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DISASTERS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Sr. Topic Page no

1 Disaster and hazards 1
2 Classification of disasters, Natural hazards, their 3
management
3 Disaster Management in India 57
4 Disaster Management and Technology 72
5 National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009 75
6 Current Developments 76
CH-1 DISASTER AND HAZARDS
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)

defines disaster as “a serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events
interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity,
leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts."
(UNISDR 2016).
The DM Act 2005 uses the following definition for disaster:

"Disaster" means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from
natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or
human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment,
and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected
area."
Hazard:
A hazard is a threat, a future source of danger with a potential to cause damage to:
• People: Death, injury, disease and stress
• Property: Damage to property, economic loss, loss of livelihood and status
• Environment: Loss of flora and fauna, pollution, loss of biodiversity.
Difference between hazards and disasters
Disaster Hazard
Disaster is an event that occurs Hazard is an event that has potential for causing
suddenly/unexpectedly in most cases and disrupts injury/ loss of life or damage to
the normal course of life in affected area. It results property/environment.
in loss or damage to life, property or environment.
This Loss is beyond the coping capacity of local
affected population/society. And therefore requires
external help.
Important terms used in disaster management:

1. Hazards: A phenomenon which may cause injury or loss of life, damage to property, social and
economic disruption or environmental degradation.
2. Vulnerability: The potential for loss to an individual, community or place because of a disaster that is
affected by geographical as well as social conditions.
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3. Community: People who live together in a village or urban areas, which can be identified as local group
with a common way of life.
4. First Responders: Group of people who are immediately affected by a disaster, and are the first to respond
and help to cope with it, before government or relief agencies can rush to the area.
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CH-2 CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF DISASTERS AND
NATURAL HAZARDS
Classification of disasters:
Disasters can be classified into two types:
Classification of Disasters
Natural disasters Man-made disasters
Natural disasters in India:
Natural Disasters
Crowd
Earthquake Tsunamis Floods Droughts Landslides Forest Fires Oil Spills
Management
1. Earthquake
• Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and highly
destructive of all the natural disasters. Earthquakes that
are of tectonic origin have proved to be the most
devastating and their area of influence is also quite large.
• These earthquakes result from a series of earth
movements brought about by a sudden release of energy
during the tectonic activities in the earth’s crust.
• National Geophysical Laboratory, Geological Survey of
India, Department of Meteorology along with recently
formed National Institute of Disaster Management have
made an intensive analysis of more than 1200 earthquakes
that have occurred in India in the past and based on these,
they divided India into following five earthquake zones:
Seismic Zones in India
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• There are four seismic zones (II, III, IV, and V) in India based on scientific inputs relating to seismicity,
earthquakes occurred in the past and tectonic setup of the region.
• Previously, earthquake zones were divided into five zones with respect to the severity of the earthquakes
but the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) grouped the country into four seismic zones by unifying
the first two zones.
• BIS is the official agency for publishing the seismic hazard maps and codes.
Seismic Zone II: Area with minor damage earthquakes corresponding to intensities V to
VI of MM scale (MM-Modified Mercalli Intensity scale).
Seismic Zone III: Moderate damage corresponding to intensity VII of MM scale.
Seismic Zone IV: Major damage corresponding to intensity VII and higher of MM scale.
Seismic Zone V: • Area determined by pro seismically of certain major fault systems
and is seismically the most active region.
• Earthquake zone V is the most vulnerable to earthquakes, where
historically some of the country’s most powerful shocks have
occurred.
• Earthquakes with magnitudes in excess of 7.0 have occurred in these
areas, and have had intensities higher than IX.
Earthquakes: 59% of India’s territory is vulnerable to earthquakes.
Socio environmental consequences of earthquakes:

• The idea of earthquakes is often associated with fear and horror due the scale, magnitude and
suddenness at which it spreads on the surface of the earth without discrimination.
• It becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of high density of population.
• It not only damages and destroys the settlement, infrastructure, transport and communication
networks, industries and other developmental activities but also robs the population of their
material and socio-cultural gains that they have preserved over generations. It renders them homeless,
which puts an extra pressure and stress, particularly on the weak economy of developing countries.
Effects of earthquakes:
1. On Ground:
Fissures: • Earthquakes can create fissures in the crust of the earth which may
result into possible chain effects.
• Population settlement can be hampered due to earthquakes which may
Settlements: also result into loss of lives, migration of people to safer areas.
• High sloping areas are most vulnerable zones for landslides. Human
Landslides activities like intensive grazing, deforestation and natural phenomena
like high rainfall can cause landslides.
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• Example: Himalayan region have high sloping areas which also
constitutes ‘very high damage risk zone’ in India.
2. On Manmade Structures:
Cracking: Earthquakes can cause cracking of buildings, roads and other
infrastructure. In the long run these cracks can make the structures more
vulnerable for further damage.
Sliding: Earthquake can develop sliding of structures to the lower strata. A
tectonic plate can slide over another which can create unevenness on the
ground. This causes sliding of buildings, roads and other infrastructures.
Collapse: Manmade structures are high risk prone to earthquakes if these are not
constructed according to the geological and geomorphological conditions
of the area. Thus, buildings collapse is common phenomenon during
earthquakes.
3. On Water:
Waves: Earthquakes can create waves on water bodies usually higher than normal.
Such high waves can intrude human settlements, agriculture, forests etc.
Hydro dynamic Water bodies are highly sensitive to pressure changes as creates ripples of
pressure: pressure. Dams are particularly more vulnerable to such pressure systems.
Dam burst can occur if sufficient pressure is generated by earthquakes.
Tsunami: • Earthquakes can cause shift in tectonic plates and it may create waves
higher wavelengths. Such waves are more destructive.
• Example: 2004 Tsunami, 2018 Tsunami waves in Indonesia.
Earthquake hazard mitigation:

It is not possible to prevent the earthquakes hence the best option is to emphasise on disaster preparedness
and mitigation rather than curative measures such as:
• Establishing earthquake monitoring centres for regular monitoring and dissemination of information
among the people in vulnerable areas. Use of GPS can be of great help in monitoring the movement of
tectonic plates.
• Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information
among the people and educating them about the ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of
disasters.
• Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction
of high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in such areas.
• Making it mandatory to adopt earthquake resistant designs and use light materials in major
construction activities in the vulnerable areas.
Current developments:
• India Quake App- Ministry of Earth Sciences launched ‘India Quake’ app to enable users receive
information about natural hazards on land and water. It has been developed by National centre for
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Seismology for automatic dissemination of earthquake parameter such as location, time and magnitude
after the occurrence of Earthquake and avoid delay of information in the event of earthquake.
2. Tsunamis:
• Tsunamis (Japanese for “harbour wave”), also known as a seismic sea wave, are a series of very large
waves with extremely long wavelength, in the deep ocean, the length from crest to crest may be 100 km
and more.
• It is usually generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor caused by earthquake, landslides, or
volcanic activity.
• Most tsunamis, including the most destructive ones are generated by large and shallow earthquakes
which usually occur near geological plate boundaries, or fault-lines, where geological plates collide.
• When the seafloor abruptly deforms the sudden vertical displacements over large areas disturb the
ocean's surface, displace water, and generate tsunami waves. Since the wave height in deep ocean will
be only a few decimetres or less (i.e., a few inches), tsunamis are not usually felt aboard ships.
• Nor are they visible from the air in the open ocean.
• The waves could travel away from the triggering source with speeds exceeding 800 km/h over very long
distances.
• They could be extremely dangerous and damaging when they reach the coast, because when the tsunami
enters shallow water in coastal areas, the wave velocity will decrease accompanied by increase in wave
height.
• In shallow waters, a large tsunami crest height may rise rapidly by several metres even in excess of 30 m
causing enormous destruction in a very short time.
As seen on Indian Ocean shores in December 2004, tsunami can cause massive death and destruction. They
are particularly dangerous close to their sources, where the first waves in the tsunami train can arrive within
a few to tens of minutes of the triggering event.
The earthquake and resulting tsunami in Indian Ocean on 26 Dec 2004 had devastating effects on
India. Many people died and millions were displaced. The hardest hit areas were on Southern coast and the
Andaman and Nicobar Island. Tsunamis have the potential of causing significant casualties, widespread
property damage, massive infrastructure loss and long-term negative economic impacts. People caught
in the path of a tsunami often have little chance of survival. People die from drowning or debris crushing
them.
It is beyond the capacity of individual state or government to mitigate the damage. Hance, combined efforts
at the international levels are the possible ways dealing of dealing with these disasters. India has volunteered
to join the International Tsunami Warning System (ITWS) after the December 2004 tsunami disaster.
Tsunamis: Capacity Building
1. Research and Development:

• Encourage development of standardised methods for tsunami risk assessment and scenario
development, support studies to collect the data and compile knowledge.
• Develop suitable large-scale digital maps indicating the tsunami hazard basis on past tsunami events.
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• States should develop detailed computerised maps and databases of vulnerable areas along the
coast for planning and coordination of DM activities.
2. Zoning or mapping:
• Database of Tsunami Risk and Vulnerability in the coastal areas with information on trends of storm
surge, high des, local bathymetry, etc.
• States should ensure support to the Central Government agencies in zoning/ mapping and carry out
at their level.
3. Observation Networks, Information Systems, Monitoring, Research, Forecasting & Early Warning:
• Assess the status of existing important installations in coastal areas to withstand tsunami
• Securing critical instrumentation to ensure fail-safe functioning of these critical instruments and
their protection.
• States should support, cooperation for data collection and updates.
4. Dissemination of warnings, data, and information:
• Monitoring seismic activity, provide warnings based on seismic models and issue periodic bulletin.
• Dissemination of warnings to all, down to the last mile – remote, rural or urban; Regular updates to
people in areas at risk.
5. Centre and states can coordinate on following matters:
• Strengthening of lifeline structures and high priority buildings
• Shelters from storm surges and tsunamis
• Construction of large-scale submerged sand barriers
• Periodical dredging of the inlets and associated water bodies so as to absorb the influx during tsunami
• Construction of submerged dykes (one or two rows along the stretch of the coast) so as to decrease
the impact due to the incoming tsunami and inland dykes to safeguard vital installations
• Hazard resistant construction, strengthening, and retrofitting of all lifeline structures and critical
infrastructure.
Current developments:
Sagar Vani App:

