BÀI SOẠN LĨNH HỘI GIẢNG DẠY CUỐI HỌC KÌ 1/ 2023-2024

1. According to Canale and Swain’s model, communicative competence comprises

grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. How do these
components contribute to effective communication? Can you provide examples
of each? How can language educators foster communicative competence in their
students?

In Canale and Swain's model of communicative competence, effective communication is

achieved through four components:

• Grammatical Competence: This involves using correct grammar, vocabulary, and

sentence structures to convey messages accurately (e.g: Correct use of verb tenses:
"I have studied English for three years" instead of "I studied English for three
years.)
• Sociolinguistic Competence: It entails understanding the social and cultural
aspects of language use, including appropriate language register and politeness
conventions in different contexts. (e.g: Using formal language in a professional
setting and informal language with friends)
• Discourse Competence: This refers to organizing and conveying information
coherently and effectively in different types of texts or conversations using
appropriate discourse markers, cohesive devices, and structures. (e.g: Using
appropriate transitional phrases like "however" or "on the other hand" to connect
contrasting ideas in an essay)
• Strategic Competence: It involves using communication strategies to overcome
breakdowns or limitations, such as compensating for gaps in knowledge or
clarifying misunderstandings (e.g: Using synonyms and clarification)

Language educators can foster communicative competence by providing meaningful and

authentic communication tasks, encouraging collaboration and interaction, exposing
students to diverse language registers and contexts, integrating grammar and discourse
instruction within meaningful contexts, providing constructive feedback, and promoting
learner autonomy and metacognitive awareness.

2. How does motivation impact the willingness of learners to engage in second

language acquisition? What role do attitudes towards the target language and its
speakers play in the learning process?

Motivation plays a significant role in the willingness of learners to engage in second

language acquisition. Intrinsic motivation, driven by personal interest and enjoyment, and
extrinsic motivation, influenced by external factors, both contribute to learners'
engagement and persistence in language learning.

Attitudes towards the target language and its speakers also impact the learning process.
Positive attitudes towards the target language, its culture, and the perceived usefulness of
the language promote motivation and engagement. Similarly, positive attitudes towards
native speakers foster a desire to communicate and connect, while negative attitudes can
create barriers.

By addressing motivation and attitudes, educators can enhance learners' willingness to

engage in second language a cquisition and create a positive and effective learning
experience.

3. Describe TWO key constructs of the theories in second language acquisitions and
explain how they impact L2 learning.
1. Input: Input refers to the language that learners are exposed to, either through
listening or reading. Interaction involves meaningful communication and
negotiation of meaning with others since it provides learners with opportunities to
hear and use the target language in authentic contexts. It also helps learners develop
comprehension skills, acquire new vocabulary and grammar, and refine their
language production abilities.
2. Individual Differences: Individual differences in learners, such as age, cognitive
abilities, personality traits, and prior language learning experiences, can impact L2
 learning. For example, young children tend to acquire languages more easily and
naturally compared to adults. Learners with strong analytical abilities may excel in
grammar-focused tasks, while those with aural-visual learning preferences may
benefit from audiovisual materials. Acknowledging and addressing individual
differences in instructional approaches can optimize L2 learning outcomes.
4. What does Krashen’s Input Hypothesis propose regarding the role of the
comprehensible input in language acquisition? How can educators ensure that
input is both challenging and understandable for learners?
Krashen's Input Hypothesis proposes that language acquisition occurs when learners
are exposed to comprehensible input, which is slightly above the learner's current
proficiency level but still understandable with the help of context and non-linguistic
cues. Following Krashen’s theory, learners acquire language naturally and
unconsciously, which is known as implicit learning
Educators can ensure that input is both challenging and understandable by
incorporating scaffolding techniques, using visual and multimodal resources in
teaching In addition, they can adapt the language input which is just beyond their
current level, and encourage interaction among learners and with fluent speakers.
5. According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, how does interaction with more
proficient speakers contribute to language development? In what ways does
interaction scaffold language learning?

According to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, interaction with more proficient

speakers contributes to language development through a process called scaffolding.
Interaction with more proficient speakers allows for scaffolding, which refers to the
support and guidance provided to learners as they engage in challenging tasks.
Proficient speakers can adjust their language use, provide explanations, ask leading
questions, offer feedback, and provide examples to support learners in understanding
and using language in a meaningful way. This scaffolding helps learners bridge the
gap between their current abilities and the target language competence.
 For example: a learner is trying to write a paragraph describing their favorite hobby
in English. The learner is struggling with organizing their thoughts and using
appropriate vocabulary and grammar. A more proficient speaker, such as a teacher or
a peer, provides scaffolding support to help the learner develop their paragraph
effectively. Firstly, the teacher breaks down the steps by asking them to brainstorm
the idea. Secondly, the teacher demonstrates how to write the paragraph by and
provide supporting details. Thirdly, the teacher helps the learner with vocabulary
selection and provides relevant vocabulary words or phrases related to hobbies. In the
next stage,the teacher provides sentence starters or frames to scaffold the learner's
writing., like "One of my favorite hobbies is..." or "I enjoy this hobby because..." to
help the learner structure their sentences and express their ideas more effectively.
Next, as the learner begins writing their paragraph, the proficient speaker offers
feedback and guidance. In the final stage, the teacher gradually reduces the level of
support if the students gain confidence.

6. How does age influence language learning? Are there specific advantages or
challenges associated with learning a second language at different stages of life?
Advantages of Learning a Second Language at a Young Age:
• Enhanced language acquisition abilities.
• Greater potential for acquiring a native-like accent.
• Cognitive benefits, such as improved problem-solving skills.
Challenges of Learning a Second Language at a Young Age:
• Limited exposure to the target language outside of structured learning
environments.
• Potential delays or difficulties in developing strong foundational language
skills in the first language.
Advantages of Learning a Second Language as an Adolescent or Adult:
• Developed metacognitive skills for conscious analysis and reflection on the
learning process.
 • Existing knowledge and cognitive abilities to understand complex concepts
and grammar rules.
• Increased motivation driven by personal goals, career aspirations, or
cultural interests.
Challenges of Learning a Second Language as an Adolescent or Adult:
• Pronunciation and accent acquisition may be more challenging.
• Increased reliance on conscious effort for language learning compared to
natural acquisition in early childhood.
In summary, while young children have advantages in natural language acquisition, older
learners can benefit from their metacognitive skills, prior knowledge, and motivation.
However, challenges such as limited exposure and potential pronunciation difficulties
may be more pronounced for learners at different stages of life.

The Critical Period Hypothesis also suggests that there is a specific period in early
childhood during which individuals are most receptive to acquiring language compared
with other stages. However, motivation, exposure, and instructional approaches can
mitigate age-related challenges and support successful language learning across all stages
of life.

7. To what extent does motivation affect second language acquisition? How can
educators foster and sustain learners’ motivation throughout the language
learning journey?
Motivation plays a crucial role in second language acquisition, influencing learners'
effort, engagement, and persistence.
Intrinsic motivation (internal factors) and extrinsic motivation (external factors) both
contribute to learners' motivation.
To foster and sustain learners' motivation, educators can:
Create meaningful contexts by connecting language learning to learners' interests and
real-life situations.
Provide autonomy and choice in setting goals and selecting learning materials.
Offer varied and engaging activities, such as games and authentic materials.
Establish a supportive learning environment that values learners' efforts and provides
constructive feedback.
Cultivate cultural awareness by exposing learners to the target language culture.
Set realistic and attainable goals to provide a sense of progress and accomplishment.
Encourage social interaction with peers, native speakers, and language communities.
8. How does language anxiety impact language acquisition? Can you suggest
strategies to help learners cope with language-related anxiety in the classroom?
Language anxiety can negatively affect language acquisition by reducing learners'
confidence, impeding communication, and creating negative emotional associations with
language learning.
Strategies to help learners cope with language anxiety include:
• Creating a supportive environment where learners feel accepted and supported.
• Gradually exposing learners to language tasks and situations, starting with low-
anxiety activities.
• Teaching relaxation techniques to manage anxiety.
• Setting realistic goals and celebrating small successes.
• Providing clear instructions and constructive feedback.
• Encouraging positive self-talk and focusing on strengths.
• Incorporating supportive learning activities, such as pair work and group
discussions.
• Building cultural competence to reduce anxiety related to language and cultural
differences.
9. Describe two major theories (one of first language acquisition and the other of
second language acquisition) and explain how those theories affect your teaching
practice
1. Behaviorist Theory of First Language Acquisition:
 The behaviorist theory, associated with B.F. Skinner, suggests that language
acquisition is primarily a result of environmental stimuli and reinforcement. It
emphasizes the role of imitation, repetition, and positive reinforcement in learning
language.
2. The Input Hypothesis, proposed by linguist Stephen Krashen, posits that
language acquisition occurs through exposure to comprehensible input, which
is language that is slightly beyond the learner's current level of proficiency.
According to this theory, learners acquire language naturally through
understanding and processing meaningful language input.
In my teaching practice, these theories influence my approach in the
following ways:
1. Behaviorist Theory: While recognizing the limitations of a purely behaviorist
approach, I incorporate elements of behaviorist principles by providing clear
models of correct language usage, offering repetition and reinforcement, and
using positive reinforcement techniques to motivate and encourage learners.
However, I also balance it with other approaches that emphasize meaning-
focused and communicative language learning.
2. Input Hypothesis: Using a range of real materials, context-rich exercises, and
scaffolding strategies, I strongly emphasize giving learners relevant and
understandable input. In order to facilitate natural language learning, I work to
establish a language-rich atmosphere where students are exposed to language
input that is both slightly difficult and within their grasp.
10. To what extent do you think affective factors, such as motivation and anxiety
impact the effectiveness of language learning? How can educators create a
supportive learning environment to minimize affective barriers?
Motivation:
Motivation significantly affects language learning by influencing learners' effort,
engagement, and persistence.
 Strategies to foster motivation: include creating meaningful contexts, providing
autonomy and choice, offering varied and engaging activities, establishing a
supportive learning environment, cultivating cultural awareness, setting realistic
goals, and encouraging social interaction.

