SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

TECHNIQUE
By –Bhoopendra Singh Yadav
Introduction:-

• It is not always possible to study an entire population, therefore, the

researcher draws a representative part of a population through
sampling.
TERMINOLOGIES

• Sampling is a process of selecting representative units from an entire

population of a study.
• Sampling frame is a list of all the elements or subjects in the
population from which the sample is drawn.
• Distortion that arises when a sample is not representative of the
population from which it was drawn is known as sampling bias.
• Sampling plan is the formal plan specifying method, a sample size
and the procedure of selecting the subjects.
Definition:-

• Sampling is a process of selecting representative units of a population

for study in a research.
• Sample:- consist of a subjects selected for study, they are selected
from large group referred to as population.
• Population:- is the entire group of person or object being studied and
is often from large referred to as population.
PURPOSES OF SAMPLING

• Economical
• With the help of sampling, the researcher can save lots of time, money and resources
to study a phenomenon.
• Improved Quality Of Data
• In research, when a researcher is handling the information from only a part of the
population under study, it is easier to maintain the quality of the research work, which would not
be possible in case the entire population was involved.
• Quick Study Results
• With the sample, it is possible to generate study results faster, which is one of the
important objectives of every researcher.
• Precision And Accuracy Of Data
• While carrying a study on a part of the population helps the researcher to generate
more precise data. It is always easy to establish better rapport with a sample and thus to collect
more accurate data. Thus, a sample helps to generate precise and accurate data in a research
study.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SAMPLE

• A good sample is always representative of population under study.

• It should be free from bias and error.
• Sample size should be adequately selected so that it is more reliable.
• It should be free from random sampling error.
• There should not be any substitution of originally selected sample
unit by some other convenience in any way.
• It should not be ignore the failure of sample in responding to the
study.
• Appropriate sample size.
SAMPLING PROCESS

• The sampling process consists of 7 following stages.

• Identifying and defining the target population
• It is the first step of the sampling process. Target population
consists of the total group of people or objects which are meeting the set
of criteria of interest of the researcher. It is the first and the most essential
stage of the sampling process.
• Describe the accessible population and ensuring sampling frame
• Researcher must establish a description about the accessible
population which is readily available for research. After establishing a
complete description of the accessible population, researcher must have a
sampling frame available to select from accessible population.
• Specifying the sampling unit
• Next, the researcher must establish the specific inclusion
and exclusion criteria to select a particular sampling unit.
• Specifying sample selection methods
• It is one of the important stages of the sampling process,
where the researcher decides whether sample will be drawn from the
population by using probability and nonprobability sampling
techniques.
• Determining the sample size
• It is very essential to determine the size of sample, so that the
researcher can plan the implementation of the sampling process
accordingly.
• Specifying sampling plan
• Before the selection of a particular sample, the researcher must
have a final sampling plan, so that sampling process can be implemented
without any undue problems.
• Selecting a desired sample
• Finally a researcher draws a representative sample from the
accessible population from which the data is collected for research study.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING PROCESS

• I] Nature Of The Researcher

• (a)Inexperienced investigator
• (b) Lack of interest
• (c) Lack of honesty
• (d) Intensive workload
• (e) Inadequate supervision
• II] Nature Of The Sample
• (a) Inappropriate sampling technique
• (b) Sample size
• (c) Defective Sampling Frame
• III] Circumstances
• (a) Lack of time
• (b) Large geographic area
• (c) Lack of cooperation
• (d) Natural calamities
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES/METHODS

• IN QUANTITATIVE DESIGN:-
• There are several methods or techniques of sampling. They are
broadly classified into two broad categories.
(a) Probability Sampling Technique
(b) Non Probability Sampling Technique
I] PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• In this every subject in a population has equal chance to be selected

as study sample. In probability sampling techniques the chances of
systematic bias is relatively less because subjects are randomly
selected.
• Types of Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Systemic sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Sequential sampling
Simple Random Sampling Technique

• This is the most pure and basic probability sampling design. The entire process of
sampling is done in a single step.
• There is need of two essential prerequisites to implement the simple random
technique, population must be homogeneous and researcher must have list of
the members of accessible population.
• The first step of simple random sampling technique is to identify the accessible
population and prepare a list of all the elements of the population and sample
drawn from it by using following method.
• Lottery method:-
• The use of table of random numbers:-
• The use of computer:-
• Now a days random tables may be generated from the computer
• Merits
• This is one of the most unbiased probability methods of sampling.
• This method of sampling is free from sampling errors and biases.
• Demerits
• One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling is the
requirement of a complete and up to date list of all the members of
the population.
• Expensive and time consuming process.
Stratified Random Sampling

