FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

BCVE 213

LECTURE NOTES

2023 / 2024

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 Course Objectives
The objective of this course is to enable students to acquire knowledge in Highway planning,

location, design, pavement structure and function, and construction and surface dressing.

Course Content

1. Route location survey: Engineering surveys for road alignment, map study,
reconnaissance, preliminary and detail survey, factors controlling road alignment,
Highway functional classification.
2. Geometric design of roads: design speed, sight distances, horizontal and vertical
curvature, visibility and comfort criteria, computer applications in geometric design.
3. Pavement design: pavement types and structure, primary function of layers surface
dressing and primer-sealing. Pavement maintenance and management.

Practical: Highway materials: laboratory and practical work includes, aggregate grading
test; various test of aggregates and bitumen, Marshall Asphalt mix design.

Recommended Reading List

1. Garber N.J. and Hoel L.A. (2006). Traffic and Highway Engineering. West Publishing Co.
2. O’Flaherty C.A. (2003). Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering. Butterworth-
Heinemann Publishers.
3. Mannering F. L. Kilareski W. P and Washburn S. S. (2010). Principles of Highway
Engineering and Traffic Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, New York.

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 Chapter One-Introduction to Highway
Introduction
Highway Engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering that
involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges,
and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods.
Highway transportation is the means of detail and efficient distribution between homes,
shops, factories, etc. It is only the roads which can carry goods from and to aerodromes,
harbours and railway stations. Thus, the progress and well-being of a nation depends much on
roads. In fact, roads are the life lines of nation's economy.
Highways facilitate conveyance of people, goods, raw-materials, manufactured articles, etc.
speedily and easily in the different parts of a country. The importance or necessity of highway
transportation include the following:
1. They act as the only source of communication in regions of high altitude i.e in
mountainous regions.
2. They help in growth of trade and other economy activities in and outside the villages
and towns by establishing contact between towns and villages.
3. They help in providing efficient distribution of agricultural products and natural
resources all over the country.
4. They help in price stabilization of commodities due to mobility of products all over
the country.
5. They help in social and cultural advancement of people and making the villagers
active and alert members of the community.
6. They help in promoting the cultural and social ties among people living in different
part of a country and thus strengthen the national unity.
7. They help in providing improved medical facilities quickly to human beings,
especially to those who live in rural areas.
8. They provide more employment opportunities.
9. They enhance land value and thus bring better revenue.
10. They serve as feeders for Airways, Waterways and Railways.
11. They help in reducing distress among the people, caused due to famine, by supplying
them food and clothing quickly.
It can be said that roads are the symbol of country's progress and thus development made by
any country can be judged by the quality and network of its road system.

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 CHAPTER TWO
HIGHWAY PROJECT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
2.1 Introduction
Highway transportation is the main mode in passenger travel and one of the major modes in
cargo transportation in Ghana. Development of highway goes through various processes
including Planning, Project development (Evaluation), Design, Right-of-way acquisition, and
Construction. When the project is completed, highway operations, management and
maintenance are needed. Often, transportation agencies are in charge for overall coordination:
- thus public and business involvement which include interaction with locals (citizens), state,
and national agencies and project management. The approval of the proposed project is the
mandate of the policy board.

2.2 Planning Stage

This involves the initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project.
The selection is based on a variety of criteria including: public concerns, traffic crash data,
pavement and bridge condition, traffic volume and trends, and forecasts of future growth. This
problem definition occurs at the local (district), regional, State level, depending on the scale of
the proposed improvement.

The problems identified may usually fall into one or more of the following four categories.
Either
i. the existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (Structure Repair).
ii. existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to
transportation and mobility need to be increased (Capacity).
iii. the route is experiencing an excessive number of safety and accident problems that
can only be resolved through physical (if defects), or geometric (if alignment)
changes (Safety).
iv. Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number,
location, and physical design of access points necessary (Access).

At this stage citizens are consulted to make input and encouraged to ask questions about the
type of improvement being considered and how it will improve the quality of the transportation

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system. A preliminary project list is submitted by each transportation district for consideration
in the statewide program.
Factors to Consider During Planning
It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential impact that a
proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in the conceptual phase.
The project is analyzed and assessed based on factors such as impact on Physical
characteristics, Cost, Safety, Capacity, Environmental quality, Historic and Scenic
characteristics and others.

2.3 Project Development (Evaluation)

After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into the project
development phase. At this stage, a feasibility study of the location of proposed alignment and
alternatives are conducted. The environmental and economic analysis intensifies. The level of
environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of the project. It can
range from a modest environmental review completed in a matter of weeks to a multiyear effort
to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (a comprehensive document that analyzes the
potential impact of proposed alternatives).
Regardless of the level of detail or duration, the product of the project development process
generally includes a description of the location and major design features of the recommended
project that is to be further designed and constructed, while continually trying to avoid,
minimize, and mitigate environmental impact.
The Environmental factors that need to be considered in the location of a highway involves the
study of the effect of the proposed transportation improvement conducted on the following:
a. Economic factors including agriculture, forestry, mineral deposits, trade, industry,
tourism, political strategy.

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 b. Social factors like population, culture, land use, historic sites, utilities and service,
and employment.
c. Ecological factors
i. Recreation and Conservation such as land-use, vegetation, aquatic life, scenic
areas (eg parks, waterfalls, river, lakes etc.) wildlife, erodibility,
sedimentation, landmarks
ii. Pollution – Noise, air, water, spillage of harmful substances, waste
d. Engineering factors – Topography, geology, soils, materials, vegetation, drainage,
safety, traffic, utilities.

2.4. Final Design

After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description agreed upon as stated
in the environmental document, a project moves into the final design stage. The product of this
Design stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of required
quantities of materials ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent
construction. Depending on the scale and complexity of the project, the final design process
may take from a few months to several years. Some important considerations of design include:
i. Developing a Concept: A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it
toward a specific direction. There are many elements in a highway, and each involves
a number of separate but interrelated design decisions. Integrating all these elements to
achieve a common goal or concept helps the designer in making design decisions. Some
of the many elements of highway design are
a. Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscape.
b. Cross section - Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width,
and shoulders, ditches etc.
c. Overpasses / bridges
ii. Scale (Width or Size): The design element that have the greatest effect on the scale of
the roadway is cross section. The cross section can include a clear zone:- travel lanes
shoulder, parking lanes, , and/or median. The wider the overall roadway, the larger its
scale; however, there are some design techniques that can help to reduce the perceived
width and, thus, the perceived scale of the roadway. Limiting the width of pavement or
breaking up the pavement is one option. In some instances, four lane roadways may
look less imposing by designing a grass or planted median in the center.

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 iii. Detailing the Design: The details associated with the project are important particularly
during the final design phase. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that
important design details are considered and those that are compatible with community
values. Often it is the details of the project that are most recognizable to the public. A
multidisciplinary design team can produce an aesthetic and functional product when the
members work together and are flexible in applying guidelines.

2.5 Right-of-way, Construction, and Maintenance:

Once the final designs have been prepared and needed right-of-way is acquired, construction
bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and construction is initiated. During
the right-of-way acquisition and construction stages, minor adjustments in the design may be
necessary. Therefore, there should be continuous involvement of the design team throughout
these stages. Construction may be simple or complex and may require a few months to several
years.
Once construction has been completed, the facility is ready to begin its normal sequence of
operations and maintenance. Even after the completion of construction, the character of a road
can be changed by inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of sections
of guardrail damaged or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever spare guardrail
sections may be available to the local highway maintenance personnel at the time.

2.6 Highway Route Location and Surveys

To determine the geometric features of road design, after the necessity of the road is decided,
a variety of survey and investigations have to be carried out by Road Engineers and
multidiscipline persons. The highway alignment location process involves four phases:
• Office/ Desk study of existing information
• Field reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary location survey
• Final location survey

i. Desk study office Reconnaissance

The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available data of the
area in
which the road is to be constructed. This phase is usually carried out in the office prior to any
field

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work. Data can be obtained from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial photographs, and
charts, which are usually available at one or more of the nation's institutions such as the Road
Agencies (Ghana Highway Authority, Department of urban Roads, Department of Feeder
Roads, Geological Survey Department, and Hydrological Departments etc.). The type and
amount of data collected and examined depend on the type of highway being considered. But
in general, data should be obtained on the following characteristics of the area:
i. Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes.
ii. Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns.
iii. Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic, and
archeological sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and water pollution.
iv. Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of agricultural,
commercial, and industrial activities.
Preliminary analysis of the data obtained will indicate whether any of the specific sites should
be excluded from further consideration because of one or more of the above characteristics.
For example, if it is found that a site of historic and archeological importance is located within
an area being considered for possible route location, it may be immediately decided that any
route that traverse that site should be excluded from further consideration. At the completion
of this phase of the study, the engineer will be able to select general areas through which the
highway can traverse.

ii. Field Reconnaissance Survey

The objective of this phase of the study-is to identify several feasible routes, each within a band
of a limited width of a few hundred meters. Feasible routes are identified taking into
consideration factors such as:
i. Nature of Terrain
ii. Soil conditions.
iii. Directness of route
iv. Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas.
v. Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and other
highways.

Control points between the two terminals are determined for each feasible route. For example,
a unique bridge site with no alternative may be taken as a primary control point. The feasible
routes identified are then plotted on photographic base maps.

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iii. Preliminary location Survey
During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set out as closely as
possible by establishing all the control points and determining preliminary vertical and
horizontal alignments for each. Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic
and environmental feasibility of the alternative routes.

Study of alternative routes showing 3 possible corridors

The preliminary survey studies one or more feasible corridor routes. The figure above shows
the corridors for the feasible three (3) alternatives for a road to link two terminals A and B. It
results in a paper location and alignment that defines the line for the subsequent final location
survey. This
location and alignment should show enough ties to the existing topography to permit a location
party to peg the centerline. Within each corridor area the following are determined and noted.
a) the shape of the ground,
b) limits of catchment areas,
c) the positions and invert levels of streams and ditches, and
d) the positions of big trees, bridges and culverts, existing roads, power lines and pipelines,
houses and monuments

These are then translated into plans and profiles which are used in the determination of
preliminary grades and alignment and the preparation of cost estimates for alternative
centerlines.
Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to determine the future effect of
investing the resources necessary to construct the highway.

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iv. Final location survey
The final location survey is the detailed layout of the selected route, during which time the final
horizontal and vertical alignments are determined and the final positions of structures (eg
Bridges,
tunnels) and drainage channels are also determined. The conventional method used is first to
set out the Intersection Points (IP) of the straight portions of the highway and then to fit a
suitable horizontal curve between them. This is usually a trial-and-error process until, in the
designer's opinion, the best alignment is obtained, taking both engineering and aesthetic factors
into consideration. Detailed design of the vertical and horizontal alignments is then carried out
to obtain both the deflection angles for horizontal curves and the cuts or fills for vertical curves
and straight sections of the highway.