Anxiety:

Language anxiety hinders language learning by reducing learners' confidence,

fluency, and willingness to engage in language-related activities.
Strategies to help learners cope with anxiety: include creating a supportive
environment, gradual exposure, teaching relaxation techniques, setting realistic
goals, providing clear instructions and constructive feedback, encouraging positive
self-talk, incorporating supportive learning activities, and building cultural
competence.

Educators can cultivate positivity and inclusivity, build rapport with students, set clear
guidelines and a routine, encourage teamwork and peer support, provide constructive
criticism, give opportunities for introspection and self-evaluation, and support a growth
mindset in order to create a supportive learning environment.

11. Describe Monitor Theory

Monitor Theory, proposed by linguist Stephen Krashen, is a theory of second
language acquisition that explains how learners use a "monitor" to edit and correct
their language production. The theory suggests that language acquisition occurs
naturally through exposure to comprehensible input, while the learned system
(monitor) plays a limited role in language production.
According to the Monitor Theory, there are three key components:
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Krashen distinguishes between language
acquisition and language learning. Language acquisition is the subconscious process
of internalizing a language through exposure to natural language input, while
language learning refers to the conscious study of rules and explicit knowledge about
 the language. Krashen argues that acquisition is the primary way in which language
proficiency is developed, while learning has a limited effect on language production.
Monitor: The monitor represents the learned system, which learners can use to edit
and correct their language output. It involves conscious control over language
production, applying learned rules and knowledge to monitor and make adjustments.
The monitor function is more prevalent in situations where learners have time for
reflection, such as when writing or speaking in a formal setting.
Natural Order: The natural order hypothesis suggests that learners acquire
grammatical structures in a predictable sequence, regardless of explicit instruction.
Krashen proposes that learners will naturally progress through stages of language
development, with more basic structures acquired before more complex ones.
The Monitor Theory also introduces three conditions that affect the use of the
monitor:
a. Consciousness: Learners must be aware of the grammatical rules and structures in
order to apply the monitor effectively.
b. Focus on Form: Learners need to direct their attention to language form and
accuracy rather than solely focusing on meaning and communication.
c. Time Pressure: In situations where there is time for reflection and planning, such as
writing, learners are more likely to use the monitor to make conscious corrections.
However, in real-time communication, time constraints may limit the use of the
monitor.
Krashen suggests that an optimal language learner balances the use of the monitor
with natural, fluent language production. Over-reliance on the monitor can hinder
fluency and communication, while under-utilization may result in frequent errors.
12. In what situations might the Monitor Model be more applicable in language
learning?
Situations where the Monitor Model is more applicable in language learning:
 Formal Writing or Editing: When learners engage in tasks that require careful and
accurate language use, such as formal writing or editing, they can consciously
activate their learned system to monitor and make corrections.
Focus on Accuracy: In situations where learners prioritize accuracy over fluency,
such as language proficiency exams or assessments, they may rely more on their
learned system to monitor their language output.
Slow and Deliberate Speech: When learners have sufficient time to formulate their
responses, such as in structured speaking activities or presentations that allow for
slower and more deliberate speech, the learned system can be employed to
monitor and ensure accuracy.
Another example:
In spoken communication:
Suppose the learner is engaged in a conversation with a native speaker or a
language partner. The learned system can be utilized as a monitoring tool to check
for grammatical accuracy and make corrections when necessary. The learner may
consciously apply grammar rules, vocabulary knowledge, and pronunciation
guidelines to produce more accurate language.
13. According to the Interaction Hypothesis, how does language production and
Interaction contribute to second language acquisition? Can you think of
examples where meaningful interaction has positively influenced language
learning?
According to the Interaction Hypothesis, proposed by Michael Long, language
production and meaningful interaction play a crucial role in second language
acquisition.
Language Production: Learners actively employ the language and put their
knowledge and skills to work when they produce it through speaking or writing.
Learning through language creation aids in the internalization of vocabulary and
linguistic structures, fluency development, and comprehension consolidation.
 Meaningful Interaction: Communication that entails understanding one another's
goals, negotiating meaning, and exchanging information is referred to as meaningful
interaction. Learners become more engaged and use language actively in these kinds
of encounters because they are driven to understand others and make themselves
understood.
Examples of how meaningful interaction positively influences language learning
include:
Conversations with Native Speakers: Engaging in conversations with native
speakers provides learners with authentic language input and opportunities to practice
using the language in real-life contexts. Through these interactions, learners can
receive feedback, learn new vocabulary, improve pronunciation, and develop
conversational skills.
Collaborative Group Activities: Group activities that require collaboration and
active participation, such as discussions, debates, or problem-solving tasks, foster
meaningful interaction. Learners share ideas, negotiate meaning, and work together to
accomplish a task. These interactions promote language fluency, vocabulary
expansion, and the development of communication strategies.
14. How does the Noticing Hypothesis explain the importance of consciously noticing
linguistic features in language input ? How might this awareness impact
language development
The Noticing Hypothesis, proposed by Richard Schmidt, suggests that consciously
noticing linguistic features in language input is crucial for language development.
According to this hypothesis, learners need to actively pay attention to specific
aspects of the language they encounter in order to acquire and internalize those
features.
Noticing refers to the active attention and awareness of specific aspects of
language, such as grammar structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation patterns.
The Noticing Hypothesis explains the importance of consciously noticing
linguistic features and its impact on language development:
Attention and Awareness: Noticing refers to the conscious awareness of
linguistic elements in the language input. When learners actively attend to specific
features, such as grammar structures, vocabulary, or pronunciation patterns, they
become more aware of them and are more likely to process and remember them.
Input Processing: Noticing helps learners process and understand the language
input more effectively. By actively attending to linguistic features, learners can
identify patterns, make connections, and discern the regularities and rules of the
language..
Language Output: Noticing linguistic features can also impact language
production. Learners who consciously notice and internalize grammar rules,
vocabulary, and other language features are more likely to apply them accurately
in their own language production..
Language Awareness and Development: The awareness developed through
noticing contributes to language development. By actively attending to linguistic
features, learners become more sensitive to the language's structures, patterns, and
nuances. This heightened language awareness enables learners to recognize and
comprehend more complex language input, expand their vocabulary, and improve
their overall language proficiency.
Learning Opportunities: Consciously noticing linguistic features creates learning
opportunities. When learners actively engage with the language input and notice
specific elements, they can seek clarification, ask questions, and actively pursue
further understanding..
It's important to note that the Noticing Hypothesis emphasizes the significance of
learners' attention and awareness in language acquisition. By consciously noticing
linguistic features, learners enhance their ability to process and utilize the
language input, leading to improved language development and proficiency.
Are L1 and L2 acquisitions fundamentally the same or fundamentally different? We
show how this question launched the field of SLA research in the early 1970s in Chapter
1. We do not address this question in this chapter but return to it in the Epilogue once the
reader has reviewed research on the major questions that form the focus of this book.
• What does development look like? In Chapter 2, we describe various aspects of the
ordered and staged development of formal features of language (e.g., sentence structure,
inflections, and endings on verbs and nouns) while also touching on variation in such
ordered development and any observed L1 influence on this development.
• What are the roles of input and output? One of the fundamental findings of the early
research on L2 acquisition was the critical role that communicatively embedded input
plays as the data for language acquisition. Chapter 3 reviews this idea while also
addressing later hypotheses that communicatively embedded output (i.e., learner
production) somehow affects acquisition.
• What is the initial state? Of concern to researchers since the early 1970s is whether or
not L2 learners begin the task of acquisition by massively transferring their L1 into the
“hypothesis space” for L2 acquisition. In Chapter 4, we explore research related to this
question.
• Can L2 learners become nativelike? In Chapter 5 we address this question, looking at
the outcome of L2 acquisition from a variety of perspectives. What will emerge from this
discussion is that nativelikeness is not an all-or-nothing proposition, but that it likely
depends on what aspects of language and language use we examine.
• Does instruction make a difference? Almost since the foundation of contemporary L2
research there has been debate about the extent to which instruction on the formal
properties of language (i.e., what most people call “grammar”) affects acquisition. We
take up this question in Chapter 6.
• What are the roles of explicit and implicit learning? Increasingly, L2 researchers are
converging on the importance and fundamental nature of implicit learning in L2
acquisition (i.e., learning without intent and without awareness of what you are learning).
However, there is debate about the contribution of explicit learning and explicit processes
in L2 acquisition. In a sense, the question raised here is related to the previous question
about instruction. We take these issues up in Chapter 7.
• What are individual differences and how do they affect acquisition? Individual
differences refer to non-linguistic things such as motivation, attitude, aptitude for
learning, and working memory, among others. In Chapter 8, we focus on the most
researched of the individual difference variables, namely, motivation, aptitude, and
working memory. We purposely situate this chapter and the
What are the five 5 components of second language acquisition?
With this, Krashen has developed a popularized theory of second language
acquisition in which he has divided the process into the following 5 stages.
• Pre-production or Receptive Stage. ...
• Early Production Stage. ...
• Speech Emergence Stage. ...
• Intermediate Fluency Stage. ...
• Advanced Fluency.