• This method is used for heterogeneous population. Stratified sampling is a

probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the entire
population into different homogeneous subgroups or strata and randomly
select the final subject proportionally from the different strata.
• The strata are divided according to the selected trait of the population such
as age, gender, religion, soci-economic status, education, geographical
region, type of registered nurse etc.
• According to the weightage of the sample and proportion. Stratified
random sampling is further divided into
• Proportionate.
• Disproportionate stratified random sampling.
• Proportionate stratified random sampling:-
• In this the sample choose from each strata depend on the population
of each stratum eg:- 100 female of 18 year then 50 female selected.
• Disproportionate stratified random sampling:-
• In this, subtype, the sample choose from each stratum are not in
proportion to the size of total population in that stratum.
• Eg:- 50 girls and 10 boys in different stratus instead of selecting 25
girls and 5 boys they will select all 10 boys and 20 girls.
• Merits
• It ensure representation of all groups in a population.
• This technique has high statistical precision.
• Demerits
• Large population must be available from which to select subjects.
• There is always a possibility of faulty classification and hence increase
in variability.
Systematic random sampling

• It involves the selection of every Kth case from list of group or every 10th
person on a patient list or every 100th person from a phone dictionary or
every kth person entering a bookstore.
• The formula used is,
• K = 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ÷
𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒)
• Eg : A researcher wants to choose about 100 subjects from a total target
population of 500 people. Therefore, 500 /100 = 5; every 5th person will be
selected.
• In this method, a list of the subjects is prepared for the target population
and then the first subject is randomly selected, later every kth subject is
selected from the sampling frame.
• Merits
• This technique is convenient and simple to carry out.
• Less time consuming.
• Statistically more efficient and provides a better representative sample
when population elements are randomly distributed.
• Distribution of sample is spread evenly over the entire population.
• Demerits
• If first subject is nit randomly selected, it becomes a non random sampling
technique.
• Sometimes this may result in biased sample.
Cluster/ Multistage sampling

• When population element are scattered over a wide area and it is

impossible to obtain all elements, cluster sampling technique used.
• It means selection of sampling unit consisting of population elements
first. Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample is drawn by
either simple random sampling or stratified random sampling.
• The important thing is to remember about give all the clusters equal
chance of being selected.
• Eg : A researcher wants to survey academic performance of high
school students in India.
• He can divide the entire population [India] into different clusters
[cities].
• Then the researchers selects a number of clusters depending on his
research through simple or systemic random sampling.
• Then from the selected clusters (cities), the researchers can either
include all the high school students as subjects (one stage cluster
sample) or he can select a number of subjects from each cluster
through simple or systematic random sampling.(two stage cluster
sample).
• Types:-
• One stage cluster sample:-
• when researcher select cluster randomly and select all samples in it.
• Two stage cluster sample:-
• When researcher select cluster randomly and from it select sample by
using simple random or systemic random sampling called two stage
cluster sample.
• Merits
• This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy for a large
population.
• Large populations can be studied.
• Enables investigators to use districts, villages etc.
• Same cluster can be used again for study.
• Demerits
• Researcher can have an over represented or under represented
cluster which can skew the result of the study.
Sequential Sampling

• This method of sample selection is slightly different from other

methods. Here the sample size is not fixed. The investigator initially
selects small sample and tries out to make inferences. if not able to
draw results he or she then adds more subjects until clear cut
inferences can be drawn.
• For ex:- a researcher is studying association between smoking and
lung cancer. Initially researcher takes a smallest sample and tries to
draw inferences. If unable to draw any inferences he or she continue
to draw the sample until meaningful inferences are drawn.
• Merits
• Facilitates to conduct a study on best possible smallest representative
sample.
• Demerits
• In this study it is not possible to study a phenomenon which needs to
be studied at one point of time.
• Requires repeated entries to collect the data.
II] NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• It is a technique where in the samples are gathered in a process that

does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of
being selected in the sample. Because element choosen by choice
not by chance.
• Generally, it is believed that it can produce more bias. This restrict the
generalization that can be made about the study findings
Types of non probability sampling:-

• Purposive sampling
• Convenient sampling
• Consecutive sampling
• Quota sampling
• And snowball sampling.
• Uses
• This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a
particular trait exists in the population.
• It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative or
exploratory study.
• It can be used when randomization is not possible like when the
population is limitless.
• It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and
workforce
Types Of Non Probability Sampling