2.7 Location of Highways in Urban Areas

Urban areas have complex conditions that must be considered in the highway location process.
In addition to factors discussed under office study and reconnaissance survey, other factors that
significantly influence the location of highways in urban areas include:
i. Connection to local streets
ii. Right-of-way acquisition
iii. Coordination of the highway system with other transportation systems
iv. Adequate provisions for pedestrians

Other highway surveys considered include but not limited to

B. Transport Planning Surveys
i. Traffic Surveys
ii. Highway inventories
iii. Pavement Deterioration Study
iv. Accident study
C. Drainage Studies:
i. Hydrologic and hydraulic
ii. Subsurface drainage: Ground water & Seepage
iii. Cross–drainage: Location and waterway area required for the cross-drainage
structures.
iv. Surface run- off

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D. Soil Survey
i. Desk study
ii. Site Reconnaissance
E. Pavement Design investigation
i. Soil property and strength, Material Survey

2.8 Highway Survey Methods

Highway Surveys (Topographic)
Highway surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical angles,
horizontal distances and vertical heights (elevations). The surveys are then used to prepare base
maps with contour lines and longitudinal cross-sections. Highway surveying techniques have
been revolutionized due to the rapid development of electronic equipment and computers.
Surveying techniques can be grouped into two general categories:
i. Conventional (Ground) Survey technique using theodolites, Total Station, GPS etc
ii. Remote Sensing (Aerial Photogrammetry using stereoscope, computer etc)

Ground surveys are the basic location technique for highways. The total station is used for
measuring angles in both vertical and horizontal planes, distances, and changes in elevation
through the use of trigonometric levels; the level is used for measuring changes in elevation.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based system that uses satellites to give a
user an accurate position.

Remote Sensing: The most commonly used remote-sensing method is photogrammetry, which
utilizes aerial photography. Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining accurate and reliable
information through measurements and interpretation of photographs, displaying this
information in digital form and/or map form. This process is fast and economical for large
projects but can be very expensive for small projects. The most common uses of
photogrammetry in highway engineering are the identification of suitable locations for
highways, referred to as corridor study, and the preparation of base maps for design mapping,
showing all physical and man-made features plus contours of 2- or 5 m intervals.

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Tutorial
1. State and discuss the various processes or stages that development of highway goes
through.
2. Explain the categories that the problems identified at the planning stage of highway
development usually fall.
3. Mention some of the factors considered in analyzing and assessing a highway project.
4. Describe the categories of information about the characteristics of the area of a proposed
highway location, that can be assembled in the office prior to any field survey activity.
5. Briefly discuss the factors that are of specific importance in the location of scenic routes.
6. Describe the factors that significantly influence the location of highways in urban areas.
7. What are the three elements that highway surveys usually involve?
8. Enumerate some types of survey and investigation considered in highway projects.
9. Describe the highway survey techniques.

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 CHAPTER TWO
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS
2.0 Introduction
Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric elements such
as horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, cross sections, intersections, and various design
details.
These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways, railways, and airport
runways. Although the details of design standards vary with the mode and the class of facility,
most of the issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes.
In all cases, the goals of geometric design are to maximize
➢ the comfort,
➢ the safety, and
➢ the economy of facilities,
➢ Minimizing their environmental impacts.

The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of
the highway. The three main features or elements that defines geometry of the highway section
are
➢ the horizontal alignment - curvature, gradients, and intersection.
➢ vertical alignment -sight distance consideration,
➢ the cross-section elements,
The design of these features is to a great extend influenced by
➢ driver behavior and psychology,
➢ vehicle characteristics,
➢ traffic characteristics such as speed and volume.

Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents and their severity. Therefore,
the objective of geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation and
maximum safety at reasonable cost.

2.1 Main components of Geometric Design

The main components to be considered in geometric design include
i. Factors affecting the geometric design,

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 ii. Highway classification
iii. Highway alignment,
iv. Cross-section elements including cross slope, various widths of roads and features in
the road margins.
v. Sight distance elements including cross slope, widths and features in the road margins.
vi. Horizontal alignment, which includes features like super-elevation, transition curve,
extra widening and set back distance.
vii. Vertical alignment and its components like gradient, sight distance and design of
length of curves.
viii. Intersection features like layout, capacity, etc.

2.1.1 Factors Affecting Geometric Design

Design speed: Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric
design. It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical curves.
Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc., a design speed is adopted for all
geometric design.

Topography: It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain. However,
for a given design speed, the construction cost increases with the gradient and the terrain.

Traffic factors: Traffic data both current and future estimates are of crucial importance in
highway design. Traffic volume indicates the level of services (LOS) for which the highway is
being planned and directly affects the geometric features such as width (lanes), alignment,
grades etc. Without traffic data it may be very difficult to design any highway.

Design Hourly Volume and Capacity: The general unit for measuring traffic on highway is the
Annual Average Daily Traffic volume, abbreviated as AADT. The traffic flow (or) volume
keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off peak hours to the highest value during
the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow.

Environmental and other factors: - The environmental factors like air pollution, noise
pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and other global conditions should be given due
considerations in the geometric design of roads.

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2.1.2 Highway Classification
The trunk roads were classified based on their functional importance in 1988. The new system
reclassified the roads into National, Inter-Regional and Regional Roads, which reflect their
national and socio-economic importance and ties in with the present regional. and district
administrative structures of the country. Visit the website for more details
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Road_Network#National_routes)

A grid system of numbering has been used in the present classification of routes. Trunk roads
in Ghana are classified as N for National routes, R for Regional routes, and IR for Inter-
Regional routes. Each road is given a number which is combined with the prefix, for
example N1, R40 and IR11, although their informal or traditional names may still be
used or heard occasionally: for instance the Accra - Kumasi Road (now part of the N6).

National Routes
National routes in Ghana are class of roads and highways that form the trunk routes between
major urban centers. Together, they form the backbone of the road system. This category of
roads is designated with the letter N followed by a number indicating the specific route. Odd-
numbered routes run east to west (horizontal roads), while even-numbered routes run north to
south (vertical roads). They are also the roads of strategic importance such as main arterial
roads to neighboring countries.

Regional routes
Regional routes are a mix of primary and secondary routes that link major settlements and serve
as feeder roads to the National route network. Major regional routes i.e Inter Regional roads
are designated with the letter R followed by a two (2) digit number, while Minor regional routes
i.e Regional Roads link district capitals are designated with the letter R followed by a three (3)
digit number.

Designation as a Regional route does not imply that a road is maintained by a regional
authority; some parts of the regional route network are maintained by the Ghana Highway
Authority, and parts in cities and towns may be ordinary streets maintained by the Department
of Urban Roads and the Department of Feeder Roads. Regional routes vary in quality and size
from dirt roads to multi-lane paved highways.

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Major regional routes
Major regional routes are the second category of road in the Ghana trunk road network. They
serve as feeder roads to the national route network, and are the primary trunk roads in areas
where there is no national route.

Minor regional routes

Minor Regional Routes are the third category of road in the Ghana trunk road network. They
serve as feeder roads connecting smaller towns to the national and major regional route
network.

Functional Classification
There are three (3) main categories. These include
Arterial roadways are to accommodate through traffic over longer distances, on routes that
allow comparatively high speeds, with a minimum of interruptions. An example of the highest
level of arterial roadway is a freeway

Collector/ distributor roadways encompass the range of roads between the arterial and local
categories. While they serve multiple purposes, including overlapping the arterial and local
roles, their intended purpose is to serve as a transition between arterial and local streets by
collecting traffic from local and arterial streets and distributing it up or down the functional
hierarchy.

Local roadways are designed primarily to provide access to abutting lands of the arterial ways.
As a result, they often carry lower volumes of traffic, have low-speed traffic operation, and
provide frequent points of access/egress. Example is residential streets.

2.1.3 Highway Alignment

Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment. The
highway alignment can be either horizontal or vertical. The position of the central line of the
highway on the ground is called the alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and
curved paths in the horizontal plane whiles Vertical alignment includes level and gradients in
the vertical plane.
Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will increase the construction,

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maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is fixed and constructed, it is not
easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of expensive
structures by the roadside.
The requirements of an ideal alignment are:
➢ The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight. But due to some practical consideration deviations may be needed.
➢ The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. Hence to the maximum extend, easy gradients and curves should
be provided.
➢ It should be safe from both the construction and operating point of view especially at
slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
➢ The alignment should be economical. It may be considered so, only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost are minimum.

Factors controlling alignment

It is not always possible to satisfy all the requirements of alignment. Hence, efficient choice is
made considering certain obligatory points. The obligatory points are control points governing
the highway alignment and are classified into two categories. Points through which the
alignment SHOULD PASS and points through which it SHOULD NOT PASS.

Obligatory points through which the ALIGNMENT SHOULD PASS.

➢ Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent
path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach
to the bridge should not be curved, and skew crossing should be avoided as possible.
Thus, to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.
➢ Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are
either to construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative
depends on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
➢ Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate
town or village nearby.
Obligatory points through which the ALIGNMENT SHOULD NOT PASS:
➢ Religious places: are protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose.
Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.

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 ➢ Very costly structures: Acquiring or passing through such structures means heavy
compensation, which would result in an increase in initial cost. Therefore, the alignment
may be deviated not to pass through that point.
➢ Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.

Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment refers to an alignment of the road in horizontal plan. The horizontal
alignment includes tangent sections and the horizontal curves and other transition elements that
join them. Highway design is generally initiated by laying out a set of tangents on topographical
and development maps of the service area. Selection of an appropriate route and the specific
location of these tangent lines involves many considerations.
These considerations include:
➢ Forecast demand volumes, with is known or projected as origin-destination patterns
➢ Patterns of development
➢ Topography
➢ Natural barriers
➢ Subsurface conditions
➢ Drainage patterns
➢ Economic considerations
➢ Environmental considerations
➢ Social considerations
Note:
i. The first two items deal with anticipated demand on the facility and the specific origins
and destinations that are to be served.
ii. The next four are important engineering factors that must be considered.
iii. The last three are critically important as cost is always an important factor, but it must
be compared with quantifiable benefit.

Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment refers to the design of the facility in the vertical plane. Straight grades are
connected by vertical curves, which provide for change or transition between adjacent grades.
The grade refers to the longitudinal slope of the facility. In vertical design, attempts are made

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to conform to the topography, wherever possible, to reduce the need for costly excavations and
landfills as well as to maintain aesthetics.
Primary design criteria for vertical curves include:
➢ Provision of adequate sight distance at all points along the profile
➢ Provision of adequate drainage
➢ Maintenance of comfortable operations
➢ Maintenance of reasonable aesthetics

2.1.4 Cross-Sectional Elements

The cross-sectional layout of a road refers to its profile or the vertical arrangement of various
components when viewed perpendicular to the direction of travel. It is a crucial aspect of road
design that influences safety, drainage, accessibility, and overall functionality.
A highway section is subdivided into separate regions based mainly on their likelihood to carry
traffic. The portion that carries the highest load traffic is the roadway ie travel lane and
shoulder. And although shoulders are used less frequently by traffic, they still must be designed
to support traffic stopping for emergencies or in some cases driving on the shoulder to avoid a
blockage.
The cross section is a cut across the plane of the highway. The cross-sectional elements of a
highway are Tavel way or lanes, Shoulders, Camber (Side slopes), Curbs/Kerbs, Medians and
median barriers, Guardrails, Drainage channels, Verges etc

Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

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 Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

Traveled Way. The traveled way is the portion of the road used by vehicles under normal
operation. At a minimum it includes the travel lanes. The width of travel lanes varies by design
speed, traffic mix, and functional classification. They can vary in width from 3 to 4m.
Camber (Cross Slope)
Camber is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain of rain water from road surface. A specific slope design is primarily a function
of the surface type and need to remove surface runoff. Too steep slope is undesirable for it will
erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (e.g. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value
depends on the type of pavement surface.

Shoulders
Shoulders include the portion of the roadway immediately outside of the traveled lane.
Although they are intended to serve traffic in special cases, they are neither designed nor meant
for high-speed operation or high traffic volume. The benefits gained from the use of shoulders
include
1. Aiding drivers in the recovery of temporary loss of control or to provide room to
perform emergency evasive action.
2. Storing vehicles safely off the traveled way in emergency situations.
3. Providing a safe means of accomplishing routine maintenance and navigational
operations.
4. Serving as a temporary traveled way during reconstruction or emergency operations.
5. Serving as a primary clear area free of obstructions.
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 6. Enabling greater horizontal sight distance in cut sections.
7. Enhancing traffic flow and thereby capacity.
8. Providing structural support to the pavement and traveled way.

Median
In areas where it is economically feasible, highways that are planned to carry high volumes of
traffic at high operating speeds are often designed to separate opposing streams with the use of
a center median. The benefits of roadway medians include
1. Physically separating high-speed, opposing traffic, thereby minimizing the chances of
serious head-on collisions
2. Providing a clear recovery area for inadvertent encroachments off of the traveled way
3. Providing a means of safely storing stopped or decelerating left-turning vehicles out of
the higher-speed through lanes
4. Providing safe storage for pedestrians crossing a high-speed or wide, divided highway

Width of carriage way

The width of the carriageway, or the pavement, is determined by several factors, with the width
of the traffic lanes and the number of lanes being significant considerations. The width of a
traffic lane, in turn, depends on the width of the vehicles using the roadway and the desired
clearance between vehicles and adjacent objects or barriers. Here's how these factors
interrelate:
1. Width of Traffic Lanes:
• The width of a traffic lane is typically determined based on the width of the
vehicles that will be using the roadway.
• Standard traffic lanes for passenger vehicles are often between 10 to 12 feet
(approximately 3 to 3.6 meters) wide. However, lanes for larger vehicles like
trucks or buses may be wider.
• The width of traffic lanes also considers factors such as vehicle speed, traffic
volume, and lane-sharing practices.
2. Number of Lanes:
• The number of lanes on a roadway depends on factors such as anticipated traffic
volume, speed limits, and expected capacity requirements.

19
 • Roads with higher traffic volumes or faster speeds typically have more lanes to
accommodate the flow of vehicles and reduce congestion.
3. Width of Carriageway:
• The width of the carriageway is determined by multiplying the number of lanes
by the width of each lane.
• For example, a two-lane road with standard 12-foot lanes would have a total
carriageway width of approximately 24 feet (7.2 meters).
• Additional space may be allocated for shoulders, medians, or other features
depending on design requirements and safety considerations.
4. Side Clearance:
• Side clearance refers to the distance between the edge of the traffic lane and any
adjacent objects, such as barriers, guardrails, or buildings.
• Providing adequate side clearance improves operating speeds and safety by
reducing the risk of collisions and allowing room for maneuvering.
• Side clearance requirements may vary based on factors such as road
classification, design standards, and potential hazards

Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Different types of kerbs are
i. Low or Mountable Kerbs:
• Low or mountable kerbs are typically designed to be easily traversable by vehicles,
pedestrians, and cyclists.
• These kerbs have a low height profile, usually ranging from 3 to 6 inches (75 to 150
millimeters), making them accessible for vehicles to drive over if necessary.
• They are commonly used in areas where occasional vehicle access onto sidewalks or
pedestrian areas may be required, such as driveways, parking lots, or loading zones.
• Mountable kerbs may also be used in urban environments to accommodate emergency
vehicles or facilitate temporary closures for events or maintenance activities.
ii. Semi-Barrier Type Kerbs:
• Semi-barrier type kerbs are designed to provide a moderate level of separation between
the roadway and adjacent pedestrian or landscaping areas.
• These kerbs have a taller profile compared to low kerbs, typically ranging from 6 to 10
inches (150 to 250 millimeters) in height.

20
 • While semi-barrier kerbs discourage vehicles from easily crossing onto pedestrian
areas, they are still traversable by larger vehicles or emergency services if necessary.
• They are commonly used in urban or residential areas to delineate sidewalks, medians,
or pedestrian islands, providing a degree of protection while maintaining some
accessibility.
iii. Barrier Type Kerbs:
• Barrier type kerbs are designed to provide a substantial separation between the roadway
and adjacent pedestrian or landscaping areas, acting as a robust barrier to vehicle
encroachment.
• These kerbs have a taller profile compared to both low and semi-barrier kerbs, typically
exceeding 10 inches (250 millimeters) in height.
• Barrier kerbs are not intended to be traversable by vehicles and are designed to prevent
unauthorized access onto pedestrian areas.
• They are commonly used in high-traffic areas, intersections, or locations with
significant pedestrian activity to enhance safety and protect vulnerable road users.

Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called
road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
➢ Shoulders
➢ Embankment slopes
➢ Parking lanes
➢ Bus-bays
➢ Service roads
➢ Cycle track
➢ Footpath
➢ Guard rails

Pavement surface characteristics

For a safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the
friction between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light
reflection characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage of water.

21
Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and the safe operating speed. Further, it also affects the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.
Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction
Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement
along the road.
Various factors that affect friction are:
i) Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
ii) Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
iii) Condition of the tyre (new or old), and
iv) Speed and load of the vehicle.

Unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such one. Even
if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to
pavement failures. Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety,
fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres.

Light reflection
White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time.
Black roads have no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night
Concrete roads have better visibility and less glare
It is necessary that the road surface should be visible at night and reflection of light is the factor
that answers it.

Drainage
The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in
draining out the water from the surface in less time.

Simple Highway Elements

Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and safety

22
of a highway. Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the design aspects
such as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles. The horizontal curve
designs elements include design of super elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design
of transition curve, and set back distance.

i. Design Speed
The design speed as noted earlier, is the single most important factor in the design of horizontal
alignment. The design speed also depends on the type of the road. For e.g, the design speed
expected from a national highway will be much higher than a village road, and hence the curve
geometry will vary significantly.

Factors Affecting Alignment

I. Safety
II. Grades
III. Design speed
IV. Cost of resumption of land
V. Construction costs
Operating speed is influenced by all other factors so it is the critical factor to consider

Horizontal Curve
The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is reactive force acting
outward on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the
horizontal curve and is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tyre
and pavement surface. On a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun or to
slide outward from the center of road curvature. For proper design of the curve, an
understanding of the forces acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary. (Details
would be considered in Engineering Survey).

Element of Horizontal Curve

23
Design of Superelevation
As a vehicle passes around a curve, there is a tendency for the vehicle to tip toward the outside
of the curve in response to centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity of the vehicle body.
To compensate for the effect, the outside roadway is raised or superelevated, relative to the
inside. The amount of superelevation for a particular curve is based upon the radius of the curve
and the operating speed of the vehicle.
Rmin = Vd 2 /g(e + ƒ )
where Rmin = minimum radius of curvature
Vd = design speed (mph)
e = maximum rate of superelevation

When applying superelevation to the road, the following factors should be considered.
• Safety

• Comfort
• Appearance
• Design speed
• Tendency for slow vehicles to track towards center
• Difference between inner and outer formation levels
• Stability of high laden /loaded vehicles
• Length of road to introduce superelevation
• Provision for drainage

24
For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering coefficient of
friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully counteracted by the weight of the vehicle or
superelevation. For slow moving vehicles, providing lower superelevation and considering
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. Centrifugal force is counteracted by superelevation and
coefficient of friction.

Maximum Superelevation
• Max ranges from flat to mountainous of 0.06 – 0.12 respectively but most authority’s
limit to 0.10
• In urban areas limit max values to 0.04-0.05
Minimum Superelevation
• Should be elevated to at least the cross-fall on straights ie 3% (0.03)

Attainment of Superelevation
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
➢ rotating the outer edge about the crown
➢ shifting the position of the crown:
2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by:
➢ rotation about the center line :
➢ rotation about the inner edge:

Radius of Horizontal Curve

The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric design. The
maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius of the curve.
Although it is possible to design the curve with maximum superelevation (e) and coefficient of
friction (f), it is not desirable because re-alignment would be required if the design speed is
increased in future. Therefore, a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be derived by assuming
maximum superelevation and coefficient of friction.
Rruling = v2 / g(e + f)

Ideally, the radius of the curve should be higher than Rruling. However, very large curves are
also not desirable. Setting out large curves in the field becomes difficult. In addition, it also
enhances driving strain.

25
Extra widening
Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a curved section
of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment. This widening is done due to
two reasons:
Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve,
the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels
Psychological widening
Widening of curve has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a tendency
for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra space is to be
provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on curves.

Horizontal Transition Curves

A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always changing. As one
would expect, such curves involve more complex formulae than the curves with a constant
radius and their design are more complex. Also transition curves are more difficult to set out
on site than circular curves as a result of the varying radius.