How do we acquire a language?

According to Stephen Krashen, a language theorist from the University of Southern
Carolina, “in the same way.” Krashen concedes that there is individual variation in the
language learning process, but the main points in the process are the same. In his work,
he also emphasizes that in order to make progress in language acquisition, the individual
must have exposure to language that is comprehensible to them. In an immersion school,
this is accomplished via direct conversation, gestures, books, and the tangible objects
used in the classroom every day. With this, Krashen has developed a popularized theory
of second language acquisition in which he has divided the process into the following 5
stages.

What are the five major factors that affect second language acquisition?
There are five types of factors that affect the language learning process: cognitive,
affective, personal, environmental, and cultural. All of these factors affect language
learning in different ways. Cognitive factors have to do with how your mind helps you
learn a new language.

What are at least 3 important theories of second language acquisition?

In general, there are three types of second language or foreign language learning
theories: nativist theory, environmental theory, and functional theory. Krashen [14] are
two of the most prominent proponents of the nativist hypothesis, which holds that
humans are born with the potential to acquire a language.

Answer from Poe:

Three important theories of second language acquisition are:
1. Behaviorism: This theory emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli and
reinforcement in language learning, with a focus on habit formation and conditioning.
2. Innatism: Also known as the Universal Grammar theory, it posits that humans are born
with innate language acquisition abilities and that language acquisition follows a
predetermined, universal grammatical structure.
3. Sociocultural Theory: This theory, influenced by Vygotsky, highlights the importance
of social interaction, cultural context, and collaborative learning in language acquisition.
It emphasizes the role of social interaction and scaffolding in language development.
1. Compare L1 and L2 learners regarding the initial, intermediate and final
states of learning. (Saville-Troike’s articles)
2. Which of the three theoretical approaches to explaining the L2 can be more
suitable to consider when you teach an L2 in Pasto?
3. What is Universal Grammar and what is its role in explaining language
acquisition?
4. Which of Krashen’s hypothesis are suitable to be implemented or adapted in
order to enhance L2 learning?
5. valuate CPH (that is, state its characteristics, the positive and negative aspects
of it)
6. What is, in your opinion, the role of input in L2 instruction?
7. What strategies can we use to help our students notice the language feature we
want to teach?
1. According to Saville-Troike's articles, L1 (first language) learners typically have a
natural and effortless acquisition of their native language, reaching a high level of
proficiency in all language skills. In contrast, L2 (second language) learners face
challenges in the initial stage, such as limited vocabulary and grammar knowledge. In the
intermediate stage, L2 learners show progress but may still struggle with accuracy and
fluency. In the final stage, L2 learners can achieve varying levels of proficiency, influenced
by factors such as age, motivation, and exposure to the target language.
2. The sociocultural theory of L2 acquisition may be more suitable when teaching an L2 in
Pasto. This approach emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in
language learning. Given that language is influenced by social and cultural factors,
focusing on meaningful communication, collaborative learning, and providing
opportunities for interaction with native speakers or proficient users of the L2 can be
effective in enhancing L2 learning in a specific context like Pasto.
3. Universal Grammar is a theory proposed by Noam Chomsky, suggesting that humans
possess an innate, universal set of grammatical principles and structures that underlie all
languages. It posits that children are born with the ability to acquire language and that
Universal Grammar provides the framework for language acquisition. It explains why
children can generate and understand sentences they have never heard before and why
language acquisition follows certain patterns across different languages.
4. Krashen's Input Hypothesis and Affective Filter Hypothesis are suitable for enhancing
L2 learning. The Input Hypothesis emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input in
language acquisition. Teachers can provide meaningful and engaging input that is slightly
above the learners' current level to promote language development. The Affective Filter
Hypothesis highlights the role of affective factors such as motivation and anxiety. Creating
a supportive and low-anxiety learning environment can facilitate language learning.
5. The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) suggests that there is a biologically determined
period during which language acquisition is optimal and becomes more challenging
afterward. Its characteristics include a sensitive period for language acquisition and
potential limitations in acquiring native-like proficiency beyond this period. Positive
aspects include the opportunity for early exposure to multiple languages, while negative
aspects include potential barriers for older learners in achieving native-like proficiency.
6. In L2 instruction, input plays a crucial role in language acquisition. Input provides
learners with exposure to the target language, allowing them to observe and internalize its
structures, vocabulary, and communicative patterns. Input should be comprehensible and
meaningful to facilitate comprehension and acquisition. By providing rich and authentic
input through various sources such as texts, audio, and interactive activities, language
instructors can create an environment that promotes language development and learning.
7. Strategies to help students notice specific language features include explicit instruction,
highlighting or underlining target structures, providing examples and non-examples, using
contrastive analysis, and incorporating guided practice activities. Teachers can also
encourage learners to actively engage with the language feature through noticing tasks,
explicit error correction, and providing feedback. Additionally, raising learners' awareness
through authentic language use, context-based examples, and meaningful communication
can enhance their ability to notice and internalize language features.
 ‘The influence that the learner’s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an
L2.′
• D. Interference
Explanation
Interference refers to the influence of the learner's first language (L1) on the
acquisition of a second language (L2). It occurs when the learner applies the
rules or structures of their L1 to the L2, leading to errors or difficulties in
language production. Interference can manifest in various forms, such as
incorrect word order, pronunciation, or vocabulary usage. It is a common
challenge faced by language learners, especially when there are structural
differences between the L1 and L2.
The mixture of L2 and some local words and terms that may have
been imbued with other meanings than what was intended by the
original language.
• Pidgin
Explanation
Pidgin is the correct answer because it refers to a language that develops as a
means of communication between two or more groups who do not share a
common language. In this context, the mixture of L2 (second language) and
local words and terms suggests the development of a simplified form of
communication that combines elements from different languages. Pidgin
languages often arise in situations where there is a need for basic
communication, such as trade or colonization.
Source: https://aplingcompexam.wordpress.com/questions/

Area One:
Theories and Principles of Language Instruction (foundations of language teaching,
theories of language acquisition, development of communicative competence, literacy,
etc.). Courses: 605, 621, 612, 698

1. Define “communicative competence.” Discuss why it has become such an

important focus of language teaching and how it can be developed in the classroom.
2. H.D. Brown dedicates chapter 5 of “Principles of language learning and teaching”
to Learning styles and strategies. How might we apply some of the insights about
language learning he discusses to culture learning in the classroom? For example,
what role is played by a person’s tolerance of ambiguity, their degree of impulsivity
or reflectivity, their field dependence and independence and more? (from Kate in 612)
3. State and support your position on the usefulness of a goal of “native speaker.”
What are the pros and cons? Why is it not realistic? Why is it dangerous not to aim
for this goal? What else could one aim for? (from Kate in 612)
4. Which model of “knowledge” do you prefer as a frame for thinking about what to
“teach”: Byram’s saviors or Moran’s knowings? Or would you combine them?
Analyze the commonalities and differences. (from Kate in 612)
5. What is language? What are its characteristics?
6. How do personality factors affect language learners’ success? What role does
motivation play?
7. How does the language teacher develop cultural literacy in language learners?

