb> stringlist.join(" ")
=> "This is a sentence"
irb> stringlist.join(",")
=> "This,is,a,sentence"
irb> stringlist.join(" A SPACE ")
=> "This A SPACE is A SPACE a A SPACE sentence"

string interpolation

This lets you define a string template with

parameters. The string #{} gives you a place to put a
variable.

irb> first = "Jack"; last = "Black"

irb> full_name = "#{first} #{last}"
=> "Jack Black"

This is especially useful for iterating over a list:

irb> smith_brothers = ["Terry", "Jerry", "Harry"]

irb> smith_brothers.each{|brother| puts "#{brother} Smith"}
Terry Smith
Jerry Smith
Harry Smith
=> ["Terry", "Jerry", "Harry"]

C/C++ programmers will recognize string

interpolation as being similar to the sprintf
function in the C standard library.

5
Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

Array
Arrays in Ruby are like arrays in other languages. They are a collection of
things indexed by a whole number (e.g., 0,1,2,…). In Ruby, an array can
contain any Ruby object at an index. Array indices in Ruby start at 0.
Arrays implement the Ruby Enumerable interface, so they will have
key methods such as each, map, reduce, select, and others.

Special Methods
compact()

This method on an array gets rid of nil members. For

example:

irb> [1,nil,2,nil,nil,3,nil,[]].compact
=> [1,2,3,[]]

flatten()

This method gets rid of inner arrays to an arbitrary

depth. It is often useful when dealing with nested
map and reduce statements. For example:

irb> [[1,[2,3]],4,[5,6]].flatten
=> [1,2,3,4,5,6]

push()

This method pushes an element onto the end of an

array and returns a new array. For example:

irb> [1,2,3,4,5].push(666)
=> [1,2,3,4,5,666]

6
 Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

pop

This method removes the last element of an array

and returns that element and returns a new array.
For example:

irb> the_array = [1,2,3,4,5]

irb> tail = the_array.pop
irb> tail
=> 5
irb> the_array
=> [1, 2, 3, 4]

unshift()

This method pushes an element onto the beginning

of an array and returns a new array. For example:

irb> the_array = [1,2,3,4,5]

irb> the_array.unshift(666)
=> [666, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

shift

This method removes the first element of an array

and returns that element and modifies the old array.
For example:

irb> the_array = [1,2,3,4,5]

irb> head = the_array.shift
irb> head
=> 1
irb> the_array
=> [2, 3, 4, 5]

7
Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

Hash
Another term for hash is an “associative array,” or even a “dictionary”,
Hashes are indexed by a key object, and there is a value (another object)
for each key object.

irb> newhash = Hash.new

=> {}
irb> newhash2 = {}
=> {}

These are two ways of creating a new hash. The key of a hash can be
any object or symbol.

irb> newhash = {key1: "some_value", key2: 2}

=> {:key1=> "some_value", :key2=>2}
irb> newhash2 = {}
irb> newhash2[:key1] = "key1_symbol"
irb> newhash2["key1"] = "key3_string"
irb> newhash2[3] = 3
irb> newhash2[:key4] = [4,"44"]
irb> newhash2[[3,"33"]] = "wow"
irb> newhash2
=> {:key1=>"key1_symbol", "key2"=>"key2_string", 2=>1,
:key4=>[4,"44"], [3,"33]=\
"wow" }

The key can be any object, including symbols, strings, numbers,

hashes, arrays, or anything. When iterating through a hash using each or
map, it emits a single array with the key as the first element and the value
as the second element, or it can emit two elements, which are the key and
the value. (Note that inspect is how you can inspect the content of any
object).

8
 Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

irb> newhash = {a: 1, b: 2, c: 3}

irb> newhash.each{|e| puts e.inspect}
[:a, 1]
[:b, 2]
[:c, 3]
=> {:a => 1, :b => 2, :c => 3}

irb> newhash.map{|key, value| "The key is #{key} and the value

is #{value}"}

=> ["The key is a and the value is 1", "The key is b and the
value is 2", "The key is c and the value is 3"]

Block-passing Syntax
Ruby is one of many languages that allow lexical closures, otherwise
known (kind of ) as anonymous functions or blocks. These functions are
dynamically created. The function can take the form of a defined function.
For example:

irb> def plus_two(a,b)

irb>    a + b + 2
irb> end
irb> plus_two(3,4)
=> 9

Or, you could define it as follows:

irb> plus_two = ->(a,b) do

irb>    a + b + 2
irb> end

9
Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

Or, you could define it this way:

irb> plus_three = ->(a,b){a + b + 3}

irb> plus_three.call(5,7)
=> 15
Now, anonymous functions or blocks can be passed to other functions
as parameters. A function that takes a function (defined or anonymous)
as a parameter will optionally execute the function in its program flow.
Suppose there is a function called printit() defined as follows:

irb> printit = ->(a) do

irb>    puts a.inspect
irb> end

Now, suppose you want to print each element of a range. You will call
each on the array, which will run the block passed to each for each element
of the array.

irb> (1..5).each(&printit)
1
2
3
4
5
=> (1..5)

You could also pass an actual block of code to run. The block is
surrounded by do and end or { and }. Objects between the vertical bars are
optionally passed to the block (depending on the definition of the block),
and they are used by the block to execute. The return value of a block is the
value of the last expression in the block.

irb> (1..5).each do |num|

irb>    puts num.inspect
irb> end

10
 Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

You will get the same output as earlier. Ditto for the following:

irb> (1..5).each{|num| puts num.inspect }

In Ruby, map, reduce, and select all take a code block as a parameter,
and the code block is executed as defined by the function. In this book,
I will use the do-end syntax most often, and sometimes the { } syntax.