• Sagar Vani app has been developed by ESSO Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
(INCOIS) under Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• It is a software platform which uses state of art technology for dissemination of ocean related information
and advisory services such as Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) advisories, Ocean State Forecast (OSF), High
Wave Alerts and Tsunami early warnings.
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3. Tropical cyclones:
• India's long coastline of nearly 7,500 km consists of 5,400
km along the mainland, 132 km in Lakshadweep and
1,900 km in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About 10
per cent of the World's tropical cyclones affect the
Indian coast.
• Of these, the majority has their initial genesis over the Bay
of Bengal and strike the east coast of India.
• On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every
year, of which two or three could be severe.
• Cyclones occur frequently on both the west coast in the
Arabian Sea and the east coast in the Bay of Bengal.
• More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than in the
Arabian Sea.
• An analysis of the frequencies of cyclones on the East and
West coasts of India during 1891-2000 shows that nearly
308 cyclones (out of which 103 were severe) affected the
East Coast.
• In India, tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June
and October-November.
• The cyclones of severe intensity and frequency in the northern
part of the Indian Ocean are bimodal in character, with their
primary peak in November and secondary peak in May.
• The disaster potential is particularly high at the time of
landfall in the northern part of Indian Ocean (Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying
destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall. Of
these, storm surges are the greatest killers of a cyclone, by
which sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal
regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and
embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.
• The coastal states and union territories (UTs) in the country, encompassing 84 coastal districts which are
affected by tropical cyclones.
• Four states (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal) and one UT (Puducherry) on
the east coast and one state (Gujarat) on the west coast are highly vulnerable to cyclone disasters.
Initial conditions for emergence of tropical cyclones:

• Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air that can release enormous latent heat.
• Strong Coriolis force that can prevent filling of low pressure at the centre (absence of Coriolis force near
the equator prohibits the formation of tropical cyclones between 0-5-degree latitudes).
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• Unstable conditions through the troposphere that creates local disturbances around which a cyclone
develops.
• Absence of strong vertical wind wedge which disturbs the vertical transport of latent heat.
Cyclones: 84 districts on coastline are directly vulnerable to cyclones. 10% of world’s tropical cyclones
affect Indian coast.
Tropical cyclones: NDMA Guideline

• Promote research and studies – both in-house and extra-mural by providing research grants to
researchers and institutions
• Studies on ecosystem and shoreline changes
• Promote availability in public domain cyclone database and forecasts
• Enhancement of Observational Network Stations (ONS)
• Establishment of planned Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) and Rain-Gauge Network (RGN)
• Enhancement of a Doppler Weather Radar Network over coastal regions
• Integration of all ONS with AWS & RGN in one single platform
• Modernisation of observation network, equipment, systems, technology.
• Support the preparation of detailed maps to delineate coastal wetlands, mangroves and shelter
belts and tracts for coastal bio-shields using best tools, field studies, and satellite data.
• Quick, clear, effective dissemination among central and state agencies
• Deployment of communication equipment
• Warnings using all types of options, types of technologies, and media
• Providing weather information online and offline and interface with mobile network service
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• Providing warnings on radio, TV, and cell phones.
4. Inter-agency coordination:
• Effective coordination and seamless communication among central and state agencies to ensure
quick, clear, effective dissemination of warnings, information and data.
5. Structural measures:
infrastructure.
6. Awareness Generation:
• Carry out mass media campaigns
• Promote attitude and behaviour change in the awareness campaigns/ IEC
• Promote culture of disaster risk prevention, mitigation, and beer risk management
• Promote use of insurance/ risk transfer
• Promote Community Radio
• Strengthening network of civil society organisations for awareness generation about DRR and DM
7. Mock drills or exercises:

• Promote planning and execution of emergency drills by all ministries and in all States/UT’s
8. Vocational Training/ Skill Development:

• Promoting skill development for multi-hazard resistant construction in cyclone-prone areas for
different types of housing and infrastructure.
9. Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities:

• Incorporating gender sensitive and equitable approaches in capacity development covering all
aspects of disaster management.
10. Community-Based Disaster Management

• Training for PRI, SHG, NCC, NSS, youth, local community organizations.
• Strengthen ability of communities to manage and cope with disasters based on a multi-hazard
approach.
Current Developments:
1st ‘National Conference on Coastal Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience (CDRR&R) – 2020’
• Conference was organized by the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), in New Delhi.
• The conference focused on enhancing human capacity in terms of better understanding about coastal
disaster risks and effective collaborative actions, by implementing Prime Minister’s 10-point agenda
and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
• NIDM, under Ministry of Home Affairs was constituted under the Disaster Management Act 2005.
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• It has been entrusted with the nodal national responsibility for human resource development, capacity
building, training, research, documentation and policy advocacy in the field of disaster management.
4. Cold Waves:
• Cold wave and frost are seasonal and localized hazards occurring only in the parts with severe winter.
Prolonged frost conditions and cold wave can damage certain frost-sensitive plants causing crops loss. The
susceptibility to frost varies widely across crops.
• The extent of damage caused by cold wave depends on temperature, length of exposure, humidity
levels, and the speed at which freezing temperature is reached. It is difficult to predict a definite
temperature level up to which crops can tolerate cold wave/frost because many other factors also affect it.
• Cold wave can cause death and injury to human beings, livestock and wildlife. Higher caloric intake
is needed for all animals, including humans to withstand exposure to cold and poor nutritional status
can prove deadly in extreme cold conditions.
• If a cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to get the
requisite food. They may die of hypothermia from prolonged exposure or starvation.
IMD definitions for Cold Wave and Cold Day:

• Wind chill factor plays an important role and brings down the actual minimum temperature depending
upon the wind speed. The actual minimum temperature of a station should be reduced to “Wind Chill
Effective Minimum Temperature (WCTn)” based on wind chill factor using the relevant WMO criteria.
• For declaring “Cold Wave” and “Cold Day” WCTn should only be used. If WCTn is 10°C or less, then
only the conditions for cold wave should be considered. There is a Cold Wave:
a) When normal minimum temperature is equal to 10°C or more; Cold Wave if the departure from
normal is -5°C to -6°C and ‘Severe Cold Wave’ Departure from normal is-7°C or further.
b) When normal minimum temperature is less than 10°C; ‘Cold Wave’ – if the departure from normal
is -4°C to -5°C and ‘Severe Cold Wave’ Departure from normal is -6°C or less.
c) When WCTn is 0°C or less, Cold Wave should be declared irrespective of normal minimum
temperature of the station. However, this criterion is not applicable for those stations whose normal
minimum temperature is below 0°C.
Cold Wave conditions for coastal stations:

• For coastal stations the threshold value of minimum temperature of 10°C is rarely reached. However, the
local people feel discomfort due to wind chill factor which reduces the minimum temperature by a few
degrees depending upon the wind speed. For coastal stations, the “Cold Day” concept may be used
following the criteria given below:
a) Actual minimum temperature of a station be reduced to WCTn
b) This WCTn should be used to declare “Cold Wave” or “Cold Day”
c) When minimum temperature departure is -5°C or less over a station, “Cold Day” may be described
irrespective of threshold value of 10°C
d) However, when a threshold of 10°C is reached “Cold Wave” be declared.
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e) When a station satisfies both the Cold Wave and Cold Day criteria, then Cold Wave has a higher
priority and must be declared.
NDMA Guidelines:
Guidelines
Cold waves: Mitigation measures for Cold waves: Mitigation measures

people for crops and animals
The State Governments must maintain close coordination with India

Meteorological Department (MOES (IMD)) and closely monitor cold wave
situation. Warnings should be disseminated to the public through appropriate forums
(including local newspapers and radio stations) on a regular basis. Some of the
mitigation measures to be followed are shown below:
• Stay indoors as much as possible
• Listen to local radio stations for weather updates
• Eat healthy food to supply heat to the body and drink non-alcoholic beverages to
Cold waves: avoid dehydration
Mitigation • Wear several layers of lightweight and warm clothes; rather than one layer of
measures for heavy clothing. The outer garments should be tightly woven and water-repellent.
people • Keep dry. Change wet clothing frequently to prevent loss of body heat.
• Maintain proper ventilation when using kerosene, heater or coal oven to avoid
toxic fumes.
• In case of non-availability of heating arrangement, go to public places where
heating arrangements are made by administration.
• Cover your head, as most body heat is lost through the top of the head and cover
your mouth to protect your lungs.
• Avoid over work. Over exertion can cause heart a ack.
• Watch for signs of frostbite: loss of feeling and white or pale appearance on
fingers, toes, ear lobes and the tip of the nose.
• Watch for signs of hypothermia (subnormal body temperature): uncontrolled
shivering, memory loss, disorientation, incoherence, slurred speech, drowsiness
and apparent exhaustion. Immediately rush to the nearest hospital for medical
treatment.
• Stock up on food, water, and other necessities before a cold wave.
• Stock suitable forage before cold waves for livestock
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• Keep hospitals in a state of readiness for the admission of victims of frostbite and
hypothermia.
• Farmers are to provide light irrigation as per need, immediately prune damaged
tips of branches or shoot, burn leave/waste material in the orchard to create smoke
and manage rejuvenation of damaged crops through pruning of dead material,
Cold waves: application of extra doses of fertilizer through foliar sprays.
Mitigation • Vulnerable crops may be sprayed with water that will paradoxically protect the
measures for plants by freezing and absorbing the cold from surrounding air.
crops and • Agencies specializing in animal care should provide necessary advisory and
animals support for the care and protection of animals.
• In cold wave conditions, animal and livestock owners must feed adequately with
appropriate feed to avoid animal deaths. They must stock suitable feed or forage
before cold wave to feed the livestock.
• They must avoid exposure of animals to extreme cold.
5. Heat waves:
• Heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures that leads to physiological stress, which
sometimes can claim human life.
• The World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days during
which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.
• Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend until July. Heat
waves are more frequent over the Indo-Gangetic plains of India.
• On an average, 5-6 heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country. In the
northern plains of the country, dust in suspension occurs in many years for several days, bringing minimum
temperature much higher than normal and keeping the maximum temperature around or slightly above
normal.
• According to IMD, in India, it will be considered as heat wave if the maximum temperature of a met-sub-
station reaches at least 40°C or more in the plains, 37°C or more in coastal areas and at least 30°C or
more for hilly regions.
• Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becoming increasingly frequent
globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of increased
instances of heat waves that are more intense in nature with each passing year and have a devastating
impact on human health thereby increasing the number of heat wave casualties.
• The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or
heat stroke.
The signs and symptoms are as follows:

• Heat Cramps: Edema (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever below 39°C
• Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating
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• Heat Stroke: Body temperatures of 40°C or more along with delirium, seizures or coma, which is a
potentially fatal.
Heat waves: Capacity Building

1. Observation Networks, Information Systems, Monitoring, Research, Forecasting, Early Warning
and Zoning/ Mapping:
• Vulnerability Assessment and Establishing Heat-Health Threshold Temperatures
• Strengthening and maintaining monitoring and data logging systems for temperature, humidity, etc.
required for threshold for heat wave alerts.
• Establish and maintain community-based network for sharing alerts
• Modify or customise warnings according to thresholds suitable for the State/UT

• Create awareness preventive measures
• Extensive IEC campaigns to create awareness through print, electronic and social media
• Specific messages for highly vulnerable groups such as elderly, young children, outdoor workers and
slum residents.
3. Inter-Agency coordination:
• Ensure the local administration (city/district) can understand and meaningfully use all the heatwave-
related information from various agencies and health authorities – central and state
• Team preparation and coordination - officials and agencies are well prepared for the heat-wave
season
• Coordinate with IMD regarding forecasts, early warning and alert system based on drought severity
• Appointing a State Nodal Agency and Officer
• Preparing/Adapting Heat Wave Action Plan
• Implementation as per specific conditions in the state
• Establishing First Aid/ Medical Aid facilities in key locations
• Identify vulnerable places and provide drinking water points at those places and worksites along with
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• Avoiding outdoor games/sports activities.
• Livestock preparedness during hot weather - ensuring that the livestock has sufficient shade and water
on hot days.
4. Warnings, information, data:

• Coordinating the dissemination of warnings to all, down to the last mile – remote, rural or urban;
Regular updates to people in areas at risk
• “Do's-and-Don’ts” during a heat wave should be available in local languages and disseminated
through media
5. Heat waves shelters and other measures:

• Strengthening/mainstreaming the network medical assistance facilities.
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• Temperature forecasts and heat alerts will be sent as bulk messages on mobile phones, local
electronic media
• Electronic screens at busy traffic intersections and market places
• Effective transportation
• Promote cool roofs and heat reducing integrated development.
• Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness
• Training programs for public, PRIs/ ULBs
• Carry out mass media campaigns in heat-wave prone areas
• Create awareness of coping with heat waves
7. Empowering women, marginalised communities, SC/ST, and persons with disabilities:

• Incorporating gender sensitive and equitable approaches in capacity development for coping with heat
wave emergencies.
6. Floods:
• Floods are relatively slow in occurrences and often occur in well
identified regions and within expected time in a year.
• Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-
off exceeds the carrying capacity of the river channels and
streams and flows into the neighbouring low-lying flood plains.
• Sometimes this even goes beyond the capacity of lakes and other
inland water bodies in which they flow.
• Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge, high intensity
rainfall for a considerably longer time period, melting of ice
and snow, reduction in the infiltration rate and presence of eroded
materials in the water due to higher rate of soil erosion.
• Unlike other natural disasters human beings play important
role in the genesis as well as spread of floods. Indiscriminate
deforestation, unscientific agricultural practices,
disturbances along the natural drainage channels and
colonisation of flood plains and river beds are some of the human activities that play an important role
in increasing the intensity, magnitude and gravity of the floods.
• Various states of India face heavy loss of lives and property due to recurrent floods.
• National Flood Commission has identified 40 million hectares of land as flood prone in India.
• Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high flood prone states.
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• Apart from these, most of the rivers in the northern states like Uttar
Pradesh and Punjab are also vulnerable to frequent floods.
• States like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are also getting
inundated in recent years due to flash floods. This is partly because of
the pattern of monsoon and partly because of blocking of most of the
streams and rivers by human activities.
• Sometimes Tamil Nadu experiences flooding during November-
January due to retreating monsoon.
Floods: NDMA Guideline

• Preparation of close contour and flood vulnerability maps
• Modernisation of flood forecasting and warning systems on a river basin basis
• Assist states/UTs in the identification of priority flood protection and drainage improvement works
• Monitoring of flood preparedness, river basin and reservoir management plans
• Studies and monitoring of rivers flowing from neighbouring countries
• Studies involving international cooperation for forecasting and cross border issues
• Implementation of the schemes for real-time collection of hydro-meteorological data on important
rivers including the relevant rivers flowing from Nepal, Bhutan and China
• Specialised efforts for different types of floods and causes of flooding, including cloudburst
• Developing/ improving/ updating forecasting methods and models for quantification of inflows and
storage of dams.
2. Zoning, mapping, and classification flood prone areas:

• Preparation of large-scale hazard maps of flood prone areas identifying areas of high vulnerability.
3. Research and Development:

• Studies on support systems for people living in flood prone areas
• Evolving designs of shelters in flood prone areas
• Socio-economic impacts of flood
• River basin studies
• Studies on flood related problems such as soil losses caused by flooding of rivers, sediment transport,
river course changes, and appropriate use of embankments
• Promote research and studies – both in-house and extra-mural by providing research grants to
researchers and institutions
• Hydrological and morphological studies before undertaking major flood control or prevention
measures.

• Quick, clear, effective dissemination among central and state agencies
• Facilitate the distribution of necessary communication equipment, last-mile connectivity and access
to disaster risk information
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• International cooperation to share warnings about rivers flowing from neighbouring countries
• Promoting reliable networking systems for data and information sharing among central and state
agencies
• Monitoring of landslides and blockages in rivers
• Warning systems
• Providing information in all possible ways and using all types of media
• Interface with mobile network service providers for warnings.
• Effective coordination and seamless communication among central and state agencies to ensure quick,
clear, effective dissemination of warnings, information and data.
6. Structural Measures:
• Flood control measures such as construction of embankments and levees.
• Proper alignment and design of Waterways and drainage systems for roads, highways, and
expressways.
• Enhancing the safety of dams and reservoirs.
• Desilting/ dredging of rivers to improve flow; drainage improvement; floodwater diversion through
existing or new channels.
infrastructure.
• Strengthening network of civil society organization for awareness generation about DRR and DM
8. Mock drills or exercises:

• Promote planning and execution of emergency drills by all ministries and in all States/UT’s
9. Vocational Training/ Skill Development:

• Promoting skill development for multi-hazard resistant construction in flood-prone areas for different
types of housing and infrastructure.

• Incorporating gender sensitive and equitable approaches in capacity development covering all aspects
of disaster management.
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11. Community-Based Disaster Management
• Training for PRI, SHG, NCC, NSS, youth, local community organizations
• Strengthen ability of communities to manage and cope with disasters based on a multi-hazard
approach.
7. Droughts:
• There is no globally adopted operational definition for
drought applicable to all contexts.
• This is the primary reason why policy makers, resource
planners, and other decision-makers as well as
administrators have considerable difficulty recognising
and planning for drought than they do for other
disasters.
• Global Assessment Report (GAR) 2015 notes that
agricultural drought is probably the most “socially
constructed” of all disaster risks (UNISDR 2015)
and warns that due to global climate change, its
frequency is expected to vary much.
• To determine the beginning of drought, operational
definitions specify the degree of departure from the
long-term (usually at least 30 years) average of
precipitation or some other climatic variable.
• Broadly, drought is perceived as sharply felt water
deficit caused by variations in the natural hydro-
metrological factors, agro-ecological conditions, moisture requirements of crops under prevailing
cropping choices (systems, patterns).
• The WMO considers drought as a slow creeping natural hazard that occurs in part due to the natural
climatic variability.
• In recent years, concern has grown world-wide that droughts may be increasing in frequency due to climate
change.
• Responses to droughts in most parts of the world are generally reactive in terms of crisis management and
are known to be untimely, poorly coordinated and disintegrated. Conceptually, drought is characterised by
a protracted period of deficient precipitation resulting in water deficits, extensive crop damage, resulting
in loss of yield.
• Droughts affect vast areas of the country, transcending State boundaries. A third of the country is
drought prone. Recurrent drought results in widespread adverse impact on people’s livelihoods and
young children’s nutrition status.
• It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically), Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (MP), Uttar Pradesh
(UP), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Droughts cause severe distress in the affected areas.
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• Drought is a phenomenon that is widely considered as a ‘creeping disaster’ whose onset, end, and severity
are difficult to determine.
• Unlike the suddenly occurring disasters, a drought may develop very slowly over several months affecting
very large geographical area without causing little or no structural damage.
• The impacts depend on natural conditions, socio-economic situations, and the kind of land and water
resources as well as the use patterns in the affected region.
• Mostly, the occurrence of droughts is a result of natural climate variability in all the drought-prone regions
and it usually exhibits a certain pattern of occurrence.
• While droughts are quite frequent in arid and semi-arid regions, it can occur even in humid regions blessed
with abundant rainfall with lower frequency.
• The capacity to cope depends largely on the technical, institutional, political, and social mechanisms to
manage the water resources anticipating the severity of the drought.
• Effective mitigation measures must prevent a drought turning into a famine due to water and food
shortages. Drought results from long period of dry weather and insufficient precipitation, which causes
acute dry conditions.
The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:
Meteorological drought Defined as a situation when there is more than 25% decrease from the long-
term average precipitation over an area.
Agricultural drought Signifying the situation on when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate to
support healthy crop growth.
Hydrological drought Resulting from prolonged meteorological drought manifested in depletion of
surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the
rainfall is normal, if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water
holding capacity.
The IMD recognizes five drought situations:

1. ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall is less than half of the normal
2. ‘Agricultural Drought’ when four drought weeks occur consecutively during mid-June to September
3. ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than the standard deviation from the
normal.
4. ‘Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 20 per cent of normal or more, and
5. ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 per cent of normal or more.
In the absence of an unambiguous criterion, the NDMA Guideline on ‘Management of Drought’ notes that
there is a need to develop a multi-criteria index to classify droughts based on several factors such as the
following:
• Meteorological (rainfall, temperature, etc.)
• Soil conditions (depth, type, available water content, etc.)
• Surface water use (proportion of irrigated area, surface water supplies, etc.)
• Ground water (availability, utilisation, etc.)
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• Crop (cropping pattern changes, land use, crop conditions, anomalies in crop condition, etc.)
• Socio-economic (proportion of weaker sections, poverty, size class of farm holdings, etc.)
Droughts: 68% of agricultural land and 30% of total land in India is drought prone
Droughts: NDMA Guideline
1. Vulnerability mapping:
• Block-wise rainfall deficit maps in the relevant regions – at crucial stages of monsoon (e.g., early,
middle, and end), separately for SW and NE monsoon
• Comprehensive assessment of water deficit in dry-land farming, rain-fed, and drought-prone areas
every year, at the end of the SW and NE monsoons (stream flow, surface and groundwater)
• Agro-climatic region wise water deficit assessment reports for relevant regions separately at the end
of SW and NE monsoon
• Provide technical assistance to the State Govt./SDMC to prepare vulnerability maps.
2. Assessment, Monitoring, Forecasting, Early Warning:

• Improve the drought forecast, and assessment of water deficit (likely mismatch between estimates
of requirements and availability) in the arid/semi-arid, drought-prone, and dry-land farming areas
• Prepare detailed advisories on water conservation and crop management measures based on drought
and water deficit in consultation with experts for each State/UT which is likely to face acute water
deficit
• Monitoring key drought indices at National and State levels as per latest national manual for drought
management
• Developing composite index of various drought indicators relevant to each agro-climatic zone
• Develop a multi-criteria method based on various indices (vegetation, soil, water availability, etc.)
as standardised framework for drought forecasting considering agro-climatic zones.
3. Drought declaration:
• Apply the latest (most updated) criteria and methods for assessment of drought conditions and
key indicators for declaring drought, as per latest recommendations of the appropriate agency
• Collaborate with State Government and its agencies for monitoring/ declaration of drought
• Separately, after end of SW and NE monsoon, if applicable, initiate consultations to provide drought
advisory to states by end of October for regions covered by SW monsoon and by end of March for
regions relevant to NE monsoon.
4. Research:
• Agricultural research focussed on drought-prone areas, arid/semi-arid tracts, and dry-land farming
areas.
• Research related to water conservation and management.
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• Ensure rainwater harvesting and storage in drought-prone areas, water conservation structures,
integrated water resources management and drinking water storage and distribution facilities.
7. Non-structural measures:
• Promote water efficient irrigation systems (sprinklers, drip, etc.)
• Promote protective irrigation through micro irrigation systems
• Provide advice to farmers to cope with drought, crop management under drought conditions, and
efficient water management
• Training in water and soil moisture conservation
• Promote village-level information systems for natural resource management.
8. Agricultural credit, agricultural inputs, finance, marketing, and crop insurance:

• Provide credit and financing products relevant to the drought-prone areas
• Promote agricultural insurance programmes and ensure that farmers are informed about the
availability of insurance products
• Ensure risk cover for dry-land / rain-fed farmers who face very high rainfall uncertainty and
dependent agricultural workers.
9. Drought management plan:

• Support the preparation of drought management plans based on detailed projections of water deficit
in the drought-prone areas taking into account agro-climatic zones
• Provide advisory to the states having large areas that may face drought/ acute water deficit.