1. Communicative competence refers to the ability to use language effectively and

appropriately in various communicative contexts. It encompasses linguistic, sociolinguistic,
discourse, and strategic competences. It has become a focus of language teaching because
it emphasizes the practical use of language for communication rather than mere
grammatical accuracy. Communicative competence can be developed in the classroom
through activities that promote meaningful interaction, authentic communication tasks,
role-plays, simulations, and real-world language use situations, fostering learners' ability
to use language in a communicatively effective manner.
2. Insights about language learning styles and strategies can be applied to cultural learning
in the classroom. Tolerance of ambiguity can help learners embrace and navigate cultural
differences, while impulsivity or reflectivity can influence learners' willingness to engage
and reflect on cultural experiences. Field dependence and independence can affect learners'
ability to adapt to new cultural contexts. By understanding learners' individual traits,
teachers can tailor cultural learning activities to accommodate different learning styles and
provide opportunities for reflection, discussion, and experiential learning.
3. The goal of achieving "native speaker" proficiency has both pros and cons. While native-
like proficiency can be seen as a high standard to strive for, it may not be realistic for most
language learners. Setting this goal can lead to frustration and discouragement, as
achieving native-like proficiency is challenging and time-consuming. It is important to
acknowledge that language learning is a dynamic and ongoing process, and learners can
aim for high levels of proficiency without aiming for native-like mastery. Focusing on
effective communication, intercultural competence, and language fluency can be more
realistic and beneficial goals.
4. Both Byram's savoire and Moran's knowings provide valuable perspectives on language
teaching. Byram's savoire emphasizes the intercultural communicative competence and
understanding of cultural contexts. Moran's knowings focus on the knowledge of cultural
practices and cultural perspectives. Combining these models can provide a comprehensive
framework for language teaching, incorporating both the cognitive and experiential aspects
of cultural learning. By integrating the commonalities and differences, teachers can foster
learners' cultural awareness, sensitivity, and competence through a holistic approach
5. Language is a complex communication system used by humans to express thoughts,
ideas, and emotions. Its characteristics include arbitrariness (the lack of inherent
connection between words and their meanings), productivity (the ability to create new
utterances), displacement (the ability to refer to past, present, or future events), cultural and
social significance, and systematicity (the structured organization of linguistic elements).
It is a dynamic and evolving system influenced by cultural, social, and individual factors.
6. Personality factors can influence language learners' success. Extroverted learners may
be more inclined to engage in communicative activities, while introverted learners may
prefer reflective and individual tasks. Self-confidence, perseverance, and openness to new
experiences can contribute to language learning progress. Motivation plays a crucial role,
as learners with intrinsic motivation tend to be more engaged and persistent. Positive
attitudes, goal-setting, and creating a supportive learning environment can foster learners'
motivation and enhance their language learning outcomes.
7. Language teachers can develop cultural literacy in language learners by integrating
cultural content and activities into their lessons. This can include exposing learners to
authentic cultural materials, such as literature, music, and films, and incorporating
discussions, presentations, and projects that explore cultural practices, beliefs, and values.
Encouraging interactions with native speakers or speakers from different cultures,
promoting respectful inquiry, and providing opportunities for learners to reflect on their
own cultural perspectives and biases can also contribute to the development of cultural
literacy.

Area Two:
Foreign Language Methodology (methods and materials, curriculum development,
assessment, integration of the teaching of culture and language, etc.). Courses: 611, 612,
614

1. What are the different types of language syllabi and how are they used?
2. Discuss the importance of context in language teaching.
3. Discuss the impact of the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach?
What are some of its characteristics and implications? Advantages? Disadvantages
4. How are evaluation, adaptation and assessment utilized in the language
classroom? Give examples of each.
5. Discuss the different language skills and how the language teacher might
approach each skill. What does an integrated approach look like?
6. How is an intercultural approach different from communicative language
teaching? What is the role of the teacher in each approach?
7. How do Cummins’ hypotheses about SLA relate to Corbett’s (and Byram’s)
intercultural competence?
8. A popular frame for many language textbooks is “task‐based” and “information
gap” activities. Why and how is this insufficient in an intercultural competence
approach? (from Kate)
9. What are two different theories of multiculturalism? How does each theory
approach language teaching?
10. What is critical pedagogy and who are two of its proponents?
1. Different types of language syllabi include grammatical syllabus (sequencing language
learning based on grammar structures), functional-notional syllabus (organizing language
learning around communicative functions and notions), situational syllabus (focusing on
language use in specific contexts), task-based syllabus (centering learning around real-
world tasks), and content-based syllabus (integrating language learning with subject matter
content). Syllabi are used to guide curriculum planning, determine learning objectives,
select materials and activities, and provide a framework for language instruction.
2. Context plays a crucial role in language teaching as it provides the meaningful backdrop
for language learning and use. By incorporating authentic and relevant contexts, teachers
can enhance learners' understanding and engagement. Contextualized language learning
helps learners make connections between language forms and their real-life applications.
It enables learners to develop communicative competence by understanding the cultural,
social, and pragmatic aspects of language use in different situations.
3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of
communication in language learning. Its characteristics include a focus on meaningful and
authentic language use, learner-centered activities, interactive and collaborative tasks, and
the integration of all language skills. Advantages of CLT include promoting communicative
competence, learner engagement, and contextualized learning. However, challenges may
arise in balancing accuracy and fluency, providing sufficient language input, and
addressing individual learner needs within a communicative framework.
4. Evaluation, adaptation, and assessment are important in the language classroom.
Evaluation involves assessing learners' progress and identifying areas for improvement.
Adaptation involves adjusting teaching strategies, materials, and activities to meet learners'
needs. Assessment involves measuring learners' language proficiency and achievement.
Examples include using diagnostic tests, providing individualized feedback, adapting
lesson plans based on learner performance, and conducting formal assessments such as
exams or portfolios to measure language proficiency.
5. The different language skills are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Language
teachers can approach each skill by incorporating authentic materials, providing explicit
instruction, offering varied practice opportunities, and promoting meaningful
communication. An integrated approach involves integrating these skills in a balanced and
interconnected manner, allowing learners to develop their overall language proficiency.
Teachers can design activities that require the integration of skills, such as reading and
discussing a text, or listening and responding orally or in writing.
6. An intercultural approach focuses on developing learners' intercultural competence and
understanding of different cultures, emphasizing the ability to navigate cultural differences
and communicate effectively across cultures. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT),
on the other hand, primarily focuses on developing learners' communicative competence.
In an intercultural approach, the role of the teacher is to facilitate learners' exploration of
cultural perspectives, foster critical thinking about cultural issues, and provide
opportunities for intercultural communication. In CLT, the teacher acts as a facilitator,
creating an interactive and communicative classroom environment
7. Cummins' hypotheses about Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Corbett's (and
Byram's) intercultural competence share a relationship in that they both emphasize the
importance of cultural and linguistic knowledge in language learning. Cummins' theories
highlight the role of cultural and linguistic proficiency in academic success, while Corbett's
intercultural competence framework emphasizes the ability to navigate cultural differences
and communicate effectively in intercultural contexts. Both perspectives recognize the
interconnectedness of language and culture in language teaching and learning.
8. Task-based and information gap activities, while valuable in language teaching, may be
insufficient in an intercultural competence approach. An intercultural competence
approach goes beyond language proficiency to develop learners' understanding of cultural
perspectives, critical thinking skills, and ability to navigate cultural differences. It involves
exploring cultural practices, beliefs, and values, engaging in meaningful intercultural
interactions, and developing empathy and cultural sensitivity. Therefore, an intercultural
competence approach requires additional components beyond task-based and information
gap activities to develop learners' intercultural understanding
9. Two different theories of multiculturalism are the melting pot theory and the cultural
mosaic theory. The melting pot theory promotes assimilation and blending of diverse
cultures into a unified culture, resulting in a homogenous society. In language teaching,
this theory may prioritize language conformity and downplay cultural diversity. The
cultural mosaic theory emphasizes preserving unique cultural identities within a pluralistic
society. In language teaching, this theory recognizes and values diverse cultural
backgrounds, promoting the understanding and appreciation of different languages and
cultures.
10. Critical pedagogy is an educational philosophy that aims to challenge and transform
oppressive social structures through education. Two prominent proponents of critical
pedagogy are Paulo Freire and bell hooks. Freire advocated for transformative education
that empowers learners to critically analyze and challenge societal inequalities. Hooks
emphasized the importance of engaged and inclusive education that addresses issues of
race, class, and gender. Critical pedagogy encourages learners to question authority, engage
in critical thinking, and advocate for social justice.
Area Three:
Linguistic Factors (psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors in language learning,
general linguistic theory, first and second language acquisition issues and theories, etc.)
Courses: 601, 621, 623, 625, 605