The need for Transition Curves

Circular curves are limited in road designs due to the forces which act on a vehicle as they
travel around a bend. Transition curves are used
➢ to introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning
of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle thus ensuring the safety of
passenger.
➢ to enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security,
➢ to provide gradual introduction of superelevation.
➢ to provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
➢ to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

The use of Transition Curves

Transition curves can be used to join to straights in one of two ways:
- Composite curves
- Wholly transitional curves

26
Types of Transition Curve
There are many types of curved used to form the transitional section of a composite or wholly
transitional curve. These include
1. Spiral Transition Curve:
• A spiral transition curve, also known as a clothoid or Euler spiral, is a more
sophisticated curve that provides a smoother transition between straight and curved
sections of road.
• Unlike a circular transition curve, the radius of a spiral transition curve changes
gradually along its length, resulting in a smoother rate of curvature change.
• Spiral transition curves are commonly used in highway design, particularly on high-
speed roads or where larger changes in alignment occur.
2. Compound Transition Curve:
• A compound transition curve combines elements of both circular and spiral curves to
provide a transition that is both smooth and efficient.
• In a compound transition curve, the curvature changes gradually, similar to a spiral
curve, but the rate of change may vary along its length.
• Compound transition curves are often used in complex highway alignments where
multiple changes in curvature occur within a short distance.
3. Cubic Parabola Transition Curve:
• A cubic parabola transition curve is a curve defined by a cubic parabola equation, which
provides a smooth transition between straight and curved sections of road.
• This type of transition curve offers a balance between simplicity and smoothness,
making it suitable for a wide range of highway design applications.
• Cubic parabola transition curves are relatively easy to design and implement and are
commonly used in highway design projects.

Sight distance
Sight Distance is a length of road surface which a particular driver can see with an acceptable
level of clarity. Sight distance plays an important role in geometric highway design because it
establishes an acceptable design speed, based on a driver's ability to visually identify and stop
for a particular, unforeseen roadway hazard or pass a slower vehicle without being in conflict
with opposing traffic. As velocities on a roadway are increased, the design must be catered to
allowing additional viewing distances to allow for adequate time to stop.

27
Types of sight distance
o Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
o Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is the defined as twice SSD
o Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
The computation of sight distance depends on:
1. Reaction time of the driver
2. Speed of the vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
Stopping sight distance
Stopping sight distance is defined as the distance needed for drivers to see an object on the
roadway ahead and bring their vehicles to safe stop before colliding with the object. The
distances are derived for various design speeds based on assumptions for driver reaction time,
the braking ability of most vehicles under wet pavement conditions, and the friction provided
by
most pavement surfaces, assuming good tires. A roadway designed to criteria employs a
horizontal and vertical alignment and a cross section that provides at least the minimum
stopping
sight distance through the entire facility.
The stopping sight distance is comprised of the distance to perceive and react to a condition
plus, the distance to stop:

where SSD = required stopping sight distance, m or ft.

V = speed, kph or mph
t = perception-reaction time, sec., typically 2.5 sec. for design
f = coefficient of friction, typically for a poor, wet pavement
g = grade, decimal.

Overtaking Sight Distance

The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake the slow-moving vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the

28
opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along
the center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface
can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. The factors that affect the OSD are:
i) Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in the
opposite direction.
ii) Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed  Skill and reaction time
of the driver
iii) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle

Setback Distance
Setback distance, also known as clearance distance, is a critical parameter in highway design,
particularly for horizontal curves. It refers to the distance required from the centerline of a
horizontal curve to any obstruction located on the inner side of the curve. The purpose of
setback distance is to ensure that drivers have adequate sight distance to safely navigate the
curve, minimizing the risk of collisions with objects or vehicles.
The calculation of setback distance depends on several key factors:
1. Sight Distance Requirements:
• Setback distance is primarily determined by the sight distance needed for safe
driving conditions.
• This includes both the sight distance required for drivers to see around the curve
(OSD - Overlapping Sight Distance) and the sight distance needed for drivers
to stop safely if an obstruction is encountered (ISD - Intersection Sight
Distance).
• The required sight distances are influenced by factors such as design speed,
horizontal curve radius, and prevailing roadway conditions.
2. Radius of the Curve:
• The radius of the horizontal curve is a critical factor in determining the amount
of setback distance needed.
• Smaller curve radii generally require larger setback distances to provide
adequate sight distance for drivers, as tighter curves limit visibility around the
curve.
3. Length of the Curve:
• The length of the horizontal curve also influences the required setback distance.

29
 • Longer curves may require greater setback distances to ensure that sight
distance requirements are met consistently along the entire length of the curve.

Curve Resistance
Curve resistance, also known as cornering resistance or lateral resistance, refers to the force
that opposes the motion of a vehicle as it negotiates a horizontal curve. When a vehicle travels
along a curved path, the direction of rotation of the front and rear wheels differs due to steering
input. This results in several factors contributing to curve resistance:
1. Tire Slip Angle:
• As the vehicle navigates a curve, the front wheels are turned to a certain angle,
known as the slip angle, to maintain the desired trajectory.
• The difference between the actual direction of travel and the orientation of the
tire is the slip angle. This results in a lateral force being generated perpendicular
to the tire's longitudinal axis, resisting the vehicle's motion and aiding in
cornering.
2. Centrifugal Force:
• When a vehicle travels along a curved path, it experiences a centrifugal force
directed outward from the center of the curve.
• This centrifugal force acts on the vehicle's mass and contributes to the lateral
resistance encountered by the vehicle, especially at higher speeds or sharper
curves.
3. Suspension and Chassis Geometry:
• The design of a vehicle's suspension system and chassis geometry affects its
ability to negotiate curves effectively.
• Stiffer suspension setups and lower center of gravity contribute to reduced body
roll and improved cornering performance, minimizing curve resistance.
4. Frictional Forces:
• Friction between the tires and the road surface plays a crucial role in providing
traction and resisting lateral movement during cornering.
• The coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface influences the
magnitude of curve resistance, with higher friction allowing for greater
cornering speeds and stability.
5. Vehicle Dynamics:

30
 • Various vehicle dynamics, such as weight distribution, wheelbase length, and
tire characteristics, influence curve resistance.
• Factors such as weight transfer during cornering, tire grip, and steering response
affect the vehicle's ability to maintain stability and control while navigating
curves

Vertical alignment Design

The vertical alignment of a transportation facility consists of tangent grades (straight lines in
the vertical plane) and vertical curves. Vertical alignment is known by the profile. Just as a
circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves connect
two gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either convex or concave. The former
is called a summit curve, while the latter is called a valley curve.

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided designing the vertical curve. Before
analyzing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical
problems in the site also has to be considered. Usually, steep gradients are avoided as far as
possible because of the difficulty to climb and increase in the construction cost.

Effect of gradient
The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is particularly
important in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due to restrictive sight
distance at uphill gradients the speed of traffic is often controlled by these heavy vehicles. As
a result, not only the operating costs of the vehicles are increased, but also capacity of the roads
will have to be reduced. Further, due to high differential speed between heavy and light
vehicles, and between uphill and downhill gradients, accidents abound in gradients.

Representation of gradient
The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the negative gradient as -
n. The deviation angle Ø is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the change of
direction and is given by the algebraic difference between the two grades (n1- (-n2)) = n1+n2

31
Terrain types refer to the topographical characteristics of an area, which significantly influence
various aspects such as transportation, construction, and overall land use. A brief overview of
the terrain is:
1. Plain / Rolling Terrain:
• Plain or rolling terrain features relatively flat or gently undulating landscapes
with minimal variations in elevation.
• This type of terrain is typically characterized by expansive plains, grasslands,
or agricultural fields, where the land surface is relatively uniform and lacks
significant natural barriers or obstacles.
• Plain and rolling terrain is generally favorable for urban development, and
transportation infrastructure due to its ease of accessibility and relatively low
construction costs.
2. Hilly Terrain:
• Hilly terrain comprises undulating landscapes characterized by numerous small
hills, slopes, and valleys.
• This type of terrain features moderate changes in elevation, with hills and ridges
interspersed with valleys and low-lying areas.
• Hilly terrain poses challenges for infrastructure development, agriculture, and
transportation, as construction may require additional earthmoving and slope
stabilization measures. However, it also offers scenic vistas and recreational
opportunities, such as hiking and hill-climbing activities.
3. Steep Terrain:
• Steep terrain refers to rugged landscapes with steep slopes, cliffs, and
precipitous inclines.
• This type of terrain is characterized by significant changes in elevation over
short distances, resulting in challenging conditions for development and access.
• Steep terrain presents formidable obstacles for infrastructure construction,
agriculture, and transportation, often requiring specialized engineering
solutions and mitigation measures to address issues such as erosion, landslides,
and slope stability.
• Despite its challenges, steep terrain may offer unique ecological habitats,
recreational opportunities (e.g., rock climbing, mountaineering), and aesthetic
value, making it of interest for conservation and outdoor enthusiasts

32
Representation of Gradient
Specifications for gradients for different roads or terrains

Terrain Ruling Limit Exceptional

Plain / Rolling 3.3 5.0 6.7

Hilly 5.0 6.0 7.0

Steep 6.0 7.0 8.0

Climbing Lanes
Climbing lanes, also known as passing lanes or climbing lanes, are additional lanes added to a
roadway to facilitate the overtaking of slower-moving vehicles, particularly on uphill gradients.
These lanes are designed to improve traffic flow and safety by providing opportunities for
faster vehicles to pass slower ones, especially in situations where the grade of the road makes
passing difficult.
Here are key features and purposes of climbing lanes:
1. Location:
• Climbing lanes are typically constructed on sections of roadway where steep
grades or inclines are present, making it challenging for vehicles to maintain
speed while ascending.
• They are often situated on two-lane highways or undivided multi-lane roads,
where passing opportunities are limited.
2. Length:
• Climbing lanes vary in length depending on factors such as the grade of the
road, traffic volume, and available right-of-way.
• They are usually long enough to accommodate multiple vehicles overtaking
slower traffic, typically extending for several hundred meters to a kilometer or
more.
3. Design:
• Climbing lanes are constructed as additional lanes adjacent to the existing
roadway, typically in the uphill direction.
• They may be delineated by pavement markings, signage, and sometimes
physical barriers to separate them from the main travel lanes.
• The width of climbing lanes may vary but is generally sufficient to allow for
safe passing maneuvers.
33
 4. Purpose:
• The primary purpose of climbing lanes is to improve traffic flow and reduce
congestion by providing opportunities for faster-moving vehicles to overtake
slower ones, particularly trucks or vehicles towing trailers that may struggle to
maintain speed on inclines.
• Climbing lanes enhance safety by reducing the likelihood of driver frustration
and aggressive passing maneuvers on narrow or winding roads, thereby
minimizing the risk of head-on collisions and rear-end accidents.
• They help to improve overall roadway capacity and efficiency, especially on
routes frequented by heavy commercial traffic or where passing opportunities
are limited.
5. Signage and Markings:
• Climbing lanes are typically accompanied by appropriate signage, including
advance warning signs to alert motorists of their presence and instruct them on
how to use them safely.
• Pavement markings, such as dashed lines indicating the beginning and end of
the climbing lane, help guide drivers and delineate the passing zone

VERTICAL CURVE
A vertical curve is a smooth curve joining two different grades or slopes along a roadway in
the vertical plane. It is a gradual change in elevation that allows vehicles to transition smoothly
from an uphill to a downhill slope (crest curve) or from a downhill to an uphill slope (sag
curve). Vertical curves are an essential component of road design, aiming to provide safe and
comfortable driving conditions by minimizing abrupt changes in roadway slope.
These curves are designed based on factors such as design speed, stopping sight distance, and
the rate of change of grade, ensuring that drivers have adequate visibility of the roadway ahead
and can safely navigate changes in grade without encountering excessive discomfort or risk.