• Strengthening network of civil society organization for awareness generation about DRR and DM.

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8. Landslides:
• Landslides occur in the hilly regions of India such as the
Himalaya, North-East India, the Nilgiris, Eastern Ghats
and Western Ghats.
• It is estimated that 30 per cent of the World’s landslides
occur in the Himalayan ranges.
• The Himalayan range, which constitutes the youngest and
most dominating ng mountain system in the World, is not a
single long landmass but comprises a series of seven
curvilinear parallel folds running along a grand arc for a total
of 3,400 kilometres.
• Landslides are also common in Western Ghat. In the
Nilgiris, in 1978 alone, unprecedented rains in the region
triggered about one hundred landslides which caused severe
damage to communication lines, tea gardens and other
cultivated crops.
• Scientific observations in north Sikkim and Garhwal regions
in the Himalayas clearly reveal that there is an average of
two landslides per sq. km.
• The mean rate of land loss is to the tune of 120 meter per km
per year and annual soil loss is about 2500 tons per sq. km.
• Landslides have been a major and widely spread natural
disaster that often affect life and property, leading to major
concern.
• It is estimated that economic loss due to landslides may
reach between 1-2% of the gross national product in many
developing countries.
• Evaluating and mitigating the landslide hazard and risk is a
major challenge for the technocrats and decision makers in the
developing world as 80% of the reported fatalities due to
landslide is within the developing countries.
• In India, about 0.42 million sq. km or 12.6% of land area, excluding snow covered area, is prone to
landslide hazard. Out of this, 0.18 million sq. km falls in North East Himalaya, including Darjeeling and
Sikkim Himalaya; 0.14 million sq. km falls in North West Himalaya (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu & Kashmir); 0.09 million sq. km in Western Ghats and Konkan hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) and 0.01 million sq. km in Eastern Ghats of Aruku area in Andhra
Pradesh.
• The landslide-prone Himalayan terrain falls in the maximum earthquake-prone zones (Zone-IV and
V; BIS 2002) where earthquakes of Modified Mercalli intensity VIII to IX can occur, and thus, are also
prone to earthquake-triggered landslides. The most recent example is the aftermath of 18 September 2011
Sikkim Earthquake in the Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalayas.
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Landslides: 30% of world’s landslides occur in Himalayan ranges.
Roles and Responsibilities

• Geological Survey of India- the nodal agency for landslide studies
• Geological Survey of India as a Nodal Agency is responsible for:
➢ Coordinating and undertaking geological studies for landslide hazard mitigation
➢ Carrying out landslide hazard zonation
➢ Monitoring landslides and avalanches
➢ Studying the factors responsible for sliding and suggesting precautionary as well as preventive
measure National Core Group has finalized the action plan for landslide studies with inputs of GSI and
other organization.
Salient Features of Action Plan

1. Finalisation of uniform methodologies for Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) on macro scales and
meso scales
2. Carrying out Landslide Hazard Zonation of vulnerable areas on macro scales:
➢ 10,000 km communication routes to be covered on macro scales
➢ Identify critical slopes and prioritise areas for detailed studies
➢ State Governments to suggest routes for this exercise and GSI to carry survey
3. Carrying out Landslide Hazard Zonation of identified areas on meso scales:
➢ To cover inhabited or sites proposed for infrastructural development
➢ 20- 25 sites to be taken up initially, 10 sites to be taken up by GSI and rest by other agencies
➢ A committee comprising IIT- Roorkee, CBRI, NIRM, CRRI, CWC, IMD, THDC etc to distribute
work to those willing to work in identified areas in time bound manner
4. Carrying out monitoring of landslides
➢ Slides that pose danger to communication routes or could cause blockade of drainages to be monitored
continuously
5. To evolve an Early Warning System:
➢ Need for evolving Early Warning System for landslide has been long felt. Isolated work has been done
by some agencies. This is an area where considerable amount of research is required. This is due to
the fact that several factors, combined or individually, directly or indirectly, trigger landslides.
6. To prepare Inventory/ Database on LHZ:
➢ Landslide Inventories are most important for any prediction model on Early Warning to be successful.
GSI has developed a format and circulated it to States & Agencies like BRO, CPWD etc. for reporting
landslide incidences for input towards updating inventory. GSI has developed and published an
inventory of about 1000 landslide incidences from NW Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas & North-
eastern states. The inventory has to be updated regularly and for this the cooperation from BRO,
CPWD, Armed Forces, agencies engaged in infrastructure development and state departments like
Forest, PWD, is required.
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➢ GSI to develop awareness strategy and to take up awareness programmes in consultation with State
Governments in hazard prone areas
➢ Another responsibility given to GSI is to arrange a one day workshop with the aim to present GSI's
point of view and interact with State Governments and other agencies active in the field of landslides.
➢ Aim is to raise awareness at various levels through Media Campaigns, Development & distribution of
leaflets/ posters, Meetings & Workshops etc.
8. Coordination:
• Any agency carrying out Landslide Hazard Mitigation or States engaging agencies for carrying out
LHZ may get approval from GSI with a view to: (a) avoid duplication of work and (b) ensure that LHZ
is carried out as per the prescribed parameters. After completion of work copy of report may be shared
with GSI for record. GSI will report to the National Core Group in MHA through Joint Secretary &
Central Relief Commissioner periodically on the progress made on different items.
NATIONAL LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGY:

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has released National Landslide Risk Management
Strategy (NLRMS).
Highlights of the strategy

• Landslide Hazard Zonation: It recommends Landslide Hazard Zonation maps to be prepared at macro
scale and meso level. It focuses on making use of advanced state-of the-art tools such as Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Terrestrial Laser Scanner, and very high-resolution Earth Observation (EO)
data.
• Landslide Monitoring and Early Warning System: Technical recommendation for developing and
implementing rainfall thresholds, Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP), Automatic Rain Gauges, etc.
have been included.
• Awareness Programs: A participatory approach has been defined so that each section of the community
is involved in the awareness drive. Since the community is the first to confront the disaster before any
aid reaches them, a mechanism of awareness is framed to involve and educate the community.
• Capacity Building and Training of Stakeholders: Creation of Centre for Landslide Research Studies
and Management (CLRSM) to create a techno-scientific pool of expertise in the country.
MANMADE DISASTERS:
MANMADE DISASTERS
Mass Nuclear and

Chemical Biological Climate
Gatherings Forest Fires Radiological Urban Flooding
Disasters Emergencies Emergencies
(Crowd) Emergencies
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1. Emergencies Associated with Mass Gatherings
• Throughout the country, frequently, there are various kinds of events that a attract crowds large and small,
at varying types and styles of venue.
• The degree and quality of preparedness to cope with expected or unforeseen emergencies arising from
such events vary greatly.
• Inadequate planning can increase risks associated with insufficient or ineffective spectator management
or service provision.
• The evidence lies in the large number of public events where multiple injuries, illness and deaths have
occurred.
• Emergencies and disastrous incidents associated with mass gatherings is a world-wide phenomenon.
• During festivals or events attracting mass gathering - railways, roadways and airways etc. may
experience unexpected temporary surge in number of people at such locations.
• Agencies responsible for operation and management at such places would need to include “crowding”
and ‘crowd behaviour’ as hazard risk while formulating strategic plan for public safety.
• Accordingly, it will be necessary to pay attention to implementing special arrangement necessary for
managing the crowds and crowd behaviour.
• For the benefit of the state governments, local authorities and other agencies, NDMA has published a
guideline on mass gatherings.
• Depending on the event, there could be surge in number of people at railway stations, bus terminals and
airports.
• NDMA Guidelines paves way in formulating public safety plan by agencies like railways, bus transport
and airways.
• These plans are to be developed in consultation with local authorities and event administrator/ organiser.
• As crowd disasters are local events, disaster management is primarily the responsibility of the
organizers and local/district administration with support, guidelines from the state and the national
authorities.
• While planning events, organisers tend to overlook likely emergencies that could arise or fail to consider
major emergencies and the worst-case scenarios.
• It is necessary to recognise that such risks are inevitably associated with large events, and therefore call
for appropriate planning and preparation.
• Planning for public events requires cooperation between event organisers and relevant government, private
and community organisations.
• Quite simply, the decisions of one party in the planning stage can have an impact on the preparedness of
another, so a sharing of knowledge and information is imperative prior to the event.
• While event promoters or managers have primary responsibility for planning and preparation, the
involvement of health professionals and emergency managers in the pre-event planning phase may
contribute to a safer, and therefore more successful, event.
The NDMA guideline lists six major causes and triggers for crowd disasters which are summarised below,
but are described in detail in the guideline:
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The infrastructure, conditions and arrangements at the venue may not be
Structural adequate (collapse of barricades, fencing, temporary structures, insufficient exit,
difficult terrain, slippery/muddy roads, etc.)
Fire/Electricity Risky practices involving fire and electricity ranging from makeshift facilities, shops,
cooking, careless use of easily inflammable materials, non-availability or
malfunctioning fire extinguishers, illegal electric connections, and many such
possibilities.
Crowd Control Crowds exceeding the capacity of the venue, poor management resulting in
confusion and failure of all orderliness, not having enough emergency exits,
inadequacy of systems to effectively communicate with the crowd and similar
problems.
Crowd There are numerous issues known to be associated with the behaviour of crowds
Behaviour which is different from what is expected from an individual that tend to worsen
emergency situations that may include unruly, irresponsible and angry responses.
Security Under deployment of security personnel to regulate to control crowd, flaws in the
planning of security arrangements.
Lack of Significant coordination gap between agencies associated with the organising of the
Coordination event and authorities.
between
Stakeholders
Recent examples of stampedes:
Statistics:
• According to National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB), almost 2000 people have been died due to
stampedes during 2000-2013.
• According to International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, religious gatherings and pilgrimages
have been venues for 78% of stampedes in India.
NDMA guidelines on crowd management:

• In view of the recurring stampedes at places of mass gathering, including religious places, and
typically ad-hoc responses to those, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) had prepared
‘Suggestive Framework for Preparation of Crowd Management Plan for Events/Venues of Mass
Gathering’.
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The recommendations:
1. Understanding venue, visitors and stakeholders:

• The basic element for event planning and crowd management is understanding the venue, visitors
and different stakeholders.
• It requires understanding of Type of event (such as religious, schools/ university, sports event, music
event, political event, product promotion etc.); Expected Crowd (age, gender, economic strata),
Crowd Motives (such as social, academic, religious, entertainment, economic etc.); Venue (location,
topography of area, temporal or permanent, open or closed), and role of other stake holders (such as
NGOs, neighbours of event venue, local administrators etc.)
2. Crowd Handling
• Traffic around the mass gatherings should be properly regulated.
• There should be a route map for venues along with emergency exits route maps.
• There should Barricade facility to control the movement of crowd queues.
• Snake line approach should be followed in large crowd queues
• The organizers of crowded events/venue managers should discourage general admissions and have
plans to handle VIP visitors or, alternatively, refuse entry to VIPs where it adds to safety concerns.
3. Safety and Security:

• The venue Organisers should ensure authorised use of electricity, fire safety extinguishers and
other arrangements as per the safety guidelines.
• It suggests use of CCTV cameras to monitor crowds and use of mini UAV incase crowd spread is too
big.
4. Communication:
• A public address system, with loudspeakers installed at all crowded points, to communicate with the
crowds.
5. Medical and Emergency care:

• Medical first-aid rooms and emergency operations centres to handle post-disaster emergencies should
be set up.
6. Role of Event Managers:

• The event organizers and venue managers should develop, implement, review and revise the disaster
management plan in coordination with others including local administration and police.
7. Role of Civil society:

• Event/venue managers can involve NGOs and civil defence in traffic control, people flow control,
medical assistance, sanitation and mobilization of local resources in case of disaster.
8. Role of police:
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• The police should actively participate in venue assessment and preparedness checks and guide crowd
and traffic movements.
9. Capacity Building:
• Capacity building, conducting drills, periodic assessment of training of security personnel, police is
essential to prevent crowd disasters.
2. Forest Fires:
• India is one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the
world having nearly seven lakh square kilometres of
forest cover.
• Increasing human interference is a major cause for the
incidents of the forest fires.
• Despite its natural and essential roles, fire has negative
consequences when it conflicts with the public interest.
• Examples of negative impacts include loss of homes,
property and critical infrastructure, damage to
domestic watersheds and destruction of commercially
valuable timber.
• Smoke from forest fires can also interfere with road and
air transportation, inhibit tourism, and cause serious
public health problems.
• It is also a threat to human settlements, dwelling
within or adjacent to the forests.
• Forest fires in India are generally ground fires.
• As per Forest Survey of India (FSI), which has been
conducting field investigation since 1965, human
activities trigger nearly 95 per cent of the forest fires
in India.
• Forest fire is a major cause of injury and loss to forests.
• Area affected by forest fire annually is nearly 35 million
hectares.
• In general, all over the world the main causes of forest
fires are anthropogenic.
• The data on forest fires in India is very weak and needs to
be improved.
• FSI's 1995 data considers nearly 50 per cent of the forest
areas as fire prone with 43 per cent having occasional
fire incidents.
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• According to this assessment, very high, high, and
frequent forest fires occur in 0.84 per cent, 0.14 per
cent and 5.16 per cent of the forest areas
respectively.
• The moist deciduous forest is the most vulnerable to
fire in India.
• Nearly 15 per cent of this ecosystem is frequently
disturbed by fire and 60 per cent is occasionally
affected. In the case of wet/semi— evergreen
forests, fire occur somewhat frequently in nine per
cent, and occasionally in additional 40 per cent.
• In the North-Eastern region of India, recurrent
fires annually affect up to 50 per cent of the forests.
• The coniferous forests in the Himalayan region are also very fire prone with many wildfires
occurring during the winter drought.
• The proportion of the forest areas prone to forest fire ranges greatly across different states.
• The traditional view of fire as a destructive agent requiring immediate suppression has given way
to the view that fire can and should be used to meet land management goals under specific ecological
conditions.
• The impact of the fire is diverse on the forest ecosystem. Besides directly damaging the forest, the
fire also adversely affects forest regeneration, microclimate, soil erosion, and wildlife etc.
• In most of the cases, the forest fire causes retrogression of forest vegetation. Forest fire is one of
the major degenerating factors, which extensively damages the growing stock and its generations
and making area vulnerable to erosion. It has wide-ranging adverse ecological, economic and social
implications.
The states with frequent occurrence of forest fires are:

• Andhra Pradesh
• Himachal Pradesh
• Karnataka
• Manipur
• Madhya Pradesh
• Nagaland
• Orissa
• Rajasthan
• Telangana
• Uttar Pradesh and
• Uttarakhand.
Reasons for forest fires:
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Reasons for forest fires
Anthropological
Natural causes
causes
Natural Causes:
• Global warming: Increasing global temperature due to intensive industrialisation and resultant dryness
have played havoc on forest. Since 2017, there is 125% surge in forest fire incidents in India.
• Heat waves, solar flares: The periodic solar cycle of solar minimum and solar maximum causes abrupt
increase in temperature of the earth. Such events cause forest fires.
• Monoculture growth of forest: Single strand of forest tree species are more vulnerable to forest fires.
Pine forests in Uttarakhand is such an example. According to Forest Survey of India, 50% of forest in
Uttarakhand is prone to fires.
• Deciduous forest: India’s majority of forest cover is deciduous which provides specific seasons for forest
fires during dry periods.
• Climate change: Climate change is natural phenomenon though during recent years it is highly induced
by human activities causes changes in temperature, humidity. This alterations in micro climate give rise
to forest fires.
Anthropological Reasons:
• Human interventions in forest: Over the years Urbanisation, industrialisation have come at the cost of
forests. Forests were cleared for human settlements, mineral exploration, industrial establishments etc.
This has been resulted into degraded forest.
• Deforestation: Human settlements, multipurpose projects like large dams, mines development required
clearing of forests. Generally, such clearing were done by setting forests on fires as it is cheapest and easy
way to clear the forest.
• Deliberate act of arson: Timber mafias indulge into illegal exploitation of timber resources of forests. As
they were unable to do it legally, they tend to resort on deliberate forest fires.
• Unattended camp fires: Unscientific tourism in forest areas, left over burning camp fires due negligence
are also causing fires. Such camps are becoming dumping grounds for discarded cigarettes, beedi buds.
• Migration: People are migrating to urban areas for better life opportunities. Villages are deserted because
of increased incidences of forest fires. This has resulted into low community participation in forest
management.
• Shifting agriculture: Small patches of forest land are cleared by setting tress on fires. Though it increases
soil fertility for shorter time, it poses dangers of forest fires over the long period.
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Effects of forest fires:
• Migration: Frequent forest fires compel the people to migrate to safer areas. This causes desertification
of villages, pressure on natural resources.
• Loss of ecosystem and biodiversity: Forest fires damages the rich flora and fauna. Death of animals,
man-animal conflicts are major negative outcomes of forest fires.
• Human health: Increased air pollution may damage the respiratory system of humans. It may also cause
lung cancer, eye itching, skin cancer etc.
• Albedo: Forest fires emit black carbon on large scale. Such small particles of black carbon gets deposited
on snow. And snow is best medium of sunlight reflection. Thus melting of snow affects the albedo of snow
which in turn causes global warming.
• Forest degradation: Forest fires have negative impact on quality of forests. Frequent forest fires not only
degrade the forests but also increases the desertification.
• Climate change: Climate change is pressing problem humanity facing nowadays. Forest fires can only
increase the intensity of climate change.
• Soil fertility: Forest fires can increase the soil fertility as it adds black carbon to the soil. But degradation
of forests decreases the soil microbial activities. Thus, in the long run forest fires have negative impacts
on forest soil.
• Economic losses: Less availability of forest wood for pulp industries, firewood, infrastructure
development can result into major economic losses. According to Forest Survey of India, forest fires costs
$1.5 billion of GDP.
Forest fires: NDMA Guideline

• Employ a system of fire risk classification based on best available methods such as those using
satellites
• Technical support in mapping forest fire vulnerability areas using satellites
• Seasonal forest-fire monitoring and assessment
• Strengthen coordination between different ministries
• Strengthen the early detection and warning
• Operationalise a system of near real-me monitoring of forest fires using best technologies available
such as low flying aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and drones
• Near Real-Time monitoring of forest fires
• Studies/ assessments of areas prone to forest fires, ecological aspects, wildlife concerns
• Conduct a detailed fire history to determine the frequency, distribution, and severity of wildfire.

• Create awareness for forest fire prevention as most fires are caused by humans, deliberately or
inadvertently
• Establishing reliable system to pass on the correct information on fire situation to communities and
responders
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• Preparation and implementation of DM plans and ensure the functioning of agencies with DM tasks
• All aspects of disaster risk management and mainstreaming DRR
• Ensuring coherence and mutual reinforcement of DRR and development.
quick, clear, effective dissemination of warnings, information and data
• Strengthening forest-fire fighting systems by deploying aircrafts, helicopters, UAV, drones and
equipment.
• Strengthening various forest fire prevention measures
• Communication network of wireless system
• Effective transportation
• Specialised equipment to fight forest fires
• Improved fire-resistant clothing
• Strengthening the network of watch towers
• Expanding fire detection systems
infrastructure near forest area and in forest villages
5. Techno-legal measures:
• Strengthen the laws and regulations for forest fire prevention and control
• Improve the institutional arrangements for forest fire prevention and control
6. Human Resource:
• Training and orientation programs for state govt. staff, and other stakeholders such as: civil society,
volunteers, elected representatives.
• Incorporating prevention and management of forest fires in the training programs of village
volunteers
• Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness
• Training programs for public, PRIs/ ULBs
• Carry out mass media campaigns in forest fire prone areas
• Create awareness of forest fire prevention and control
• Strengthening network of community involvement in forest fire reporting, prevention and assistance
to controlling.
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Current Developments:
FOREST FIRE PREVENTION & MANAGEMENT SCHEME:

• Intensification of Forest Management Scheme was revised and replaced as Forest Fire Prevention
& Management Scheme in December 2017.
• It is a centrally sponsored scheme with an aim to focus solely on the issue of forest fire prevention &
management and related activities, to address growing concern over adverse effects of forest fire.
• Funding Pattern:
o For Normal States: 60:40 between centre and states.
o NE and Himalayan states: 90:10 between centre and states
o For Union Territory: 100% central funding
• Monitoring and Evaluation o At National level, MoEFCC will review the scheme and will also carry
out third party evaluation after every 3 years.
• At State Level, State Forest Department will be responsible for regular monitoring and review of
achievement under the scheme.
LARGE FOREST FIRE MONITORING PROGRAMME:

• Forest Survey of India (FSI) launched beta-version of the Large Forest Fire Monitoring Programme.
LARGE FOREST FIRE MONITORING PROGRAMME

• It aims to improve tactical as well as strategic response to large forest fires by disseminating specific Large
Fire alerts with the objective to identify, track and report serious forest fire incidents.
• It is part of the Fire Alert System (FAST) Version 3.0, where the FSI will monitor forest fire events
using real time data from the satellite sensors.
3. Chemical (Industrial) Disasters:

• With rapid economic development, there has been spread of industries from small to large across the
country.
• There is relatively higher presence of industrial sector along the west coast, largely due to the proximity
to raw materials and ports.
• The states with very large number of chemical industries are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh
(UP), Tamil Nadu (TN), MP, and Punjab.
• Due to the regional concentration of chemical companies in certain pockets, the chemical hazard has
increased many folds.
• The growth of industries has led to an increase in the risk of occurrence of incidents associated with
hazardous chemicals (HAZCHEM) and hazardous materials (HAZMAT).
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• These events occur due to mishaps or failures in industry and negligence in following international codes
and standards for chemical handling which affects the industrial functioning, and productivity.
• While the common causes for chemical accidents are deficiencies in safety management systems or human
errors, natural calamities or sabotage may also trigger such accidents.
• Chemical/ industrial accidents are significant and have long term impact on the community and
environment. It leads to injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to property and environment.
• Hence, a robust plan and mitigation measure needs to be adapted to overcome the hazard.
• The suggestions from several industry associations have recommended the implementation of the updated
and relevant International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and Occupational Health and Safety
Assessment Series (OHSAS) standards to production and storage of chemicals.
Industrial disasters in India:
Bombay Docks Explosion (1944) On April 14, 1944, the freighter SS Fort Stikine, carrying a mixed
cargo of cotton bales, gold and ammunition including tons of
explosives, caught fire and resulted in two massive blasts in the
Victoria Dock of Bombay. Ships in the area of the explosion sank
after the impact. 800 people died in the explosion and some 80,000
were made homeless.
Chasnala Mining Disaster On December 27, 1975, a huge explosion rocked the Chasnala
(1975) Colliery in Dhanbad (then under Bihar) killing 372 miners. The
explosion is supposed to have caused by sparks from equipment
igniting a pocket of flammable methane gas. The flooding in the mine
drowned the miners trapped under the debris.
The Union Carbide Gas In what is the biggest industrial disaster of the last hundred years in
Tragedy (1984) India, 5295 people died and 5,27,894 were affected after being
exposed to some 40 tonne of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a
pesticide plant owned by the US multinational, Union Carbide Corp,
in Bhopal. It has been more than 35 years since the incident which
happened on December 3, 1984, but there is still a massive debate on
the number of people affected. Some activists estimate around 20,000
to 25,000 deaths.
Korba Chimney Collapse (2009) On the September 23, 2009, 45 people lost their lives when a chimney
under construction at a power plant at the Bharat Aluminium
Company (Balco) collapsed in Korba in Chhattisgarh. The structure
had reached a height of 240 metres when it collapsed on top of more
than 100 workers due to incessant rainfall and lightning in the area.
Jaipur Oil Depot Fire (2009) On October 29, 2009, an oil fire broke out at the Indian Oil
Corporation (IOC) depot’s giant tank in the Sitapura Industrial Area
on the outskirts of Jaipur, killing 12 people and injuring at least 130.
The blaze continued for more than a week and half a million people
were evacuated from the area post the incident.
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Mayapuri Radiological A big radiation scare hit the national capital ten years ago when one
Accident (2010) person was killed and 8 others hospitalised at AIIMS after exposure
to radioactive substances at the Mayapuri scrap yard in West Delhi.
The event was rated level 4 out of 7 on the International Nuclear
Events Scale.
Visakhapatnam HPCL Refinery 23 people were killed on August 23, 2013, when a blast caused due
Blast (2013) to sparks originating from welding after a heavy build-up of
hydrocarbons in a pipeline, led to the collapse of the cooling tower in
the HPCL refinery in Visakhapatnam.
Nagaram GAIL pipeline 18 people were killed and around 40 injured when in June 2014, a
explosion (2014) massive fire broke out after a blast in the Gas Authority of India
Limited (GAIL) underground gas pipeline in the coastal village of
Nagaram in the East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh.
Bhilai Steel Plant Gas Leak Six people were killed and over 40 injured due to a leakage in
(2014) methane gas pipeline at a water pump house in the Bhilai Steel Plant
in Durg district in Chattisgarh.
Tughlakabad Gas Leak (2017) As many as 200 school students of the Rani Jhansi School for Girls
were admitted to four hospitals after a chemical gas leakage from a
container truck at the customs area of Tughlakabad depot in South
Delhi.
Kanpur Ammonia Gas Leak On the March 15, 2017, Ammonia leaked from the gas chamber of a
(2017) cold storage facility at Shivrajpur in Kanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
Many farmers were trapped inside the building, waiting to stock the
potato harvest, when the tragedy occurred. Five people were killed
and nine others injured in the incident.
Belur Chlorine Gas Leak (2017) More than 10 people took ill and were rushed to the hospital
following a chlorine gas leak at a water treatment plant at Gandehalli
in Belur near Hassan in South Karnataka in May 2017.
Bhilai Steel Plant Pipeline Blast An explosion in a gas pipeline connected to the coke oven section of
(2018) the Steel Plant in Bhilai in Durg district of Chhattisgarh, operated by
the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) resulted in the death of 9
people while injuring 14 others.
LG Polymers, Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam on Thursday woke up to a gas leak at Korean
(2020) company LG Polymers. Styrene gas leaked from the plant which left
at least 7 dead and 1000 others sick. Over 3000 people were
evacuated to safety as the leak spread. The gas caused the
breathlessness and a burning sensation in the eyes. People started
vomiting and fell unconscious
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Industrial disasters: Statistics
• Since May 2020, there have been 30 industrial accidents in India, killing at least 75 workers, according
to IndustriALL, a global union of workers.
• From 2014 to 2017, 8,004 such incidents occurred in Indian workplaces killing 6,368 employees. Most
such incidents took place in Delhi, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
Legislations to Protect Against Chemical Disasters in India:

1. Laws Before and During Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):
• At the time of the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was the only relevant law
specifying criminal liability for such incidents.
2. Laws After Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):

• Bhopal Gas Leak (Processing of Claims) Act,
1985: It gives powers to the central government to
secure the claims arising out of or connected with
the Bhopal gas tragedy. Under the provisions of this
Act, such claims are dealt with speedily and
equitably.
• The Environment Protection Act, 1986: It gives
powers to the central government to undertake
measures for improving the environment and set
standards and inspect industrial units.
• The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: It is an
insurance meant to provide relief to persons affected by accidents that occur while handling hazardous
substances.
• The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997: Under this Act, the National
Environment Appellate Authority can hear appeals regarding the restriction of areas in which any
industries, operations or processes or class of industries shall not be carried out or shall be carried out
subject to certain safeguards under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
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• National Green Tribunal, 2010: It provided for the establishment of the National Green Tribunal for
effective and expeditious disposal of case related to environmental protection and conservation of
forests.
Industrial disasters: NDMA Guideline
1. Information system, monitoring, research:

• Online information system on HAZCHEM
conforming to international standards
• Chemical Accident Information Reporting System
• Information on dealing with HAZCHEM
• Research on effective management of HAZCHEM
• National Hazardous Waste Information System
(NHWIS)
• Promote research and studies – both in-house and
extra-mural by providing research grants to researchers and institutions
• Promote R&D for indigenous manufacture of quality personal protection equipment most of which
are currently imported
• Studies on improving occupational safety
• Industrial zones on basis of hazard potential and effective disaster management for worst case
scenarios for Major Accident Hazard (MAH) Units
• Separate zoning for sing of MAH units
• Carry out the mapping and related studies in collaboration with central agencies/ technical
organizations.
• Preparation and implementation of DM plans and ensure the functioning of agencies with DM tasks
• All aspects of disaster risk management and mainstreaming DRR.
• Identification of shelters with basic facilities like drinking water and first aid for chemical exposure
• Ensuring water storage facilities and sources for water for accident containment and firefighting
operations
• Providing wide roads and multiple routes in the industrial area to allow quick access by first
responders and to ensure escape pathways
• Establish decontamination facilities for off-site emergencies of MAH units.
5. Non-structural measures:
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• Formulate/ strengthen rules, norms, and laws such as factories rules consistent with that of ensuring
greater safety in hazardous industries and to reduce likelihood of disasters
• Review land use norms for the sing of hazardous industries
6. Empower factory inspectorates to take legal actions for noncompliance of MSIHC Rules
• Review rules to grant compensation to chemical accident victims to improve them in favour of
victims
• Amend land use norms to ensure greater safety and to ensure buffer zones without human settlements
in close proximity of hazardous industries
7. Training for stakeholders:

• Training and orientation programs on management and disposal of HAZCHEM
• Training support for SDRF, community, and volunteers
8. Curriculum development:
• Promote inclusion of more specialisations and electives on HAZCHEM and chemical disaster
management.
• Review and address gaps in medical education at different levels with respect to emergency medical
response.
• Review the specialisation needs in the area of dealing with victims of chemical disasters
• Review and take steps to improve the facilities required to treat victims of chemical disasters.

4. Biological and public health emergencies:

• Disasters related to this sub-group are biological emergencies and epidemics, pest attacks, cale epidemics
and food poisoning.
• Biological emergency is one caused due to natural outbreaks of epidemics or intentional use of
biological agents (viruses and microorganisms) or toxins through dissemination of such agents in ways
to harm human population, food crops and livestock to cause outbreaks of diseases.
• This may happen through natural, accidental, or deliberate dispersal of such harmful agents into food,
water, air, soil or into plants, crops, or livestock.
• Apart from the natural transnational movement of the pathogenic organisms, their potential use as
weapons of biological warfare and bioterrorism has become far more important now than ever before.
• Along with nuclear and chemical agents, many biological agents are now considered as capable of causing
large-scale mortality and morbidity.
• Handling exotic pathogens warrants suitable infrastructure, notably, high containment laboratories of bio-
safety levels 3 and 4; recruitment of highly committed, dedicated and trained professionals; continuous
availability of diagnostic reagents; enhancement of skills at various echelons of health professionals in
early identification of such infections, investigation of outbreaks and institution of specific control
measures.
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• Current system of surveillance and mechanism to control the outbreak of endemic diseases are through
the National Programme for Surveillance of Communicable Diseases.
• Natural outbreaks of disease may become epidemics and assume disastrous proportion if not contained in
the initial stages.
• Pest infestations have recurred as major disasters for the agrarian economy of India since time
immemorial.
• Locust swarms coming from Central Asia used to be a major cause for concern.
• Besides such consolidated events, infestation of localized pests is a threat to plant as well as human life.
• A major factor responsible for deterioration and the loss of food grains, their products and the economic
losses besides health hazards is the contamination caused by rodents and insects. Pest control is achieved
primarily through chemical methods subject to safety standards and regulatory norms for the safe use of
such chemicals.
• The growth of human society has rested largely on the cultivation of crops and domestication of animals.
• As crops and animals became necessary to sustain a divergent social structure, the depletion of these
resources had far-reaching consequences.
• Along with the growth of societies, crop and animal diseases acquired more and more importance.
• Infectious agents are constantly evolving, often acquiring enhanced virulence or epidemic potential.
• As large number of people now travels within and across national boundaries, the likelihood of fast global
spread of epidemics has increased dramatically making localised outbreaks into national epidemics and
global pandemics.
• As our society is in a state of flux, novel pathogens emerge to pose challenges not only at the point of
primary contact but also in far removed locations.
• The increased interaction between humans and animals has increased the possibilities of zoonotic
diseases emerging in epidemic form.
• The Biological DRR covers the legal frameworks and institutional aspects needed for addressing safety
and security of microbial agents, managing epidemics, containing biological terrorism (BT), managing
threats to livestock, and all forms of agriculture.
• Desert locusts fly with the wind and can travel 100-150 km in a day. The Bombay locust (Nomadacris
succincta) was a major pest in India and South-Eastern Asia in the 18th and 19th centuries but has seldom
swarmed since the last plague in 1908. The desert locust swarms from as far as Africa sometimes can
reach India and Pakistan crossing the Indian Ocean.
• The Locust Control and Research Division under MAFW Keeps constant vigil through field surveys
to prevent crop losses due to locust attack in approximately two lakhs sq.km of Scheduled Desert Area in
the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Locust Watch under FAO monitors the locusts worldwide and issue early warnings to countries about
locust swarms. After receiving warning, Government takes urgent measures for monitoring and control.
• Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage under the MAFW with sub-offices across
India, is the apex organisation responsible for taking measures related to plant protection. Such measures
are important in the overall crop production programmes for sustainable agriculture.
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• Plant protection activities encompasses activities aimed to minimizing crop losses due to pests through
integrated pest management, plant quarantine, regulation of pesticides as well as locust warning and
control.
• To effectively tackle the issue of livestock health, the Department is supplementing the activities of the
State Governments/ Union Territories through 'Livestock Health & Disease Control Scheme’, which
has the following components:
o Assistance to States for Control of Animal Diseases
o Professional Efficiency Development
o National Project on Rinderpest Surveillance and Monitoring
o Foot and Mouth Disease Control Programme
o National Animal Disease Reporting System
o Brucellosis Control Programme
o Establishment and Strengthening of existing Veterinary Hospitals and Dispensaries
o Classical Swine Fever Control Programme
Biological and public health emergencies: NDMA Guideline