1. Describe two major theories of first language acquisition. Choose the theory you
consider most tenable and substantiate your response.
2. How does age affect second language acquisition? What does the critical period
hypothesis argue about age and acquisition?
3. What role does feedback and correction play in language teaching? Discuss
what type of feedback you consider to be most effective and why.
4. What kind of information and knowledge does psycholinguistics provide?
Specifically, how could this knowledge impact language teaching? Support your
answer with examples and refer to the various readings we have done (Cook,
VanPatten, and Mitchell & Myles
5. What is Interlanguage Theory (IL)? What are the main characteristics of IL?
Provide one example. How can that theory affect your teaching practice? In what
aspects? Be specific.
6. What is the biological connection of language in the Brain and how do we know
about it? What are the main features of bilingual speech? Briefly present and analyze
the perspectives regarding the development of language in the brain of Bilingual
Children
7. How is L1 influence on L2 acquisition much more complex that what the
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) predicted? Your presentation of CAH should
be brief. Support your assertions with references to the current literature.
8. Present and analyze Krashen’s Monitor Model. What are some of the strengths
and weaknesses inherent in his hypotheses? Which part of his theory can be
applicable to classroom practice? How?
9. Discuss the role of input and interaction in second language acquisition. What
kind of input is most helpful? How might interaction help language learning? What
are the implications for teaching? Be specific.
10. ZPD and i +1: Similar or different? Discuss their similarities and differences and
how they offer differing explanations for second language learning. Support your
discussion by referring to research studies in second language learning, and by giving
examples.
11. Provide an explanation of three (out of four) of the following language phenomena
from a cognitive and an interactionist (NOT sociocultural) perspective: a)
interlanguage variability; b) pace/rate of acquisition; c) fossilization; d) transfer. (You
must explain the same three phenomena for each of the two theoretical perspectives.
If a theory does not address one of the phenomena that you have chosen, state this
and explain why the phenomenon is not addressed).
12. Is there an order of acquisition that most language learners follow? Cite research
that supports/disproves this theory.
13. What (dis)advantages do bilinguals have in third language acquisition (TLA)?
14. What can pidgins and creoles (and their processes) tell us about the nature of
language? What role have they traditionally played in linguistic research? How is
this role changing today?
1. Two major theories of first language acquisition are behaviorism and nativism.
Behaviorism, associated with B.F. Skinner, suggests that language learning is a result of
environmental stimuli and reinforcement. Nativism, supported by Noam Chomsky,
proposes that humans have an innate capacity for language acquisition through a universal
grammar. Nativism is more tenable as it accounts for the complexity and speed of language
acquisition, the presence of language universals, and the ability to generate and understand
novel sentences
2. Age affects second language acquisition, and the critical period hypothesis argues that
there is a specific window of opportunity for optimal language learning. Younger learners
tend to acquire language more easily and attain native-like proficiency, while older learners
may struggle with pronunciation and grammar. The critical period hypothesis suggests that
there is a biologically determined period, typically ending in adolescence, during which
language acquisition is most effective. After this period, language learning becomes more
challenging.
3. Feedback and correction play a crucial role in language teaching as they provide learners
with information about their language production and help them improve their language
skills. Effective feedback is timely, specific, and focuses on aspects relevant to the learner's
level and goals. Corrective feedback can be provided through direct error correction,
recasts (rephrasing the learner's incorrect utterance), or clarification requests. The most
effective type of feedback may vary depending on the learner, task, and context.
4. Psycholinguistics investigates the mental processes involved in language learning,
comprehension, and production. It provides insights into how learners process and store
language, how they acquire grammar and vocabulary, and how they develop language skills
over time. This knowledge can impact language teaching by informing instructional
strategies, curriculum design, and assessment practices. For example, understanding the
role of implicit and explicit learning processes can help teachers design activities that
support both types of learning.
5. Interlanguage Theory (IL) explains how learners develop a unique linguistic system
during the process of second language acquisition. The main characteristics of IL include
language transfer from the native language, overgeneralization of rules, simplification of
grammar structures, and fossilization of errors. For example, a learner may say, "I goed to
the store" due to the influence of the native language (transfer). Understanding IL can
inform teaching by providing insights into learners' language development, identifying
common errors, and designing instruction that addresses their specific needs.
6. The biological connection of language in the brain is supported by various research
methods such as brain imaging (fMRI, PET scans) and studies of individuals with language
impairments (aphasia). Bilingual speech involves the ability to switch between languages,
code-switching, and language control. Perspectives on the development of language in the
bilingual brain include the separate underlying systems view, where each language is
represented independently, and the integrated systems view, where both languages share
common underlying resources. These perspectives impact teaching by highlighting the
importance of supporting bilingual language development and understanding potential
challenges.
7. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) predicted that language transfer from the
native language to the second language would be the main source of errors. However, L1
influence on L2 acquisition is more complex, as learners' errors are influenced by various
factors such as interlanguage development, overgeneralization, and pragmatic differences.
Research suggests that errors can also arise from developmental stages in L2 acquisition
rather than solely from L1 influence. Therefore, the CAH alone cannot fully explain the
complexity of L1 influence in L2 acquisition.
8. Krashen's Monitor Model proposes that language acquisition is a subconscious process
influenced by comprehensible input, and the "monitor" (conscious learning) plays a limited
role in language production. Strengths of Krashen's hypotheses include the focus on
meaningful input and the importance of a low-anxiety environment. Weaknesses include
the limited role assigned to explicit instruction and the lack of emphasis on practice and
output. The input hypothesis, which states that learners need comprehensible input slightly
beyond their current level (i + 1), can be applicable to classroom practice by providing
learners with appropriate and engaging input.
9. Input and interaction are crucial for second language acquisition. Meaningful and
comprehensible input, in the form of authentic materials or modified texts, helps learners
develop language skills. Interaction provides opportunities for negotiation of meaning,
clarification, and practice in a communicative context. Incorporating interactive tasks, such
as role-plays, discussions, and pair/group work, can facilitate language learning. Teachers
can provide scaffolding, model language use, and create a supportive environment where
learners can engage in meaningful interactions to enhance their language acquisition.
10. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and i + 1 offer differing explanations for
second language learning. ZPD, proposed by Vygotsky, emphasizes the importance of
social interaction and scaffolding from more knowledgeable others. It suggests that
learners can accomplish tasks with support that they cannot do alone. On the other hand, i
+ 1, proposed by Krashen, focuses on providing input that is slightly beyondthe learner's
current level of proficiency. It suggests that learners need input that is comprehensible yet
challenging to facilitate language acquisition.
While both ZPD and i + 1 highlight the importance of providing appropriate support and
challenges, they differ in their emphasis. ZPD emphasizes the role of social interaction and
guided assistance, whereas i + 1 focuses on the level of linguistic input. ZPD suggests that
collaborative activities and scaffolding can enhance language learning, while i + 1
emphasizes the importance of providing input that is slightly above the learner's current
level.

For example, in a language classroom, ZPD can be applied by pairing learners of different
proficiency levels and encouraging them to engage in collaborative tasks. The more
proficient learner can provide support and guidance to the less proficient learner, promoting
language development through interaction. On the other hand, i + 1 can be implemented
by selecting texts or materials that are slightly more challenging than what learners are
comfortable with, allowing them to expand their linguistic abilities.