Reading from Files

A common operation in data processing is reading from files and writing to
files. Suppose you have names.txt, which looks like this:

1,John
2,Jack
3,Jim
4,Jared
5,John

To read it, you would do the following:

irb> names = File.open("names.txt").read

Now, on some computers, new lines are split by a carriage return

(“\n”), and on other computers lines are split by a line feed and a carriage
return (“\r\n”).
If you want to split this file into rows, you would do the following:

irb> names.split("\n")

That could yield

=>["1,John\r", "2,Jack\r", "3,Jim\r", "4,Jared\r", "5,John\r"]

or

=>["1,John", "2,Jack", "3,Jim", "4,Jared", "5,John"]

11
Chapter 1 Basic Ruby

To ensure consistency, use the chomp method, which removes whitespace

characters if they exist. For example:

irb> "John\r".chomp
=> "John"
irb> "John".chomp
=> "John"

So, for our array, just to ensure that we don’t pick up stray line feeds,
we do the following:

irb> names.split("\n").map{|row| row.chomp}

=>["1,John", "2,Jack", "3,Jim", "4,Jared", "5,John"]

I assume that the examples in this book don’t use “\r\n”, but rather
just “\n”. If that doesn’t work on your operating system, use the chomp()
method as shown before working with the array.

12
CHAPTER 2

Function Overview
and Simple Examples
The Ruby library includes the module Enumerable. This library contains
map(), reduce(), select(), and other functions. This section will outline
the syntax and meanings of the different parts of code that use these three
functions.
If you can get through this section comfortably, both typing the code
into irb and understanding the results, then you will be in a good position
to deepen your understanding with the complex examples and reverse
engineering that follow in the next chapters.

M
 ap
This function of the Ruby Enumerable library is simple but profound. The
map() method is applied to an array or a hash. The job of map() is to apply
a function or block to each member of the array and return a new array.
So, when you see

def f(x)
    x*x
end

© Jay Godse 2018 13

J. Godse, Ruby Data Processing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3474-7_2
Chapter 2 Function Overview and Simple Examples

output_array =
[1,2,3,4,5].map do |number|
    f(number)
end

you read, for each number in [1,2,3,4,5] apply f(x) to return the array
[f(1), f(2), f(3), f(4), f(5)]. In this case, the answer is [1,4,9,16,25].
One could encode it in traditional imperative programming as follows:

output_array = []
for number in 1..5
    output_array.push( f(number) )
end

Using map, for example:

output_array =
[1,2,3,4,5].map do |number|
    number*number
end

Or, you could encode it as follows:

output_array =
[1,2,3,4,5].map{|element| element*element}

[1,2,3,4,5] is the array. The function (or block) to be applied to each

element is {|element| element*element }.
With the { } syntax, or the do-end syntax, the object in the vertical bars
(represented by element) is the element of the array currently being acted
upon by the block, and the last object in any function or block is the return
value, so element*element is returned. The net result is the following:

[1,4,9,16,25]

14
 Chapter 2 Function Overview and Simple Examples

Suppose you wanted to provide data to a graphing program that

plotted the square of the value.

[1,2,3,4,5].map{|element| [element, element*element]}

In this case, each “point” is a tuple (array) with an element and its
square. This returns the following:

[[1,1],[2,4],[3,9],[4,16],[5,25]]

The difference is that the block returns an array each time with the
number and its square, so the result is an array of arrays.
Since map returns an array, you can cascade map calls. For example,
you could have a map block square each element, and then a second map
block add 100. For example:

[1,2,3,4,5].map do |number|
    number*number
end.map do |square|
    square + 100
end

=> [101, 104, 109, 116, 125]

A number of the more complex operations can be solved by cascading

with map calls.

Reduce
This function of the Ruby Enumerable library is more complex than map()
and is quite powerful. The method is applied to a collection (for example,
an array or a hash). The job of reduce() is to apply a function cumulatively
to each member of the collection and then return an object (which could
be an array, a single value, a hash, or anything).

15
Chapter 2 Function Overview and Simple Examples

For example:

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce(0, :+)

This is like saying for each member of the list, add (:+) the member to
memo and save the memo for the next element. The initial value of memo is 0
(the first parameter). Another way to code it is as follows:

memo = 0
[1,2,3,4,5].each{|element| memo = memo.+(element)}

Or, you can pass reduce a block of code to run. The block comes after
the closing parenthesis and is surrounded by a do-end construct, or a {}
construct. The emitted variables are always the memo first and the element
second. (In this case, the initial value of memo is 33).