1. Purpose:
• Vertical curves are designed to provide a gradual transition between different
grades, to enhance driver comfort and safety by minimizing abrupt changes in
roadway slope, which can cause discomfort, reduce visibility, and increase the
risk of accidents.

34
2. Types:
• There are two main types of vertical curves: crest curves and sag curves.
• Crest curves are used to transition from an uphill grade to a downhill grade,
while sag curves transition from a downhill grade to an uphill grade.

3. Components:
• The key components of a vertical curve include the point of vertical intersection
(PVI), which marks the lowest or highest point of the curve depending on
whether it is a crest or sag curve.
• the lengths of the tangent grades leading up to and departing from the curve,
• length of the curve.
4. Design Considerations:
• Vertical curves are designed based on factors such as design speed, stopping
sight distance, and the rate of change of grade (known as the "K-value").
• Design criteria for vertical curves aim to ensure that drivers have adequate
visibility of the roadway ahead and can safely navigate changes in grade without
encountering excessive discomfort or risk.
5. Calculation and Analysis:
• Engineers use mathematical formulas and computer-aided design (CAD)
software to calculate the length and characteristics of vertical curves based on
design criteria and site-specific conditions.

35
 • Important calculations include determining the required length of the vertical
curve to provide adequate sight distance for drivers, as well as ensuring smooth
transitions between grades to minimize the potential for vehicle instability or
loss of control.

Vertical Curve Length

The length of a vertical parabolic curve is computed by
L = AK
where L = the length of vertical curve (ft)
A = the algebraic difference in grades (in percent)
K = the constant

Factors influencing vertical curve length.

For crest vertical curves, the constant K depends on
➢ the sight distance used for design,
➢ height of eye above the roadway surface He,
➢ height of object above the roadway surface Ho.
For sag vertical curves, the design is generally based on a headlight criterion, and
➢ the constant K depends on
➢ stopping sight distance,
➢ headlight height H (2 ft), and the
➢ upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle a (1°).

The design (minimum) K values for crest and sag vertical curves

36
 1. Length of Crest Vertical Curves
Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only criterion used for design of
a crest vertical curve. As illustrated in Fig. 5.3 and 5.4, there are two possible scenarios that
could control the design length:

(1) the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve, Fig. 5.3 and

(2) the SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve Fig. 5.4.

37
 Fig. 5.3 Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curve (S > L)

Fig. 5.4 Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curve (S < L)

where

L = length of vertical curve (m)

S = sight distance (m)

H1 = height of eye above roadway surface (m)

H2 = height of object above roadway surface (m)

G1, G2 = grades of tangents (%)

PVC = point of vertical curve

PVT = point of vertical tangent

Consider the case when the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve as shown in Fig.
5.3 where the driver eye height in a vehicle on the grade at point C is H1 m and the object at
point D seen by the driver is H2.The driver’s line of sight is PN m and the SSD is S m. The line
of sight, PN, may not necessarily be horizontal, but the value used in calculations for SSD
considers the horizontal projection.

38
From the properties of the parabola asshown in Fig. 5.3,

𝐿
𝑋3 =
2

The SSD S is

𝐿
𝑆 = 𝑋1 + + 𝑋2
2

X1 and X2, can be determined from grades G1and G2 and their algebraic difference A.

The minimum length of the vertical curve for the required sight distance is obtained as
2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2)
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
𝐴

It had been the practice to assume that the height H1 of the driver is 1.15m, and the height of
the object is 0.15m. Due to the increasing number of compact automobiles on the nation’s
highways, the height of the driver’s eye is now assumed to be 1m, and the object height,
considered to be the taillight of a passenger car, is 0.6m. Under these assumptions, the above
equal can be written as

658
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
𝐴

When the sight distance is less than the length of the crest vertical curve, the configuration
shown in Fig. 5.4 applies. Similarly, the properties of a parabola can be used to show that the
minimum length of the vertical curve is

𝐴𝑆²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆<𝐿)
200(√𝐻1+√𝐻2)

Substituting 1m for H1 and 0.6m for H the above can be written as

𝐴𝑆²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆<𝐿).
658
The above equation can be written as:

L =KA

where K is the length of the vertical curve per percent change in A. Since K is a function

of design speed, it can be used as a convenient “shortcut” to compute the minimum length

for a crest vertical curve.

39
Table 5.1 values for K are based on level roadway stopping sight distance requirements. The
use of K as a design control is convenient, since the value for any design speed will represent
all combinations of A and L for that speed. Similarly, K values can be computed for the case
where the sight distance is less than the vertical curve.

It has been found that the minimum lengths obtained for the case of S greater than L do not
produce practical design values and generally are not used.

Table 5.1 Values of K for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance

Rate of Vertical Curvature, K

Design Speed Stopping Sight
(mi/h) Distance (ft) Calculated Design
15 80 3 3
20 115 6.1 7
25 155 11.1 12
30 200 18.5 19
35 250 29.0 29
40 305 43.1 44
45 360 60.1 61
50 425 83.7 84
55 495 113.5 114
60 570 150.6 151
65 645 192.8 193
70 730 246.9 247
75 820 311.6 312
80 910 383.7 384

Worked Example 4.1

A parabolic vertical crest curve connects two road segments with grades +1.0% and -2.0%. If
a 200m stopping sight distance is needed for a driver at a height of 1.08m to avoid an
obstacle of height 0.15m, determine the minimum curve length.

Solution.
Case 1: If SSD<L; then

𝐴𝑆²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆<𝐿)
200(√𝐻1+√𝐻2)

Case 2: If SSD>L; then

2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2)
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
𝐴

40
Where H1 is height of driver’s eye

H2 is height of obstacle

A is absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1-G2|), expressed as a percentage,

Grades- G1 = 1% and G2 = -2%; H = 1.08m, h = 0.15; SSD = 200m

Assume L>SSD, i.e. L>200m: A=

The, the length of vertical curve is given as:

(1 − (−2)) ∗ 200²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 = 272.9𝑚
200(√1.2 + √0.15)

Since the calculated value of length of curve is found to be greater than SSD i.e. L>200m so
assumption is right. Therefore L = 273m.

2. Length of Sag Vertical Curves

The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled by the
following four (4) criteria:

i. SSD provided by the headlight,

ii. comfort while driving on the curve,
iii. general appearance of the curve, and
iv. adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve.
Minimum Length based on SSD Criterion. The headlight SSD requirement is based on the
fact that sight distance will be restricted during periods of darkness whereas during daylight
periods, sight distance is unaffected by the sag curve. As a vehicle is driven on a sag vertical
curve at night, the position of the headlight and the direction of the headlight beam will dictate
the stretch of highway ahead that is lighted. Therefore, the distance that can be seen by the
driver is controlled by the headlight beam.

41
 Fig. 5.5. Headlight Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves (S>L)

Figure 5.5 is a schematic of the case when S > L. The headlight is located at a height H above
the ground, and the headlight beam is inclined upward at an angle to the horizontal. The
headlight beam intersects the road at point D, thereby restricting the available SSD S. The
values used by AASHTO for H and b are 0.6096m and 1 degree, respectively. Using the
properties of the parabola, it can be shown that

200(𝐻 + 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽)_
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
𝐴

Substituting 0.6mt for H and 1 degree for b the equation yields the following:

(120 + 3.5𝑆 )
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − , (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
𝐴

Similarly, for the condition when S < L, it can be shown that

𝐴𝑆²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆<𝐿)
200(𝐻+𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽)
and substituting 0.6m for H and 1 degree for b the equation yields

𝐴𝑆²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆<𝐿)
120+3.5𝑆

Minimum Length based on Comfort Criterion. The comfort criterion is based on the fact that
when a vehicle travels on a sag vertical curve, both the gravitational and centrifugal forces act
in combination, resulting in a greater effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces
act in opposition to each other. The formula for determining the minimum length (Lmin) of a
sag vertical curve based on the comfort criterion can be expressed as:

𝐴𝑢²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
395
42
where:

Lmin is the minimum length of the sag vertical curve (in meters).

A is the algebraic difference in grades (in decimal form).

u is the design speed of the road (in meters per second).

Minimum Length of Curve based on Appearance Criterion. The criterion for acceptable
appearance is usually satisfied by assuring that the minimum length of the sag curve is not less
than expressed by the following equation:
Lmin = 30A
where L is the minimum length of the sag vertical curve.

Minimum Length based on Drainage Criterion. The drainage criterion for sag vertical
curves must be considered when the road is curbed.

Worked example 4.2

A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -5% grade to a +2% grade with SSD of 98.23m.
If the design speed is 64 km/h, determine the minimum length of the curve that will satisfy all
criteria.

Solution.

Length based on SSD Criterion

Determine whether S<L or S > L for the headlight sight distance criterion.

For S > L, A = 2-(-5) = 7

(120 + 3.5𝑆 )
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − , (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
𝐴
(120 + 3.5 ∗ 98.23 )
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 ∗ 98.23 − = 130.2𝑚
7

Note: This condition is note appropriate since 98.23<130.2. Hence, S is not greater than L.

For S<L:
𝐴𝑆²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆
200(𝐻 + 3.5𝑆)

7 ∗ 98.23²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 145.63𝑚
120.2 + 3.5 ∗ 98.23

43
This condition is satisfied since 98.23< 145.63.

Determine minimum length for the comfort criterion.

𝐴𝑢² 7 ∗ 64²
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 72.60𝑚
395 395

Determine minimum length for the general appearance criterion.

Lmin = 30 A = 30 * 7 = 210.0m

The minimum length to satisfy all criteria is 210.0m.

(Note: In order to check the maximum length drainage requirement, it is necessary to use
procedures for calculating curve elevations.

Procedure To Determine the Minimum Length of Vertical Curve

1 Identify suitable choice of grade G in terms of braking distance Db
2 Determine SSD =f (V, G)

3
4 Classify curve as crest or sag
5 Compute A = |G2-G-|
6 Assume S<=L, and adopt corresponding equation
7 Set actual Sight Distance S= SSD, solve for L, and confirm S<= L
8 If S<=L, then L is Lmin (STOP) unless L< Lower Limit (go to Step 11)
9 If S>L, then discard previous calculation
10 Adopt the alternate equation S>=L.
11 Set S=SSD and solve for L= Lmin, unless L< Lower Limit
12 If L (computed)<Lower Limit, choose Lmin = Lower Limit

44
45
46
 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Highway pavements are divided into two main categories: rigid and flexible. The wearing
surface of a rigid pavement is constructed of Portland cement concrete The wearing surface of
flexible pavements usually is constructed of bituminous materials such that they remain in
contact with the underlying material even when minor irregularities occur.