Research studies have shown that both ZPD and i + 1 can contribute to second language
learning. However, their specific applications may vary depending on the learning context,
learner characteristics, and instructional goals. By considering these theories, teachers can
design activities and provide materials that promote optimal language learning by
balancing support and challenge for their students.
11. a) Interlanguage variability: From a cognitive perspective, interlanguage variability
refers to the fluctuations and inconsistencies in learners' language production as they
develop proficiency in a second language (L2). It is seen as a natural result of cognitive
processes involved in language acquisition, such as hypothesis testing, restructuring of
linguistic knowledge, and overcoming transfer from the first language. From an
interactionist perspective, interlanguage variability is influenced by social and
communicative factors, such as exposure to input, feedback from interlocutors, and
negotiation of meaning during interactions
b) Pace/rate of acquisition: From a cognitive perspective, the pace or rate of acquisition
refers to the speed at which learners acquire a second language. It is influenced by
individual cognitive factors, such as working memory capacity, language aptitude, and
cognitive processing efficiency. Cognitive theories focus on internal cognitive mechanisms
and individual differences that affect the speed of language learning. From an interactionist
perspective, the pace of acquisition is influenced by social and interactional factors, such
as the frequency and quality of language input, opportunities for practice, and engagement
in meaningful communication.
c) Fossilization: From a cognitive perspective, fossilization refers to the phenomenon
where certain linguistic structures or errors persist in a learner's language development
despite extended exposure to the second language. It may result from cognitive constraints,
such as limited capacity for restructuring or difficulty in internalizing certain language
features. From an interactionist perspective, fossilization can be influenced by the lack of
targeted corrective feedback or opportunities for explicit instruction on the specific
language features, leading to the reinforcement of errors over time.
d) Transfer: From a cognitive perspective, transfer refers to the influence of a learner's first
language (L1) on the acquisition of the second language (L2). It occurs when learners apply
L1 knowledge, habits, or structures to the L2. Cognitive theories emphasize the role of
cognitive processes, such as generalization, analogy, and schema activation, in transfer.
From an interactionist perspective, transfer is influenced by the interactional context, such
as the communicative demands, interlocutors' feedback, and exposure to the target
language. Interactionist theories highlight the role of social interaction in facilitating or
inhibiting transfer effects.
12. The order of acquisition theory proposes that language learners follow a predictable
sequence in acquiring grammatical structures. Research by linguists such as Stephen
Krashen and Dulay and Burt has provided evidence supporting the existence of a natural
order of acquisition. However, it is important to note that the order may vary depending on
factors such as the learner's first language, age, and exposure to the target language.
Additionally, some studies have found individual differences in the order of acquisition,
suggesting that the process may not be entirely uniform for all learners.
13. Bilinguals may have advantages and disadvantages in third language acquisition (TLA).
Advantages include enhanced metalinguistic awareness, better language learning strategies,
and transfer of skills from previous language learning experiences. Bilinguals may also
have a larger linguistic repertoire to draw upon. However, disadvantages may arise due to
interference from the two existing languages, potential confusion or mixing of linguistic
features, and the need to manage multiple language systems. The specific advantages and
disadvantages can vary depending on factors such as proficiency levels in the existing
languages and the linguistic distance between them.
14. Pidgins and creoles provide insights into the nature of language as they represent unique
linguistic systems that emerge in contact situations. They demonstrate the human capacity
for language creation and adaptation, highlighting the role of communication needs and
social interactions in shaping linguistic structures. Traditionally, pidgins and creoles have
been studied to understand processes of language development, language change, and
linguistic universals. Today, they continue to be important subjects of research, with
increasing focus on sociolinguistic aspects, language contact phenomena, and the role of
colonialism and power dynamics in their formation and use.
Area Four:
Socio-Cultural Factors (assimilation, cultural discontinuities, cross-cultural
communication, culture shock, socio-cultural factors in language learning, literacy and
culture, etc.) Courses: 623, 614, 612, 605, 621
1. What cultural barriers must language learners overcome? How can language
teachers help learners to overcome these barriers?
2. Discuss Schumann’s Acculturation Hypothesis. How does social distance affect
language learners?
3. What is the relationship between words and culture? Do you agree or disagree
with the Whorfian hypothesis? Why?
4. What are speech communities and how do they affect language learners?
5. How do different dialects unite or divide speakers?
6. What are affective variables that impact language learners? Do you agree or
disagree with Krashen’s hypothesis about the affective filter?
7. What is ethnography and how is it used in language research? How does (or
might or can) ethnography (think of the interview) “map onto” critical pedagogy
and/or Freire’s idea of problem-posing? (from Kate)
8. What role does discourse play in language learning? What is Critical Discourse
Analysis and how is it used in language teaching?
9. How can language teachers prevent the oppression of minority students in the
language classroom? When and how might such oppression occur?