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce(33) do |memo, element|

    memo.+(element)
end
memo

=> 48

(You don’t have to call them “memo” or “element,” but that is how they
behave). After each iteration, the memo takes the value of the last object in
the block. For example:

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce(33) do |memo, element|

    memo.+(element)
    77.7
end

=> 77.7

This returned 77.7, because that was the last object in the block.

16
 Chapter 2 Function Overview and Simple Examples

Another thing to remember is that the memo returned by the block has
to be of the same class as the memo emitted by the reduce function. For
example, when you are using reduce() to build a Hash object, you must
return the whole Hash object:

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce({}) do |memo, element|

    memo[element] = element.to_s
end

IndexError: index 2 out of string

There is an error because the first run of the iteration returned

memo[element], which is a String class, but the input expects it to be a
Hash. To correct it, make sure that the memo of class Hash is explicitly the last
object returned, as follows:

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce({}) do |memo, element|

    memo[element] = element.to_s
    memo
end

=> {1=>"1", 2=>"2", 3=>"3", 4=>"4", 5=>"5"}

This worked because memo is a Hash class and was returned every time.
You can think of the reduce operation as operating on each element
and saving some kind of memo to carry forward to the operation on the
next element. In the preceding example, where you calculate the sum of
five numbers,

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce(0,:+)

or

[1,2,3,4,5].reduce(0) do |memo, element|

    memo + element
end

17
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
E. Smith, “The Teaching of Arithmetic,” Teachers College Record,
Vol. X, No. 1.
[14] E. L. Thorndike, “Handwriting,” Teachers College Record,
Vol. XI, No. 2; Stone, Arithmetical Abilities and Some of the
Factors Determining them.
[15] Quoted by Johnson in a monograph on “The Problem of
Adapting History to Children in the Elementary School,” Teachers
College Record, Vol. IX, p. 319.
[16] Teachers College Record, Vol. IX, pp. 319-320.
[17] “Stenographic Reports of High School Lessons,” Teachers
College Record, September, 1910, pp. 18-26.
[18] Baldwin, Industrial School Education. A most helpful
discussion of industrial work.
[19] W. S. Jackman, “The Relation of School Organization to
Instruction,” The Social Education Quarterly, Vol. I, pp. 55-69;
Scott, Social Education.
[20] Allen, Civics and Health, p. 53.
[21] Dewey, Moral Principles in Education.
[22] See chapter on Social Phases of the Recitation.
[23] Moral Training in the Public Schools, p. 41. The essay by
Charles Edward Rugh.
[24] Bagley, Classroom Management, Chapter XIV.
[25] See discussion of the study lesson, ante.
[26] McMurry, How to Study, Chapter III.
[27] See ante, Chapter XI.
[28] Adapted from a plan prepared by Lida B. Earhart, Ph.D., for
the author’s syllabus on Theory and Practice of Teaching.
[29] Some discussion of the course of study as an instrument in
supervision is given in the chapter on “The Teacher in Relation to
the Course of Study.”
[30] For a discussion of the doctrine of formal discipline, and for
bibliography, see Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 1903
edition, Chapter VIII; Heck, Mental Discipline.
[31] James E. Russell, “The School and Industrial Life,”
Educational Review, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 433-450.
[32] E. L. Thorndike, “Handwriting,” Teachers College Record,
Vol. XI, No. 2.
[33] Cubberley, School Funds and their Apportionment; Elliott,
Fiscal Aspects of Education; Strayer, City School Expenditures.
[34] In proceeding to the part of the study that is necessarily
largely composed of tables, it may be well to state the position of
the author regarding the partial interpretations offered in
connection with the tables. It is that the entire tables give by far
the best basis for conclusions; that for a thorough comprehension
of the study they should be read quite as fully as any other part;
and that they should be regarded as the most important source of
information rather than the brief suggestive readings which are
liable to give erroneous impressions, both because of the
limitations of a single interpretation and the lack of space for
anything like full exposition.
[35] M = Median, which is the representation of central tendency
used throughout this study. It has the advantages over the
average of being more readily found, of being unambiguous, and
of giving less weight to extreme or erroneous cases.
[36] For reliability of measures of reasoning ability, see Appendix,
p. 100.
[37] As stated in Part I, p. 17, a score is arbitrarily set at one. The
fact that the zero point is unknown in both reasoning and
fundamentals makes these scores less amenable to ordinary
handling than they might at first thought seem. Hence, entire
distributions are either printed or placed on file at Teachers
College.
[38] For the data from which these calculations were made, see
first column of table XXI, p. 52, and the first columns of tables III
and IV, p. 21. The absence of known zero points makes such
computations inadvisable except in connection with the more
reliable evidence of the preceding table.
[39] And it is the opinion of the author that the chances are much
better that one would get a school with a superior product in
education.
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