Flexible pavements usually consist of a bituminous surface underlaid with a layer of granular
material and a layer of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine materials. Traffic loads are
transferred by the wearing surface to the underlying supporting materials through the
interlocking of aggregates, the frictional effect of granular materials, and cohesion of fine
materials.
Flexible pavements are further divided into three subgroups: high type, intermediate type, and
low type. High-type pavements have wearing surfaces that adequately support the expected
traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and are not susceptible to weather conditions.
Intermediate-type pavements have wearing surfaces that range from surface treated to those
with qualities just below that of high type pavements. Low-type pavements are used mainly
for low-cost roads and have wearing surfaces that range from untreated to loose natural
materials to surface treated earth.

Structural Components of a Flexible Pavement

The figure below shows the components of a flexible pavement: the subgrade or prepared
roadbed, the subbase, the base, and the wearing surface. The performance of the pavement
depends on the satisfactory performance of each component, which requires proper
evaluation of the properties of each component separately.

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Surface or Wearing Course

The surface course is the uppermost course of the road pavement and is constructed
immediately above the base course. It consists of a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphalt.
The thickness of the wearing surface can vary from 3 in. to more than 6 in., depending on the
expected traffic on the pavement. The quality of the surface course of a flexible pavement
depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete used. The function of wearing course is to
be able to
1. It carries direct load from traffic and spreading it to lower layers.
2. The wearing course provides a durable skid resistant surface for traffic,
3. It provides safe and comfortable riding surface for traffic,
4. It protects pavement layers beneath from the effect of the weather. or ingress of surface
water into the underlying layers.

Base Course
The base course lies immediately above the subbase. It may be placed immediately above the
subgrade if a subbase course is not used. This course usually consists of granular materials
such as crushed stone, crushed or uncrushed slag, crushed or uncrushed gravel, and sand. The
specifications for base course materials usually include stricter requirements than those for
subbase materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity, gradation, and strength.
Materials that do not have the required properties can be used as base materials if they are
properly stabilized with Portland cement, asphalt, or lime. In some cases, high-quality base
course materials also may be treated with asphalt or Portland cement to improve the stiffness
characteristics of heavy-duty pavements. The function of base course includes
i. It provides with added stiffness and resistance to fatigue.
ii. It distributes traffic loads over the subbase, which is usually of weaker materials,
iii. It provides a good shaped and regular surface on which to lay the relatively thin
wearing course.

Subbase Course
Subbase Course is located immediately above the subgrade. The subbase component consists
of material of a superior quality to that which is generally used for subgrade construction. The
requirements for subbase materials usually are given in terms of the gradation, plastic
characteristics, and strength. When the quality of the subgrade material meets the requirements
of the subbase material, the subbase component may be omitted. In cases where suitable

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

subbase material is not readily available, the available material can be treated with other
materials to achieve the necessary properties. The functions of subbase course include
a. It assists in load spreading as part of the structural design,
b. It provides some protection to the subgrade as soon as it is exposed,
c. It provides the platform on which to lay the base, and support for the kerb, bed, and the
backing:

Subgrade (prepared Road Bed)

The subgrade is usually the natural material located along the horizontal alignment of the
pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement structure. It also may consist of a layer
of selected borrow materials, well compacted to prescribed specifications. It may be necessary
to treat the subgrade material to achieve certain strength properties required for the type of
pavement being constructed. The function of subgrade courses include
1. Load Support: The primary function of the subgrade is to provide support for the
pavement layers and the traffic loads they bear. It distributes the load from vehicles,
pedestrians, and environmental factors evenly across the underlying soil, preventing
excessive settlement or deformation of the pavement.
2. Uniform Foundation: The subgrade ensures a uniform and stable foundation for the
pavement structure. It must be compacted to a specified density and graded to the proper
elevation to provide a smooth and consistent base for the roadway layers.
3. Structural Integrity: By providing a solid foundation, the subgrade contributes to the
structural integrity of the roadway. It helps to minimize deflection, rutting, cracking,
and other forms of distress that can compromise the performance and longevity of the
pavement.
4. Moisture Control: Proper drainage and moisture control are essential functions of the
subgrade. It must be adequately compacted and graded to promote surface runoff and
prevent water from infiltrating into the pavement layers, which can lead to erosion,
swelling, or weakening of the soil.
5. Slope Stability: The subgrade plays a crucial role in slope stability, particularly on
embankments and cut slopes. It must be engineered to withstand the forces of gravity,
erosion, and weathering, ensuring the long-term stability of the roadway alignment.
6. Environmental Compatibility: The subgrade must be environmentally compatible,
taking into account factors such as soil composition, groundwater levels, and habitat

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

protection. Sustainable construction practices, erosion control measures, and soil

stabilization techniques may be employed to minimize environmental impact.
7. Cost Efficiency: A well-designed and properly constructed subgrade can help reduce
construction and maintenance costs over the lifecycle of the roadway. By providing a
stable foundation and minimizing the need for repairs and rehabilitation, it contributes
to the overall cost efficiency of the transportation infrastructure.

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Pavement Defects and Management:

Pavement Failure, Evaluation, Maintenance & Strengthening of Existing Pavement
Pavement failure is defined in terms of decreasing serviceability caused by the
development of cracks and ruts. Failures of bituminous pavements are caused due to many
reasons or combination of reasons. Applying corrections to the existing surface will
enhance the life of maintenance works as well as that of strengthening thhe layer.

Factors Influencing the Performance of a Pavement

Traffic: Traffic is the most important factor influencing pavement performance. The
performance of pavements is mostly influenced by the loading magnitude, configuration
and the number of load repetitions by heavy vehicles. The damage caused per pass to a
pavement by an axle is defined relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load,
which is defined as a 80 kN single axle load (E80). Thus, a pavement is designed to
withstand a certain number of standard axle load repetitions (E80’s) that will result in a
certain terminal condition of deterioration.

Moisture (Water) Moisture can significantly weaken the support strength of natural gravel
materials, especially the subgrade. Moisture can enter the pavement structure through
cracks and holes in the surface, laterally through the subgrade, and from the underlying
water table through capillary action. The result of moisture ingress is the lubrication of
particles, loss of particle interlock and subsequent particle displacement resulting in
pavement failure.

Subgrade The subgrade is the underlying soil that supports the applied wheel loads. If the
subgrade is too weak to support the wheel loads, the pavement will flex excessively which
ultimately causes the pavement to fail. If natural variations in the composition of the
subgrade are not adequately addressed by the pavement design, significant differences in
pavement performance will be experienced.

Construction Quality Failure to obtain proper compaction, improper moisture conditions

during construction, quality of materials, and accurate layer thickness (after compaction)
all directly affect the performance of a 78 pavement. These conditions stress the need for

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

skilled staff and the importance of good inspection and quality control procedures during
construction.

Maintenance: Pavement performance depends on what, when, and how maintenance is

performed. No matter how well the pavement is built, it will deteriorate over time based
upon the above mentioned factors. The timing of maintenance is very important, if a
pavement is permitted to deteriorate to a very poor condition, the added life would be about
10 percent of the total life. The cost however of repairing the road in very poor condition
would be a minimum of about four times the cost if the road had been repaired at an earlier
stage. The postponement of maintenance holds further implications, in that, if the cost of
repairing one badly deteriorated road would have to be deferred, it would mean that in a
few years the rehabilitation cost could be 16 times as much. Thus, postponing maintenance
because of budget constraints will result in a significant financial penalty within a few
years.

Pavement Distresses / Deterioration and Its Types

Pavement deterioration is the process by which distress (defects) develop in the pavement
under the combined effects of traffic loading and environmental conditions. Types of
common bituminous pavement surface distresses or deterioration may be categories in four:
1. Cracking 2. Surface deformation 3. Disintegration (potholes, etc.)
4. Surface defects (bleeding, etc.)
A. Cracking:
The most common types of cracking are:
1. Fatigue cracking 2. Longitudinal cracking 3. Transverse cracking 4. Block
cracking 5. Slippage cracking 6. Reflective cracking 7. Edge cracking

1. Fatigue cracking (Alligator cracking): Fatigue cracking is commonly called alligator

cracking. This is a series of interconnected cracks creating small, irregular shaped pieces
of pavement. It is caused by failure of the surface layer or base due to repeated traffic
loading (fatigue). Eventually the cracks lead to disintegration of the surface. The final
result is potholes. Alligator cracking is usually associated with base or drainage
problems. Small areas may be fixed with a patch or area repair. Larger areas require
reclamation or reconstruction. Drainage must be carefully examined in all cases.

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2. Longitudinal cracking: Longitudinal cracks are long cracks that run parallel to the center
line of the roadway. These may be caused by frost heaving or joint failures, or they may
be load induced. Understanding the cause is critical to selecting the proper repair.
Multiple parallel cracks may eventually form from the initial crack. This phenomenon,
known as deterioration, is usually a sign that crack repairs are not the proper solution.
3. Transverse cracking: Transverse cracks form at approximately right angles to the
centreline of the roadway. They are regularly spaced and have some of the same causes
as longitudinal cracks. Transverse cracks will initially be widely spaced (over 20 feet
apart). They usually begin as hairline or very narrow cracks and widen with age. If not
properly sealed and maintained, secondary or multiple cracks develop, parallel to the
initial crack. The reasons for transverse cracking, and the repairs, are similar to those for
longitudinal cracking. In addition, thermal issues can lead to low-temperature cracking
if the bitumen cement is too hard. Figure shows a low severity transverse crack.
4. Block cracking: Block cracking is an interconnected series of cracks that divides the
pavement into irregular pieces. This is sometimes the result of transverse and
longitudinal cracks intersecting. They can also be due to lack of compaction during
construction. Low severity block cracking may be repaired by a thin wearing course. As
the cracking gets more severe, overlays and recycling may be needed. If base problems
are found, reclamation or reconstruction may be needed. Figure shows medium to high
severity block cracking.
5. Slippage cracking: Slippage cracks are half-moon shaped cracks with both ends pointed
towards the oncoming vehicles. They are created by the horizontal forces from traffic.
They are usually a result of poor bonding between the bitumen surface layer and the
layer below .The lack of a tack coat is a prime factor in many cases. Repair requires
removal of the slipped area and repaving. Be sure to use a tack coat in the new pavement.
6. Reflective cracking: Reflective cracking occurs when a pavement is overlaid with hot
mix bitumen concrete and cracks reflect up through the new surface. It is called reflective
cracking because it reflects the crack pattern of the pavement structure below. As
expected from the name, reflective cracks are actually covered over cracks reappearing
in the surface. They can be repaired in similar techniques to the other cracking noted
above. Before placing any overlays or wearing courses, cracks should be properly
repaired.
7. Edge cracking: Edge cracks typically start as crescent shapes at the edge of the
pavement. They will expand from the edge until they begin to resemble alligator

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

cracking. This type of cracking results from lack of support of the shoulder due to weak
material or excess moisture. They may occur in a curbed section when subsurface water
causes a weakness in the pavement. At low severity, the cracks may be filled. As the
severity increases, patches and replacement of distressed areas may be needed. In all
cases, excess moisture should be eliminated, and the shoulders rebuilt with good
materials. Figure shows high severity edge cracking.