• Purposive sampling/ judgmental sampling

• It is commonly known as judgmental or authoritative
sampling.
• In this type of sampling the researcher believes that some subjects
are fit for research compared to other individuals so they are
selected.
• Researcher select the sample who are believed to be typical or
representative of the accessible population but it require expertise
and in-depth knowledge about accessible population.
• Eg : A researcher wants to study the lived experiences of post disaster
depression among people living in earthquake affected areas of
Gujarat. In this case a purposive sampling technique is used to select
the subjects who were the victims of the earthquake disaster and
have suffered post disaster depression living in earthquake affected
areas of Gujarat.
• Merits
• Simple to draw sample and useful in exploration studies.
• Save resources, requires less fieldwork
• Demerits
• Requires considerable knowledge about the population under study.
• It is not always reliable sample, as conscious bias may exists.
• No randomization was used in obtaining the sample.
Convenience sampling/ accidental sampling

• It is also known as accidental sampling.

• It is the most commonly used of all sampling technique. It is fast,
inexpensive, easy and subject are readily available.
• Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where
subjects are selected because of they are easiest to recruit for the
study and to the researcher.
• It did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the
entire population.
• Eg : If a researcher wants to conduct a study on the older people
residing in Ludhiana and the researcher observes that he can meet
several older people coming for morning walk in a park located near
his residence in Ludhiana, he can choose these people as his research
subjects.
• Merits
• It is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.
• It saving time, money and resources.
• Demerits
• The sample is not representative of the entire population (sampling
bias).
• The results generated from these samples cannot be generalized on
the population.
Consecutive sampling

• It is also known as total enumerative sampling.

• It is similar to convenient sampling except that it include all accessible
subjects as a part of the sample.
• This sampling technique is considered as the best of all non
probability samples because it includes all the subjects that are
available, which makes the sample a representative of the entire
population.
• This is used in small sized population.
• Eg : If a researcher wants to study the activity pattern of post kidney
transplant patients, he can selects all patients who are admitted in
post transplant ward during a specific time period.
• Merits
• Very little effort needed on the part of the researcher.
• It is not expensive and not time consuming.
• Ensures more representatives of the selected sample.
• Demerits
• The researcher has no set plans about the sample size and sampling
schedule.
• It always does not guarantee the selection of representative sample.
Quota sampling

• The researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of

subjects, depending on which trait is considered as the basis of the
quota.
• It appear like stratified random sampling however it is not randomly
selected sample for different quota.
• It also tries to bring homogeneity among sample by putting quoto.
• Eg : If researcher requires a sample of 100 for research study quota of
50% males and 50% females would be set
• Merits
• Economically cheap.
• Suitable for studies where the fieldwork has to be carried out.
• Demerits
• Only selected traits of population were taken into account
• Bias is possible.
Snowball sampling

• It is also known as chain referral sampling.

• it is a non probability sampling technique that is used by researchers
to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to
locate such as commercial sex workers, drug abusers etc.
• The process of snowball sampling is much like asking subjects to
nominate another person with the same traits. The researchers then
observes the nominated subjects and continues in the same way until
obtaining sufficient number of subjects.
• Eg : A researcher wants to conduct a study on the prevalence of
HIV/AIDS among commercial sex workers.
Types of the snowball sampling

• Linear snowball sampling

• In this each selected sample is asked to provide reference of only one similar
subject
• Exponential non discriminate snowball sampling
• In this each sample member is asked to provide reference of at least
two similar subjects, because of which the size of the sample size grows
exponentially and a large sample size can be achieved.
• Exponential discriminate snowball sampling
• In this initially one sample is selected and asked for two references of
similar subjects, out of which at least one subject must be active to provide
further references and another could be non-active in providing references.
Similarly, each active reference subject is further asked for two references for
similar subjects; out of them one should be active for further references.
• Merits
• This sampling allows the researcher to reach populations that are difficult to
sample by other sampling methods.
• The process is cheap, simple and cost effective.
• It needs little planning and less workforce compared to other method.
• Demerits
• The researcher has little control over the sampling method.
• Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed.
• Sampling bias is also a fear of researcher because subject tend to nominate
people that they know well. Because of this, it is highly possible that the subjects
share the same traits and thus it is possible that the sample that researcher will
obtain is only a small subgroup of entire population.
Qualitative method, sampling technique:-

• The most common qualitative sampling technique are:-

• Purposive sampling technique.
• Quota sampling technique. And
• Snow ball sampling technique.