1. Language learners may face cultural barriers such as differences in customs, values, and
social norms. Language teachers can help learners overcome these barriers by
incorporating cultural content into language instruction, promoting cultural awareness and
sensitivity, providing opportunities for intercultural communication, and encouraging
learners to engage with the target culture through authentic materials, cultural events, and
interactions with native speakers.
2. Schumann's Acculturation Hypothesis suggests that a language learner's degree of
acculturation into the target language community affects their language acquisition. Social
distance, or the psychological and cultural distance between the learner and the target
language community, plays a role in language learners' willingness to adopt the target
language and culture. Learners with closer social distance, such as those who have more
contact with native speakers, tend to have better language outcomes
3. The relationship between words and culture is strong, as language reflects and embodies
cultural concepts, values, and practices. The Whorfian hypothesis, also known as linguistic
relativity, argues that language shapes our thoughts and perception of the world. While
some evidence supports the idea that language influences cognition, the extent of this
influence is a subject of debate. While language certainly reflects cultural patterns, the
Whorfian hypothesis in its strongest form is not widely accepted due to the complexity of
language and cognition interactions.
4. Speech communities are groups of people who share a particular language or variety of
a language and interact with each other using that language. These communities can have
a significant impact on language learners as they provide opportunities for exposure to the
target language, authentic language use, and social interactions. Learners who have access
to supportive speech communities, such as language study groups, language exchange
programs, or communities of native speakers, can benefit from increased language input
and practice.
5. Different dialects can both unite and divide speakers. Dialects are variations of a
language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. They can serve as markers
of group identity and solidarity, bringing speakers together. However, dialectal differences
can also create barriers to effective communication and contribute to misunderstandings or
prejudice. Language teachers can help learners navigate dialectal variations by promoting
understanding and acceptance of linguistic diversity, teaching dialectal features, and
highlighting the importance of effective communication across dialectal boundaries.
6. Affective variables, such as motivation, self-confidence, anxiety, and attitude, can
significantly impact language learners. They can influence learners' engagement,
perseverance, and willingness to take risks in language learning. Krashen's affective filter
hypothesis suggests that high levels of anxiety or negative affective factors can act as a
filter that hinders language acquisition. While the exact role and impact of affective
variables are complex and individualized, recognizing and addressing learners' affective
needs can create a positive and supportive learning environment
7. Ethnography is a research approach that involves observing and studying the social and
cultural practices of a particular group or community. In language research, ethnography
can be used to explore how language is used in real-life contexts, understand language
learners' experiences, and investigate the sociocultural aspects of language learning.
Ethnography can align with critical pedagogy and Freire's idea of problem-posing by
empowering learners to critically examine their social and cultural contexts, challenge
inequalities, and engage in transformative and reflective learning experiences
8. Discourse plays a crucial role in language learning as it encompasses the use of language
in specific contexts, including conversations, texts, and social interactions. Critical
Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach that examines how power, ideology, and social
structures are reflected and reinforced through language use. In language teaching, CDA
can be used to develop critical language awareness, promote understanding of social issues,
and foster critical thinking skills. It encourages learners to analyze and question the
discourses they encounter, enabling them to become more informed and active language
users.
9. Language teachers can prevent the oppression of minority students in the language
classroom by creating an inclusive and equitable learning environment. This can be
achieved by valuing and respecting diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, providing
representation of minority cultures and languages in instructional materials, fostering
inclusive discussions and interactions, addressing linguistic biases or stereotypes, and
ensuring equal participation and opportunities for all students. Oppression can occur when
minority students' voices are marginalized, their cultural identities are devalued, or their
linguistic abilities are judged negatively. Teachers must actively counter such dynamics to
promote a supportive and empowering learning environment.
MAJOR THEORIES IN L1 ACQUISITION
Behaviorist Theory: The behaviorist theory, associated with B.F. Skinner, suggests that
language acquisition is a result of environmental influences and reinforcement.
According to this theory, children learn language through imitation, repetition, and
reinforcement of correct linguistic forms.
Example: Behaviorist theories, such as the work of B.F. Skinner, suggest that language
acquisition occurs through imitation and reinforcement. For instance, a child may imitate
their caregiver saying "mama" and receive praise or attention, reinforcing the behavior.
Nativist Theory (Universal Grammar): This theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky,
emphasizes the role of innate linguistic knowledge and a specialized language acquisition
device (LAD) in language development. Chomsky argues that children are born with a
biological predisposition to acquire language and possess universal grammar, a set of
innate linguistic principles shared by all humans.
Ex: Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar proposes that children are born with
an innate ability to acquire language. An example would be how children across different
languages universally acquire grammatical structures, such as subject-verb-object word
order.
Cognitive Theory: The cognitive theory, influenced by the work of Jean Piaget, focuses
on the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition. It suggests that language
development is closely tied to cognitive development, as children's increasing cognitive
abilities enable them to understand and produce more complex language structures.
Ex: Cognitive theories, influenced by Jean Piaget's work, emphasize the role of cognitive
development in language acquisition. For instance, a child's increasing cognitive abilities,
such as object permanence, enable them to understand and produce more complex
language structures.
Social Interactionist Theory: The social interactionist theory, associated with theorists
such as Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner, emphasizes the role of social interaction and
communication in language acquisition. It suggests that language development is strongly
influenced by social interactions, caregiver input, and the child's active participation in
meaningful conversations and interactions.
Example: how a child's language skills are shaped through interactions with caregivers,
such as engaging in conversations or receiving scaffolding during language tasks.
Usage-Based Theory: The usage-based theory proposes that language acquisition is a
result of the child's exposure to language and the analysis of patterns and regularities in
the input. It emphasizes the role of usage, experience, and the child's ability to detect
statistical regularities in language to acquire linguistic knowledge.
An example would be a child acquiring vocabulary through exposure to repeated
instances of words in different contexts.
Connectionist Theory: The connectionist theory, also known as the neural network or
parallel distributed processing theory, draws on principles from cognitive science and
artificial intelligence. It suggests that language acquisition occurs through the interaction
of interconnected neural networks, which simulate the cognitive processes involved in
language learning.
Example: Connectionist theories, also known as neural network theories, suggest that
language learning occurs through the interaction of interconnected neural networks. For
instance, a child's exposure to language input strengthens connections between neurons,
facilitating language acquisition.
7. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Social Learning Theory, proposed by Albert
Bandura, emphasizes the role of observational learning and social interaction in shaping
human behavior. When applied to first language acquisition (L1), the theory suggests that
children learn their native language by observing and imitating the language used by
others around them, particularly their parents or caregivers.
Example: Let's consider a toddler learning to speak their native language, such as
English. According to Social Learning Theory, the child's language acquisition process
would involve observing and imitating the language used by their parents or caregivers.
They pay attention to the words, phrases, intonation, and gestures used in their
environment. They retain and remember these language patterns and structures in their
memory. Later, they reproduce and imitate the observed language by attempting to say
words and phrases they have heard. The child's motivation to learn and use language is
influenced by the social interactions and consequences they experience when
communicating with others.
8. Interactionist Theory (Jerome Bruner): emphasize the interplay between biological
factors (innate factors) and environmental influences, particularly in social interactions.
Children learn language through interaction with their caregivers and their surrounding
environment.
MAJOR THEORIES IN L2 ACQUISITION
Input Hypothesis: Proposed by Stephen Krashen, the Input Hypothesis emphasizes the
importance of comprehensible input in second language acquisition. It suggests that
learners acquire language when they are exposed to language input that is slightly beyond
their current level of proficiency but still understandable.
For example, a learner might acquire new vocabulary and grammatical structures by
listening to and understanding conversations or reading texts slightly beyond their current
proficiency level.
Interaction Hypothesis: proposed by Michael Long, highlight the role of social interaction
and communication in second language acquisition. These theories emphasize that
meaningful interaction and negotiation of meaning with others facilitate language
development.
For instance, a learner engages in conversations with native speakers or participates in
group discussions where negotiation of meaning and interactional feedback occur,
facilitating language development.
Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen’s Monitor Model): The Affective Filter Hypothesis,
proposed by Stephen Krashen, suggests that language acquisition is influenced by an
affective filter, which is affected by emotional and psychological factors such as
motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. When the affective filter is high, language
learning is impeded, whereas a low affective filter facilitates more successful language
acquisition. Learners experiencing high levels of anxiety or low self-confidence may
have a higher affective filter, which can hinder their ability to understand and produce the
target language
For example: Let's say there is a student learning English as a second language who
experiences high levels of anxiety when speaking in front of others. This anxiety creates
a high affective filter, making it difficult for the student to effectively communicate and
acquire language skills.
Cognitive Theory (Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky): Cognitive theories of 2nd language
acquisition draw o principles form cognitive psychology an emphasize the role of
cognitive processes in language learning. Piaget’s theory focuses on the relationship
between cognitive development and language development, while Vygotsky’s
sociocultural theory highlights the importance of social interactions an cultural context in
cognitive development
Skill Acquisition Theory
Let's say a learner of English is reading a book and encounters the sentence, "She walked
quickly to the store." According to the Noticing Hypothesis, the learner needs to actively
notice and pay attention to the specific linguistic features in order to acquire them.
In this case, the learner needs to consciously notice that "walked" is the past tense form of
the verb "walk," "quickly" is an adverb that describes the manner of the action, and "to
the store" indicates the destination. By consciously noticing these features, the learner
can start to recognize the patterns and understand how they contribute to the meaning and
structure of the sentence.
The act of noticing allows the learner to become aware of these linguistic elements and
their significance in the language. It helps the learner process and internalize the forms,
meanings, and grammatical structures, which in turn facilitates language acquisition.
1/ Discuss in detail TWO factors affecting processes of SLA?

Two significant factors affecting the processes of Second Language Acquisition

(SLA) are motivation and age:

1. Motivation

Motivation is a key factor in SLA, influencing the effort and persistence learners
invest. It can be divided into:
• Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by personal interest or enjoyment in
learning the language.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Influenced by external rewards, such as career
advancement or academic success.
Highly motivated learners are more likely to engage in practice, seek out
opportunities for interaction, and overcome challenges. Conversely, lack of
motivation can hinder progress.

2. Age

Age significantly impacts SLA due to cognitive and neurological factors.

• Younger Learners: Tend to acquire native-like pronunciation and fluency
more easily due to the plasticity of their brain during the Critical Period.
• Older Learners: May learn more quickly initially due to advanced
cognitive skills but often struggle with accent and implicit grammar acquisition.
Age affects not only the ability to learn but also the methods and pace of
instruction suitable for learners.

2/ Briefly present the three among 5 constructs in Krashen’s Monitor Model. Highlight
ONE weakness inherent in his hypotheses. Discuss part of his theory that can apply
to classroom practice.

Three Constructs in Krashen’s Monitor Model

1. Input Hypothesis
Language is acquired when learners are exposed to comprehensible input (i+1),
which is slightly above their current level of understanding.
2. Monitor Hypothesis
Learners use their conscious knowledge of grammar (the “monitor”) to edit or
correct their language production, mainly in written or rehearsed contexts.
3. Affective Filter Hypothesis
Emotional factors such as anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence influence the
success of language acquisition. A low affective filter enhances learning, while a
high filter blocks input.

Weakness of Krashen’s Hypotheses

One weakness is the lack of empirical evidence for the Input Hypothesis. Critics
argue it oversimplifies SLA by neglecting the importance of output and
interaction in language learning.

Application to Classroom Practice

The Input Hypothesis can inform teachers to provide comprehensible input that
is slightly above learners’ current level, using visuals, scaffolding, or context clues
to aid understanding. Reducing anxiety through a supportive environment aligns
with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, fostering better learning outcomes.

3/ Identify the role of input and interaction in SLA and discuss the implications for L2
Learning

The Role of Input in SLA

Input refers to the language that learners are exposed to in their environment. In
SLA, comprehensible input (language slightly beyond the learner’s current
proficiency level, or i+1, as per Krashen) is crucial for acquisition. Input provides
the linguistic data necessary for learners to internalize vocabulary, grammar, and
syntax. Without sufficient exposure to meaningful input, language acquisition is
unlikely to occur.

The Role of Interaction in SLA

Interaction facilitates language learning by providing opportunities for learners

to use the language in communicative contexts. Michael Long’s Interaction
Hypothesis emphasizes the importance of negotiation of meaning during
conversations. Through interaction, learners receive modified input, feedback,
and chances to practice production, which helps refine their language skills and
promotes acquisition.

Implications for L2 Learning

1. Input in L2 Learning:
• Teachers should provide rich and varied input tailored to learners’
proficiency levels.
 • Using authentic materials, visual aids, and contextualized language helps
make input comprehensible.
2. Interaction in L2 Learning:
• Classroom activities like group discussions, role-playing, and pair work
foster interaction.
• Feedback during interaction (e.g., recasts, clarification requests) helps
learners notice errors and adjust their output.

Combining meaningful input with interactive opportunities ensures that learners

engage in both comprehension and production, leading to more effective SLA.

4/Can second language learners become native-like in their proficiency? Discuss this
question in light of the theories of SLA you have studied.

Whether second language learners can achieve native-like proficiency is a

complex issue influenced by factors such as age, exposure, motivation, and
individual differences. Theories of SLA provide varying perspectives:

1. Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

CPH suggests that there is a biologically determined period (typically before

puberty) during which language acquisition occurs most easily. After this period,
achieving native-like proficiency, especially in pronunciation and intonation,
becomes challenging. While older learners can achieve high levels of proficiency,
they often retain subtle differences in accent or grammar, supporting the idea
that complete native-like mastery is rare.