B. Surface deformation:
Pavement deformation is the result of weakness in one or more layers of the pavement
that has experienced movement after construction. The deformation may be
accompanied by cracking. Surface distortions can be a traffic hazard. The basic types of
surface deformation are:
1. Rutting 2. Corrugations 3. Shoving 4. Depressions 5. Swell

1. Rutting is the displacement of pavement material that creates channels in the wheel
path. Very severe rutting will actually hold water in the rut. Rutting is usually a
failure in one or more layers in the pavement. The width of the rut is a sign of which
layer has failed. A very narrow rut is usually a surface failure, while a wide one is
indicative of a subgrade failure. Inadequate compaction can lead to rutting. Minor
surface rutting can be filled with micropaving or paver-placed surface treatments.
Deeper ruts may be shimmed with a truing and levelling course, with an overlay
placed over the shim. If the surface bitumen is unstable, recycling of the surface
may be the best option. If the problem is in the subgrade layer, reclamation or
reconstruction may be needed.
2. Corrugation is referred to as wash boarding because the pavement surface has
become distorted like a washboard. The instability of the bitumen concrete surface
course may be caused by too much bitumen cement, too much fine aggregate, or
rounded or smooth textured coarse aggregate. Corrugations usually occur at places
where vehicles accelerate or decelerate. Minor corrugations can be repaired with an
overlay or surface milling. Severe corrugations require a deeper milling before
resurfacing.
3. Shoving is also a form of plastic movement in the bitumen concrete surface layer
that creates a localized bulging of the pavement. Locations and causes of shoving
are similar to those for corrugations. Repair minor shoving by removing and

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

replacing. For large areas, milling the surface may be required, followed by an
overlay.
4. Depressions are small, localized bowl-shaped areas that may include cracking.
Depressions cause roughness, are hazard to motorists, and allow water to collect.
Depressions are typically caused by localized consolidation or movement of the
supporting layers beneath the surface course due to instability. Repaired by
excavating and rebuilding the localized depressions. Reconstruction is required for
extensive depressions.
5. Swell is a localized upward bulge on the pavement surface. Swells are caused by an
expansion of the supporting layers beneath the surface course or the subgrade. The
expansion is typically caused by frost heaving or by moisture. Subgrades with
highly plastic clays can swell in a manner similar to frost heaves (but usually in
warmer months). Repair swells by excavating the inferior subgrade material and
rebuilding the removed area. Reconstruction may be required for extensive
swelling.

C. Disintegration
The progressive breaking up of the pavement into small, loose pieces is called
disintegration. If the disintegration is not repaired in its early stages, complete
reconstruction of the pavement may be needed. The two most common types of
disintegration are: 1. Potholes 2. Patches

1. Potholes are bowl-shaped holes similar to depressions. They are a progressive

failure. First, small fragments of the top layer are dislodged. Over time, the distress
will progress downward into the lower layers of the pavement. Potholes are often
located in areas of poor drainage. Potholes are formed when the pavement
disintegrates under traffic loading, due to inadequate strength in one or more layers
of the pavement, usually accompanied by the presence of water. Most potholes
would not occur if the root cause was repaired before development of the pothole.
Repair by excavating and rebuilding. Area repairs or reconstruction may be
required for extensive potholes.
2. Patches: A patch is defined as a portion of the pavement that has been removed and
replaced. Patches are usually used to repair defects in a pavement or to cover a
utility trench. Patch failure can lead to a more widespread failure of the surrounding

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

pavement. Some people do not consider patches as a pavement defect. While this
should be true for high quality patches as is done in a semi-permanent patch, the
throw and roll patch is just a cover. The underlying cause is still under the pothole.
To 83 repair a patch, a semi-permanent patch should be placed. Extensive potholes
may lead to area repairs or reclamation. Reconstruction is only needed if base
problems are the root source of the potholes.

D. Surface defects:
Surface defects are related to problems in the surface layer. The most common types
of surface distress are: 1. Raveling 2. Bleeding 3. Polishing 4. Delamination

1. Raveling is the loss of material from the pavement surface. It is a result of

insufficient adhesion between the bitumen cement and the aggregate. Initially, fine
aggregate breaks loose and leaves small, rough patches in the surface of the
pavement. As the disintegration continues, larger aggregate breaks loose, leaving
rougher surfaces. Ravelling can be accelerated by traffic and freezing weather.
Some ravelling in chip seals is due to improper construction technique. This can
also lead to bleeding. Repair the problem with a wearing course or an overlay.

2. Bleeding is defined as the presence of excess bitumen on the road surface which
creates patches of bitumen cement. Excessive bitumen cement reduces the skid-
resistance of a pavement, and it can become very slippery when wet, creating a
safety hazard. This is caused by an excessively high bitumen cement content in the
mix, using a bitumen cement with too low a viscosity (too flowable), too heavy a
prime or tack coat, or an improperly applied seal coat. Bleeding occurs more often
in hot weather when the bitumen cement is less viscous (more flowable) and the
traffic forces the bitumen to the surface. Figure 13 shows an example of bleeding
during hot weather.

3. Polishing is the wearing of aggregate on the pavement surface due to traffic. It can
result in a dangerous low friction surface. A thin wearing course will repair the
surface.

Causes of Pavement Deterioration

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1. Sudden increase in traffic loading especially on new roads where the design is based
on lesser traffic is a major cause of cracking. After construction of good road, traffic
of other roads also shifts to that road. This accelerates the fatigue failure (Alligator
Cracking).
2. Temperature variation (weather) leads to bleeding and cracking.
3. Provision of poor shoulders leads to edge failures.
4. Provision of poor clayey subgrade results in corrugation at the surface and increase
in unevenness.
5. Poor drainage conditions especially during rainy seasons, force the water to enter
the pavement from the sides as well as from the top surface. In case of open graded
bituminous layer, this phenomenon becomes more dangerous and the top layer gets
detached from the lower layers.
6. Improper temperature of bitumen/bituminous mixes would lead to pavement
failure. Overheating of bitumen reduces the binding property of bitumen. If the
temperature of bituminous mix has been lowered down then the compaction will
not be proper leading to longitudinal corrugations.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
Surface treatment - It is the general term used to describe work carried out to alter the
qualities of a wearing course, but which does not add appreciable thickness to it. Types of
surface treatments are: Tack coat; Prime coat; Surface dressing (prime and primer seal,
Seal Reseal); etc.
Tack coat
A tack coat is a film of bituminous binder that is applied in order to assist in achieving
adhesion between an existing surface and a new bituminous overlay or surfacing. It is
commonly used when a new wearing course is to be placed on an old bituminous surfacing,
a previously primed granular road base or base course.

Prime coat
A prime coat is the application of a suitable bituminous binder applied to a non-
bituminous granular base as a preliminary treatment before the application of a
bituminous surfacing.
The purpose of the prime coat is;
➢ to coat and bond loose material particles on the surface of the base,

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 BCVE 213: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

➢ to harden or toughen the base surface to provide a work platform for construction
equipment,
➢ to plug capillary voids in the base course surface to prevent migration of moisture,
and
➢ to provide adhesion between the base course and succeeding asphalt course.

SURFACE DRESSING Surface dressing is the application of a thin film of a bituminous

binder to the surface of a roadway, spreading a thin layer of aggregates or chippings upon
the binder, and rolling the chippings to ensure their adhesion to the surface.

The purposes of surface dressings are:

1) To seal new or old surfacing against the ingress of water;
2) To restore the skid-resistance properties of a surfacing;
3) To arrest any disintegration of an existing road surfacing that is showing signs of
distress;
4) To provide a dust free and durable surface for an untreated road base.
The binder, when applied, must be fluid, so as to "wet" both the chippings and the surface
of the road; it must then set in order to hold the chippings firmly in place.
Surface dressing is a low-cost operation and the process of specification development is
simple and direct. The overall guiding principle in respect of design is that the size of
chippings used at any particular site should be selected to offset the embedment produced
by traffic forces in the surfacing of different degrees of hardness.
The factors which determine whether scabbing (harden) or bleeding is likely to occur can
be divided into the following three main groups:
I) External conditions: hardness of pavement surface, traffic, and prevailing weather
conditions. The surface hardness together with the number of commercial vehicles, which
decides the extent to which the chippings will be embedded in the surfacing, and hence size
of the chippings likely to give the best results. Traffic - A critical factor in the design of
specification is the volume of traffic the pavement is required to carry. Most important is
the current number of commercial vehicle (> 1.5 ton) travelling in one direction in the
embedment of chippings into the pavement surface. Season and weather - for proper
adhesion to take place, surface dressing should be carried out in fine warm weather.

2) Properties of materials used:

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a) Aggregates -Aggregates must possess the necessary hardness, toughness, wearing and
crushing strength characteristics to withstand the traffic conditions under which it is to be
used and must be clean. The resistance to skidding of a surface dressing at a low traffic
speed is primarily determined by the resistance to polishing of the aggregate. Single size
chippings are recommended. If chippings contain a range of sizes, the smaller particles tend
to prevent the larger ones from making contact with the binder film. If the chippings have
an appreciable size range and segregation takes place, the smaller particles are likely to be
almost entirely submerged in the binder layer, whilst the larger particles may only have a
small depth of embedment when placed in the carriageway. The rate of application of
chippings is 75m2/m3. b) Bitumen or binder- Properties pertaining to the binder are the
type, quality, and viscosity. The binders used for surface dressing are AC-10, AC-20)
bitumen emulsion etc.

3) Method of application - Care must be taken to control the quantity or rate of spread of
binder, quantity or rate of spread of chippings, mass and type of roller, and the time interval
before opening the road to traffic. The correct rate of binder application is primarily
depended upon the size and shape of the chippings and, to lesser extent, upon the traffic
intensity and the nature of the road surface. The rate of application of binder is usually in
the range 0.7 - 1.0 litres/m2. The function of the binder is to bind the aggregate particles
both to the road surface and to each other while at the same time providing the chippings
with the most possible support before the dislodging actions of traffic.