• Establishment of Early Warning System to make the response mechanism ready for operation.
• Strengthening Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) and early warning systems at
regional levels
• Epidemiological disease mapping of the past which will provide ready data to contain future disasters.
• Health facilities mapping is necessary prerequisite, because biological disasters put heavy burden on
people’s health. Mapping of health facilities will help to assess real situation and opens the doors for
further improvements.
2. Dissemination of warnings, data & information:

• Create awareness about preventive measures which will help in bringing behavioural changes
among all stakeholders.
• Extensive IEC campaigns to create awareness through print, electronic and social media
• Specific messages for highly vulnerable groups such as elderly, young children, outdoor workers and
slum residents is most crucial aspect of awareness generation. Because these are the most vulnerable
sections during any kind of disasters.
3. Preparation and response:

• Rapid health assessment and provision of laboratory support is necessary to deal with widely
spreading biological disasters. This has been observed during COVID19 Pandemic. During COVID19
Pandemic, government also established laboratories throughout the country on mission mode.
• Institution of public health measures to deal with secondary emergencies as an outcome of biological
emergencies. This can help in tackling unforeseen challenges and pressures on health system.
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• Establishing adequate decontamination systems, Critical Care Intensive Care Units (ICUs) and
isolation wards to slow down the spread of biological agents.
• Adequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for all the health workers associated with the
responding to biological emergencies. This will ensure that health workers will not be affected by such
biological agents.
• Strengthening/mainstreaming the network medical assistance facilities
• Equipping Medical First Responders (MFRs)/Quick Reaction Medical Teams (QRMTs) with all
material logistics and backup support
• Upgradation of earmarked hospitals to cope with Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
(CBRN) emergencies
• Communication and networking system with appropriate intra-hospital and inter-linkages with state
ambulance/transport services, state police departments and other emergency services
• Mobile tele-health services and Mobile Hospitals.
5. Upgrading medical facilities:

• Specialised health care and laboratory facilities to address biological emergencies/ incidents.
Biological disasters are sudden and sometimes transcends the human capabilities to deal with such
disasters with existing infrastructure. Thus, it is necessary to establish specialised health care facilities
to deal with biological disasters.
• Establishing and strengthening quarantine facilities to break the chain of contamination. This is well
observed during COVID19 Pandemic where government focused on quarantine facilities.
• Creating at least one public health laboratory in each district so that every person gets diagnosed
at right time and get treatment with ease.
• Stockpiling of essential medical supplies such as vaccines and antibiotics, etc. COVID19 Pandemic
compelled all the governments across the globe to stockpile medicines such as Hydroxychloroquine,
Lopinavir, Ritonavir etc.
6. Biosafety and Biosecurity Measures and Environmental Management:

• Strict compliance with biosafety and biosecurity provisions such as wearing PPE kits while treating
patients, conducting research on biological agents in laboratories, safe handling of medical wastes etc.
• Environmental monitoring to prevent outbreaks- Most of the biological disasters are zoonotic in
origin. Discriminate handling of environment and more specifically wild animals can cause jumping
of viral agents into human societies.
• Integrated vector management for elimination of breeding places such as meat markets,
transportation of exotic species, livestock management etc.
• Biological and chemical interventions for vector control
• Monitoring of water supply and sewage systems to prevent the dispersal of biological agents that
can cause epidemics.
7. Human Resource Development and Training:
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• Training support for SDRF, community, and volunteers is necessary as they are directly exposed to
such disasters.
• Strengthening of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), medical first responders, medical
professionals, paramedics and other emergency responders. This will ensure institutionalised response
during such disasters.
• Development of human resources for monitoring and management of the delayed effects of
Biological and Public Health Emergencies in the areas of mental health and psychosocial care Training
programmes in the areas of emergency medicine and biological emergency management for hospital
administrators, specialists, medical officers, nurses and other health care workers
• Training for youth through NCC, NYKS, Scouts and Guides and NSS. This will help to harness the
demographic dividend during emergency situations.
• Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness to tackle the menace of fake news and to create
responsible citizenry.
• Training programs for public, PRIs/ ULBs to reach each and every person in the locality. This will
also help strengthening of democracy at the grass-root level.
• Community awareness programme for first aid with the help of ASHA workers, AWW, ANMs.
These workers are helpful in keeping vigil during such disasters.
• Dos and Don’ts to mitigate the effects of medical emergencies caused by biological agents
• Awareness about the importance of personal hygiene
• With due consideration to the social, ethnic and religious issues involved, utmost care will be exercised
in the disposal of dead bodies.
5. Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies:

• A nuclear disaster is construed as potentially a low probability event, however very high in damage
impact, could be caused by detonation of nuclear warhead or explosion of an Improvised Nuclear Device
(IND) with associated release of large amounts of devastative energy due to Blast, Thermal and
Radioactive material. Secondary effects occurring later might result in fall out of radioactive dust.
• The nuclear and radiological emergencies could be due to accidents at operating nuclear facilities/
incidents in public domain that could potentially release radioactive materials.
• The cause of these events could potentially arise from nuclear facility/ malicious acts of radioactivity
dispersal by explosion of Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD).
• The occurrence of these kinds of emergencies could be of probability marginally higher but based on the
scale of the accident/ incident, the potential impact of damage will be restricted to less domain.
• Nuclear weapons, a major accident in a nuclear power plant or an accidental exposure of radiation, due to
accident with the radioactive material during transportation, faulty practices, and mechanical failure in a
radiation facility can lead to nuclear or radiological emergency.
• Even though such situations may not arise easily, everyone needs to be prepared to face such emergencies.
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• All organisations dealing with nuclear and radiological material have an inherent culture of safety, follow
best safety practices in the sector, and they apply high standards to ensure minimum risk.
• However, nuclear emergencies can still arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating agencies
from human error, system failure, sabotage, extreme natural events like earthquake, cyclone, flood,
tsunami or a combination of these.
• Such failures, even though of very low probability, may lead to on-site or offsite emergencies.
• To counter this, proper emergency preparedness plans must be in place so that there is minimum loss of
life, livelihood, property, and impact on the environment.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) classifies the above emergency scenarios under two broad
categories –
a) Nuclear and
b) Radiological
a) A nuclear emergency refers to a situation in which there is, or is presumed to be, a hazard due to
the release of energy along with radiation from a nuclear chain reaction (or from the decay of the
products of a chain reaction). These covers accidents in nuclear reactors, 'criticality' situations in fuel cycle
facilities, nuclear explosions, etc.
b) All other emergency situations which have the potential hazard of radiation exposure due to decay of
radioisotopes, are classified as radiological emergencies.
• While the overall objective is to prevent NRE, there is also the need to adequately prepare for such
emergencies. An NRE must be managed through very well planned and established mechanisms –
structural and non-structural – in a manner that will minimize risks to health, life and the environment.
• Eight nuclear/ radiological emergency scenarios envisaged in the disaster planning are listed below:
1. Accidents in Nuclear Power Plants and other facilities in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
2. ‘Criticality’ Accidents
3. Accidents during transportation of radioactive materials
4. Accidents at facilities using radioactive sources
5. Disintegration of satellites during re-entry
6. Nuclear/Radiological terrorism and sabotage at nuclear facilities
7. State-sponsored nuclear terrorism
8. Explosion of nuclear weapons
Nuclear and radiological emergencies: NDMA Guideline

1. Monitoring and warning network Strengthening Radiation Monitoring:
• This will help in early detection of radiations from all possible sources like nuclear plants, weapons,
transport of nuclear materials etc.
2. Establish monitoring mechanism to prevent illicit movement of radioisotopes:
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•Install radiation detectors at all identified locations at border posts, and ports. Such detection is
necessary to prevent illegal transport of radioactive materials, dumping of such materials in developing
countries by developed countries.
3. Communication networks:
• To set up reliable and dedicated communication network at the national level for the last mile
connectivity.
4. Warnings, information, data:

• Dissemination of warnings to all, down to the last mile – remote, rural or urban so that people can get
reliable, genuine information about the emergencies. In this way people also get prepared to respond
in well-structured manner.
• Regular updates to people in areas at risk will help to tackle the menace of fake news, panic.
• Identification of safe buildings and sites to serve as temporary shelters near nuclear installations
• Construction of multi-purpose shelters near nuclear installations
• Ensure compliance with relevant building codes
6. Comprehensive plan on medical management:

• To establish tertiary care hospitals for treatment of radiation injuries.
• Establish primary and secondary care hospitals of adequate capacity at select cities will help reduce
burden on healthcare facilities.
• Strengthening network of civil society organizations for awareness generation about Disaster Risk
Reduction and Disaster Management.
6. Climate Refugees:/Environmental Refugee