2. Input Hypothesis (Krashen)

Krashen’s theory emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input for

acquisition. Learners with ample exposure to rich and meaningful input over
time may approximate native-like proficiency, particularly in environments
where the second language (L2) is actively spoken. However, the theory does not
explicitly address individual variability in ultimate attainment.

3. Skill Acquisition Theory

This theory likens language learning to developing motor skills. Through

practice, learners can automatize language use and achieve high levels of fluency.
However, the fossilization of errors (a common phenomenon in SLA) may
prevent some learners from becoming entirely native-like.
4. Sociocultural Theory

This theory posits that language learning occurs through interaction and
mediation within a social context. Learners immersed in a native-speaking
environment with rich interaction may develop near-native proficiency.
However, cultural integration and identity also play a role in how “native-like” a
learner becomes.

Conclusion

While some second language learners achieve near-native proficiency, complete

native-like mastery is rare due to biological, cognitive, and social factors.
However, motivated learners with sustained exposure, practice, and interaction
can excel in communicative competence, which may be more important than
perfect mimicry of native speakers.

5/Give a brief description of these three constructs (input, interaction, feedback) in

SLA and a clear explanation of how each of them impacts L2 learning and teaching.

Constructs in SLA
1. Input
Input refers to the language learners are exposed to, which serves as the
foundation for acquisition. According to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis,
comprehensible input (i+1) is essential for language learning.
Impact on L2 Learning and Teaching:
• Teachers should provide rich, meaningful, and accessible language
exposure through reading, listening, and classroom activities.
• Visual aids, gestures, and scaffolding techniques can make input more
comprehensible for learners.
2. Interaction
Interaction involves the exchange of language between learners and others (e.g.,
peers, teachers, or native speakers). Long’s Interaction Hypothesis highlights that
negotiation of meaning during interaction promotes language acquisition.
Impact on L2 Learning and Teaching:
• Interactive activities like group discussions, role plays, and pair work
encourage learners to actively use the language.
• Interaction allows learners to process input more deeply and practice
output in a meaningful context.
3. Feedback
Feedback refers to responses to learners’ language use, often correcting errors or
guiding improvement. Feedback can take forms such as recasts, explicit
correction, or clarification requests.
Impact on L2 Learning and Teaching:
• Feedback helps learners notice gaps in their knowledge and refine their
language use.
• Teachers should balance feedback to avoid discouraging learners while
ensuring accuracy and progress.

Integration in Teaching

Effective language instruction incorporates input (comprehensible materials),

interaction (collaborative activities), and feedback (supportive corrections) to
create a dynamic and engaging learning environment that fosters acquisition.

6/Briefly describe two major theories of first language acquisition and explain how
those theories affect your teaching practice.

Two Major Theories of First Language Acquisition

1. Behaviorist Theory
Proposed by B.F. Skinner, this theory emphasizes that language is learned
through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning. Children acquire language by
imitating sounds and words they hear, and correct usage is reinforced through
rewards or positive responses.

Impact on Teaching Practice:

• Teachers may use repetition, drills, and positive reinforcement to help
learners develop accuracy in language use.
• Emphasis is placed on structured practice and habit formation, especially
for beginners.

2. Nativist Theory
Proposed by Noam Chomsky, this theory argues that language acquisition is
innate and governed by a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a biological
mechanism enabling children to acquire the rules of language naturally. Chomsky
emphasizes the role of universal grammar and the ability to generate novel
sentences.

Impact on Teaching Practice:

 • Teachers focus on creating opportunities for natural language use and
exploration.
• Grammar instruction is less rigid, as learners are believed to have an
innate capacity to understand underlying structures with sufficient
exposure.

Summary of Effects on Practice

• Behaviorist theory informs practice through structured activities and
rewards.
• Nativist theory encourages fostering natural interaction and exposure to
meaningful language use, promoting learners’ innate capacities. A balanced
approach may integrate both theories for effective teaching.

7/Discuss in detail TWO individual Learner factors affecting the processes of second
language acquisition.

Two Individual Learner Factors Affecting SLA

1. Motivation
Motivation is a key factor in SLA, determining the effort and persistence learners
dedicate to acquiring a second language. It can be classified into:
• Intrinsic Motivation: Learners are driven by personal interest,
enjoyment, or satisfaction in learning the language.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Learners are motivated by external rewards such as
better job prospects, grades, or social recognition.
Impact on SLA:
• Highly motivated learners are more likely to engage in meaningful
practice, seek additional learning opportunities, and persevere through
challenges.
• Low motivation can lead to disengagement and slower progress.
Teaching Implications:
• Teachers can enhance motivation by connecting lessons to learners’
interests and goals.
• Incorporating real-world tasks, positive reinforcement, and a supportive
learning environment can sustain motivation.
2. Age
Age significantly influences SLA due to cognitive, neurological, and social factors.
• Young Learners: Tend to acquire pronunciation and fluency more
naturally due to brain plasticity during the Critical Period.
 • Older Learners: Often have advanced cognitive skills, enabling them to
grasp explicit grammar rules quickly, but they may struggle with native-like
pronunciation or implicit acquisition.
Impact on SLA:
• Younger learners excel in implicit acquisition through immersion, while
older learners benefit from explicit instruction and structured practice.
• Age affects the pace and focus of language learning strategies.
Teaching Implications:
• For young learners, teachers should prioritize immersive, playful, and
interactive activities to facilitate natural acquisition.
• For older learners, structured lessons with explicit grammar explanations
and opportunities for meaningful practice are essential.

By addressing motivation and age appropriately, educators can tailor their

teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of language learners.

8/Give definitions of input and output and explain their roles in the SLA process.

Input: Input refers to the language that learners hear or read in their
environment. It serves as the linguistic data needed for acquisition, especially
when it is comprehensible and slightly beyond the learner’s current level (i+1).
Output: Output is the language that learners produce, either in speech or
writing, as they attempt to communicate.

Roles in SLA:
• Input: Provides the foundation for acquiring vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation. Comprehensible input allows learners to internalize linguistic
structures and develop comprehension.
• Output: Helps learners test their hypotheses about language use, notice
gaps in their knowledge, and refine their skills through feedback from others.
Encourages active engagement with the language.

9/Describe the critical period hypothesis and discuss its implications for SLA
regarding learning success and teaching strategies.

Definition:
The Critical Period Hypothesis suggests that there is a biologically determined
window, typically ending around puberty, during which the brain is optimally
equipped for language acquisition. After this period, acquiring a language,
especially to native-like proficiency, becomes more challenging.
Implications for SLA:
• Learning Success: Younger learners are more likely to achieve native-like
pronunciation and fluency due to greater brain plasticity. Older learners can
achieve high proficiency but often retain an accent or grammatical errors.
• Teaching Strategies:
• For young learners: Use immersive, play-based methods that replicate
natural language exposure.
• For older learners: Provide explicit instruction, focus on functional
communication, and use corrective feedback to target persistent errors.

While the critical period affects ultimate attainment, factors like motivation and
practice can help learners of any age achieve effective communication skills.

10/Discuss why "communicative competence" has become such an essential focus of

second language teaching and suggest how it can be developed in the classroom.

Importance of Communicative Competence in SLA

Definition: Communicative competence is the ability to use a language

effectively and appropriately in various social and cultural contexts. It includes
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competencies.

Why It Is Essential:
• Practical Use: Traditional methods focused on grammar and vocabulary
often failed to prepare learners for real-life communication. Communicative
competence emphasizes practical, real-world application.
• Integration of Skills: It goes beyond accuracy to include fluency,
appropriateness, and adaptability in communication.
• Globalization: The need for effective cross-cultural communication has
made communicative competence a priority for learners in academic,
professional, and social settings.

Developing Communicative Competence in the Classroom

1. Task-Based Learning:
• Use activities like role plays, simulations, and problem-solving tasks that
mimic real-world situations.
2. Interactive Activities:
 • Incorporate group discussions, interviews, and collaborative projects to
encourage meaningful interaction.
3. Focus on Context:
• Teach language within cultural and social contexts to help learners
understand appropriateness and pragmatics.
4. Authentic Materials:
• Use videos, articles, and dialogues from native speakers to expose learners
to natural language use.
5. Feedback and Reflection:
• Provide corrective feedback during communication to address errors
while maintaining fluency. Encourage self-assessment and reflection on
performance.

By prioritizing communicative competence, teachers ensure learners are not just

linguistically proficient but also capable of navigating diverse social and cultural
interactions.