Classification of Surface Treatments

The following classes or treatments are available:
a) Initial Treatments (Prime and Primer seal)
b) Seals
c) Reseals
d) Other Treatments

a) Initial Treatments - Initial treatments are applied to unsealed surfaces and are either a
Prime, or a Primer seal.
Primer-sealing is the application of a suitable primer- binder to a prepared pavement and
covered with chippings as a temporary treatment prior to applying the final bituminous
surfacing. Primer-seal may have a life expectancy of between 6 months and 2 years. It is

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designed to seal a pavement immediately after construction and· surface preparation and
to hold the pavement in good condition until the final treatment bituminous surfacing can
be applied. The primer-binder used for a primer-seal is more viscous than a primer and
less viscous than a normal binder and is required to act as both a primer and a binder.

Types of primer-seals - Single and multiple applications of primer-seals are employed in

road construction.
Design Procedure of Primer seals:
i. Select primer binder: The grade of cutback bitumen specified for use in Ghana for primer
sealing is AMC4 which contains 16% cutter by volume. Cationic rapid setting bitumen
emulsion (minimum 70% bitumen content) has been specified for use.
ii. Select Chipping Size: Size 10mm chippings - are normally selected for both low and
high traffic volumes as size 7mm chippings are not generally available. Size 14mm
chippings may be selected if traffic volumes are high and contains a high proportion of
commercial vehicles.
iii. Select Primer Binder Application Rate - Cutback bitumen
iv. Select Chipping Application Rate
v. Design Calculation Sheet
vi. Curing Period -A prirnerseal must be cured to a hard surface before a seal is applied. The
cutback bitumen binder is cured by evaporation of the cutter oil and hardening of the
bitumen.

Functions of Initial treatments:

a) Prime
• To provide a short life waterproof surface which bonds tightly to the unsealed surface
by penetrating the surface.
• To provide a uniform surface for the application of the seal.
The material used for priming, most often, is cutback bitumen. The grade of cutback is
selected so that it penetrates 5-10 mm into the pavement surface.

b) Primer seal To provide a light weatherproof wearing surface incorporating chippings.A

cutback binder is used for primer sealing and it is intended to act as a primer and penetrate
the pavement surface, and a binder to retain the chippings. The cutback often used is grade

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AMC4 with 16% cutter (kerosene). This cutter penetrates 2-3 mm into the surface of the
pavement. Cationic type emulsion bitumen is recommended for primerseals in Ghana.

Criteria for selecting Initial Treatement

Prime - This treatment is used when the surface is not trafficked or only subjected to light
construction traffic before sealing.
Primer seal- This treatment is used when the surface is to be trafficked immediately. The
ministry of Road Transport policy is that all initial treatments will be primer seals.

b) Seals are applied to primed or primer sealed surfaces. The function of the seal is to
provide a lasting weatherproof surface. It is designed for compatibility with the surface
underneath (without penetration) and for chipping retention.
c) Reseals A reseal is applied directly over an existing sealed surface. Where the existing
surface has a variable texture or is bleeding, flushing, or stripped, remedial pre-treatment
should be undertaken.

b) Seal Coats
Seal coats are usually single applications of asphalt material that may or may not
contain aggregates. The three types of seal coats commonly used in pavement
maintenance are fog seals, slurry seals, and aggregate seal
Fog seal is a thin application of emulsified asphalt, usually with no aggregates added.
Slow-setting emulsions, such as SS-1, SS-1H, CSS-1, and CSS-1H, normally are used
for fog seals. The emulsion is sprayed at a rate of 0.1 to 0.2 gal/yd2 after it has been
diluted with clean water. Fog seals are used mainly to
• Reduce the infiltration of air and water into the pavement
• Prevent the progressive separation of aggregate particles from the surface downward
or from the edges inward (raveling) in a pavement.
• Bring the surface of the pavement to its original state

Slurry seal is a uniformly mixed combination of a slow-setting asphalt emulsion

(usually SS-1), fine aggregate, mineral filler, and water. Mixing can be carried out in
a conventional plastic mixer or in a wheelbarrow if the quantity required is small. It
usually is applied with an average thickness of 1 ⁄16 to 1 ⁄8 inches. Slurry seal is used
as a low-cost maintenance material for pavements carrying light traffic. Note, however,

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that although the application of a properly manufactured slurry seal coat will fill cracks
of about 1 ⁄4 in. or more and provide a fine-textured surface, existing cracks will appear
through the slurry seal in a short time.

Aggregate Seals Aggregate seals are obtained by spraying asphalt, immediately

covering it with aggregates, and then rolling the aggregates into the asphalt. Asphalts
used for aggregate seals are usually the softer grades of paving asphalt and the heavier
grades of liquid asphalts. Aggregate seals can be used to restore the surface of old
pavements.

Types of Seals and Reseals:

a. Single Seals - Single seals comprise a single application of grade AC 10 bitumen binder
and a single application of chippings over a primed or primer sealed surface.
b. Single Reseal - A reseal is the utilization of a single seal to an existing bituminous surface
to restore a previously sealed surface to a satisfactory condition.
c. Double Seals - A double seal consists of two applications of binder and chippings. The
chippings in the second application are normally no more than half the size of the first, and
the spread rate is just sufficient to fill the voids in the first application.
d. Other Treatments • Dust suppression - The treat a dusty road by the application of a low
viscosity, slow curing oil, or a diluted bitumen emulsion. • Surface Enrichment-A light
application of bituminous emulsion to an existing bituminous surface to increase the binder
content at the surface. The sprayed surface can be covered with quarry dust to minimize
delay to traffic.

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ROAD MAINTENANCE OPERATION

Objective of road maintenance -To conserve as much as possible the original designed
condition of paved and unpaved roads, traffic signs, signals and markings, in a manner most
likely to minimize the total cost to society of vehicle operation and accident cost, under the
constraints of severe resource limitations, in respect of skilled manpower, equipment and
money, both local and foreign.

Classification of Maintenance Activities for the purposes of management, the most useful
way to classify maintenance activities is in terms of their operational frequency. There are
four categories:
Routine maintenance
Recurrent maintenance
Periodic maintenance
Urgent maintenance

Routine maintenance - Routine maintenance is required continually on every road whatever

its engineering characteristics or traffic volume. Examples of routine maintenance activities
are: grass cutting, drain clearing, recutting ditches, culvert maintenance, road signs
maintenance.
Recurrent maintenance - Recurrent maintenance is required at intervals during the year with
a frequency that depends on the volume of traffic using the road. Examples of recurrent
maintenance activities on paved roads are: repairing potholes, repairing edges, patching,
sealing cracks. Examples for unpaved roads are: repairing potholes and ruts; dragging,
grading.
Periodic maintenance - Periodic maintenance describes activities that are needed
occasionally, that is, after a period of some years. They are usually large scale and require
more equipment and skilled labour. Examples on paved roads are: resealing (surface dressing,
slurry sealing, fog spray, etc.), regravelling shoulders, bitumen overlay, reconstruction, road
surface marking. Example on unpaved roads is: regravelling.
Urgent maintenance - Urgent maintenance is needed to deal with emergencies and problems
calling for immediate action when a road is blocked. Examples are: flood damage, earth slips,

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overturned trees, placement of warning signs, removal of debris. It is carried out on all
categories of road.

Maintenance Activities on Bitumen Pavements consists of:

Recurrent activities - sanding, local sealing, crack sealing, filling depressions, surface
patching, base patching.
Periodic activities - surface dressing, fog spray, slurry seal, bitumen overlays, reconstruction.
Sanding is a treatment that may be used when bitumen road surfacing bleeds. Bleeding is a
migration of bitumen to the surface of the pavement. Bleeding is usually caused by too much
binder in the surfacing or by an unsuitable binder. Bleeding reduces surface friction and
causes the road surface to be slippery. When sanding a bleeding bitumen pavement, a thin
layer of sand is spread over the· surface. The sand is scattered with a shovel and spread out
with a broom. Wherever possible, the sand should be course grained with a particle size 0-
5mm.

Maintenance capability and management

The maintenance capability of the responsible road agency should be a key criterion
when appraising new projects. If it is likely that the future infrastructure will not
receive adequate maintenance then it is unlikely that future benefits will be achieved,
and the proposed project should not be implemented. In such cases, it will be more
advisable to improve the maintenance of existing infrastructure.
Inefficient use of limited funds for infrastructure maintenance is often closely linked
to poor maintenance planning. The improvement of management practices is a
prerequisite to improving maintenance capability such an approach needs to be
supported by the implementation of maintenance management systems.
In the manual system, maintenance needs are assessed by use of maintenance
standards.
Management: Management is concerned· with determining, organizing,
programming and controlling the use of resources to achieve the desired objectives.
Approach to maintenance management Because of the intense pressure to make
optimum use of limited resources maintenance management presents a greater
challenge to the road engineer than maintenance techniques. Maintenance engineers
must have detailed knowledge of all techniques, but supervision of the majority of
maintenance activities should be delegated to technicians or foremen. The

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maintenance engineer should be engaged in planning, programming, budgeting, and

monitoring these activities.

Maintenance management has the following objectives:

(i) To encourage the use of a systematic approach to decision-making within a
consistent and defined framework;
(ii) To provide a common basis for assessing maintenance needs and resource
requirements; To encourage the adoption of consistent maintenance standards;
(iii)To assist in the efficient allocation of resources;
(iv) To encourage regular review of policies, standards and the effectiveness of
programmes. Maintenance management aims to get the requisite labour, materials
and equipment to the right place on the road network, to carry out the right
remedial work at the right time.

Maintenance Cycle
Maintenance management is normally undertaken as a cycle of activities, carried out on an
annual basis, in the following steps:
(i) Setting of maintenance policy, objectives and standards.
(ii) Classification and preparation of register, inventory and inspection.
(iii) Assessment of maintenance needs.
(iv) Resource estimation.
(v) Assessment of priorities when resources are constrained.
(vi) Scheduling and execution of works.
(vii) Monitoring of performance.

Maintenance policy, objectives and standards

Policies are the key issues in the management of maintenance. They define the broad level
of service which the infrastructure authority intends to provide in terms of level of comfort,
safely economic benefit and the cost of provision.

Classification and preparation of road register-inventory

Data for a simple road register may be collected by driving slowly through the road network
and stopping for measurement of characteristic cross-sections, type of surface and
construction, cross-section width, traffic volumes, Structures such as culverts and bridges

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and road furniture. A system of network referencing is fundamental to highway management.

For management purposes the network is usually broken down into a series of links or
sections, each defined by a unique label. The list of links provides a road register which
defines the entire highway network. The roads register will also contain inventory which lists,
against each link details of the physical characteristics of the road. The register should contain
the following information:
a. Alignment: the chainage of characteristics points in the alignment- location of
crossroads, culverts, bridges, sharp curves etc;
b. Longitudinal profile: the chainage of verticay horizontal curves; a Cross-section: the
width of the carriageway and shoulders, ditches etc;
c. Pavement: type, thickness, age;
d. Structure: type and dimensions of culvert and bridges;
e. Furniture: road signs and guardrails;
f. Land use: information about the soil type along the road (clay, sand, rock etc.)

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