• The term “climate refugee” is often used in the media and other discussions.
• However, this phrase can cause confusion, as it does not exist in international law.
• A “refugee” is defined as a person who has crossed an international border “owing to well-founded fear
of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or
political opinion” (1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees).
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• In some contexts, the definition extends to persons fleeing “events seriously disturbing public order”
(1984 Cartagena Declaration). Climate change affects people inside their own countries, and typically
creates internal displacement before it reaches a level where it displaces people across borders.
• There may be situations where the refugee criteria of the 1951 Convention or broader refugee criteria of
regional refugee law frameworks may apply, for example if drought-related famine is linked to situations
of armed conflict and violence – an area known as “nexus dynamics.”
• Regardless, the term “climate refugee” is not endorsed by UNHCR, and it is more accurate to refer to
“persons displaced in the context of disasters and climate change.”
• Most disaster displacement linked to natural hazards and the impacts of climate change is internal, with
those affected remaining within their national borders.
• However, displacement across borders also occurs, and may be interrelated with situations of conflict or
violence.
• The impacts of climate change are numerous. Limited natural resources, such as drinking water, are
likely to become even scarcer in many parts of the world. Crops and livestock struggle to survive in climate
change ‘hotspots’ where conditions become too hot and dry, or too cold and wet, threatening livelihoods
and exacerbating food insecurity.
• People are trying to adapt to the changing environment, but many are being forcibly displaced from their
homes by the effects of climate change and disasters, or are relocating in order to survive. New
displacement patterns, and competition over depleted natural resources can spark conflict between
communities or compound pre-existing vulnerabilities.
• People displaced across borders in the context of climate change and disasters may in some circumstances
be in need of international protection. Refugee law therefore has an important role to play in this area.
• UNHCR is providing protection and assistance for many people forcibly displaced by the effects of climate
change and disasters, among other drivers, and is working to increase their resilience.
This global challenge has and will continue to create a multitude of critical issues that the international
community must confront, including:
• Large-scale human migration due to resource scarcity, increased frequency of extreme weather events,
and other factors, particularly in the developing countries in the earth’s low latitudinal band
• Intensifying intra- and inter-state competition for food, water, and other resources, particularly in the
Middle East and North Africa
• Increased frequency and severity of disease outbreaks
• Increased U.S. border stress due to the severe effects of climate change in parts of Central America.
Climate Refugee
• The ‘State of India's Environment 2020 in Figures’ report was published by the Centre for Science
and Environment (CSE).
• It states that India had around 50 lakh internal displacements caused by disasters and extreme weather
conditions like floods, cyclones and drought in 2019.
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➢ According to the Global Report on Internal Displacement 2020, nearly five million people were
displaced in India in 2019 because of disasters related to Southwest Monsoon and Cyclones.
➢ According to the ‘State of India's Environment 2020 in Figures' the internal displacements in India
caused by disasters and extreme weather conditions were the highest in the world in 2019.
Climate refugees’ statistics:
• Across and within borders, people are displaced. Recent trends indicate more internal displacement due to
climate-related disasters than conflict, where in fact, of the 30.6 million people displaced across 135
countries in 2017, 60 percent were as a direct result of natural disasters.
• In 2018, extreme weather events such as severe drought in Afghanistan, Tropical Cyclone Gita in Samoa,
and flooding in the Philippines, resulted in acute humanitarian needs.
• According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, there were 18.8 million new disaster-related
internal displacements recorded in 2017.
• In 2018, the World Bank projected that there will be more than 143 million internal climate migrants by
2050, in just three regions of the world (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Latin America), if no climate
action is taken.
India’s vulnerability to climate refugees:

• The State of India’s Environment 2020 report, published by Delhi-based Centre for Science and
Environment (CSE) highlights that India recorded just nine out of 93 disasters in Asia in 2019 but
accounted for nearly 48% of the deaths.
• Also, more people died due to extreme weather events in 2019 despite fewer events in comparison to 2018.
• In 2018 there were 23 extreme weather events that caused 1,396 deaths but last year, only nine disasters
claimed 2,038 lives as per official data.
• According to the National Disaster Management Authority, 27 of the 37 states and union territories in
India are disaster-prone.
• If places like Sundarbans in the east of India face the threat of sea-level rise, the mountains of north India
are susceptible to floods, cloud bursts and landslides. The Aila cyclone of 2009 in Bay of Bengal or
Kedarnath floods of 2013 in Uttarakhand are testaments to this fact.
UNHCR’s role in addressing climate change and disaster-related displacement

UNHCR’s work on climate change and disaster displacement covers four main areas:
1. Legal advice, guidance and the development of norms to support the enhanced protection of the rights
of people displaced in the context of disasters and climate change.
2. Promoting policy coherence to ensure that issues of disaster displacement are effectively mainstreamed
across relevant areas.
3. Research to fill gaps that underpin this operational and policy work.
4. Field-based activities to address internal and cross-border disaster displacement; to reduce the
environmental impact of refugee settlements and ensure sustainable responses to displacement; risk
reduction activities and others which may contribute to efforts to avert, minimize and address
displacement.
The Global Compact on Refugees:
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• The Global Compact on Refugees, adopted by an overwhelming majority in the UN General Assembly
in December 2018, directly addresses this growing concern. It recognizes that ‘climate, environmental
degradation and natural disasters increasingly interact with the drivers of refugee movements.’
• The Global Compact on Refugees is a framework for more predictable and equitable responsibility-
sharing, recognizing that a sustainable solution to refugee situations cannot be achieved without
international cooperation.
• It provides a blueprint for governments, international organizations, and other stakeholders to ensure that
host communities get the support they need and that refugees can lead productive lives.
• It constitutes a unique opportunity to transform the way the world responds to refugee situations,
benefiting both refugees and the communities that host them.
• Its four key objectives are to:
1. Ease the pressures on host countries;
2. Enhance refugee self-reliance;
3. Expand access to third-country solutions;
4. Support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity.
7. Urban Flooding
• Flood is defined as “an overflow of a large body of water over
areas not usually inundated”. Thus, flooding in urban areas is
caused by intense and/or prolonged rainfall, which overwhelms
the capacity of the drainage system.
• Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding-
urbanization increases flood risk by up to 3 times, increased peak
flow result in flooding very quickly. Further, it affects large
number of people due to high population density in urban areas.
Devastating Floods in the past:

• In India: Chennai (December 2015), Kochi (August 2018), Mumbai July 2005
• Around the world: Sydney (December 2018), New York (October 2019), Hurricane Katrina in New
Orleans (October 2005)
Facts and figures

• India has a long coastline of 7,500 km and an estimated 14% of India’s total population lives alongside
it that traverses nine states, 77 towns and cities including some of the fastest-growing such as Mumbai,
Chennai and Kochi making them more prone to flood due to adjacent sea and erratic monsoonal behaviour.
• Aside from the present danger posed by extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall and cyclonic storms,
more slow-onset impacts brought about by climate change also threaten the coastline.
• A 2016 UN report estimated that 40 million people in India will be at risk from sea-level rise by 2050.
• Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) identified 40 million hectares of land as flood-prone
in India.
• About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities.
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• Over 40 million hectares is prone to flood.
• About 8% of the total area is prone to cyclone and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought
Causes of urban flooding:
Urban flood is a natural phenomenon but recent times anthropogenic factors are more responsible for flood in
India.
Natural causes • Skewed Rainfall Pattern

• Trans-National Rivers
• Earthquakes
• Sediment deposition
• Cyclone
Anthropogenic causes • Indiscriminate deforestation
• Poor Solid Waste Management System
• Unplanned Urbanization
• Population pressure
• Old and ill maintained drainage System:
• Climate change
• Inadequate Mitigation measure
• Policy failure
• Encroachment of Wetlands
• Inefficient River flow
• inefficient urban planning
• Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning
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• Obstruction by the encroachment and filling in the floodplain on the
waterways
• Deposits of building materials and solid wastes with subsequent
blockage of the system.
NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flood:
• National Hydro-meteorological Network and Doppler Weather Radars can provide and a lead time
of 3 to 6 hours.
• Design and Management of Urban Drainage to improve the infiltration and natural storage.
• As runoff processes are independent of states and city administrative boundaries, Catchment as a basis
of design should be promoted.
• Removal of Solid Waste should be encouraged to avoid hydraulic roughness, blockage.
• Rain gardens consist of a porous soil covered with a thin layer of mulch. Stormwater runoff is allowed
to infiltrate through the plant/mulch/soil environment.
• Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment should be done to identify areas at risk, classification of
structures according to Hazard Risk Zoning.
• A separate Urban Flooding Cell (UFC) will be constituted within MoUD which will coordinate all
UFDM activities at the national level.
• Emergency Operation Centres, flood shelters, search and rescue operations, emergency logistics should
be established for flood response mechanism.
Way forward:
Technology: 1. Strengthen Early Warning System and real-time communication system.

2. Improve forecasting models to strengthen preparedness e.g. Mumbai has
installed automatic weather stations for recording the rainfall every 15 minutes.
Governance: 1. Design and maintain Urban Drainage System to avoid blockage and to improve
flow capacity
2. Prioritise waste recycling
3. Need cooperation between Municipal and urban infrastructure bodies
4. Strengthen regulation of real estate nexus with RERA
5. Implement Coastal Regulation Zone rules
Conservation 1. Rainwater Harvesting to serve the twin purposes of lowering the peak runoff and
raising the ground water table. e.g. Tamil Nadu
2. Prevent encroachments and promote conservation of Water Bodies like lakes,
tanks and ponds for flood regulation.
Public 1. Improve urban accountability through public participation
participation: 2. Create an awareness about solid waste management
3. Community-based advance flood warning systems
Mitigation 1. Prompt, well-coordinated and effective response to minimize casualties and loss
of property and also facilitate early recovery.
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International 1. Efficient implement Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction to reduce
cooperation: the vulnerability of disaster.
2. Develop ‘sponge’ cities in line with cities in China
Developing Sponge Cities:

• The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls
upon it.
• Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban
aquifers.
• This allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban wells.
• This water can be treated easily and used for city water supply.
8. Rail Accidents
• Railway Disaster is a serious train accident or an
untoward event of grave nature, either on
railway premises or arising out of railway activity.
• This may occur due to natural or human-made causes,
which may lead to loss of many lives and/or grievous
injuries to a large number of people, and/or severe
disruption of traffic etc.
• Thus, necessitating large scale help from other
government/non-government and private.
Major Rail Accidents in 2017:

• Vasco-da-Gama -Patna Express derailment, November 23, 2017
• Utkal Express derailment, Aug 18, 2017.
• Meerut-Lucknow Rajya Rani Express derailment, April 15, 2017.
• Jagdalpur-Bhubaneswar Hirakhand Express derailment, Jan 22, 2017.
• Kalindi Express derailment, Feb 20, 2017.
• Mahakaushal Express derailment, March 30, 2017.
• Ujjain train blast, March 3, 2017.
Derailments:
• In 2015-16, a majority of train accidents were caused due to derailments (60%), followed by accidents at
level crossings (33%).
• Between 2003-04 and 2015-16, derailments were the second highest reason for casualties.
• The Standing Committee on Railways had noted that one of the reasons for derailments is defect in the
track or rolling stock.
Unmanned Level Crossings:
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• Unmanned level crossings (UMLCs) continue to be one of the biggest causes of maximum casualties in
rail accidents.
• In 2014-15, about 40% of the accidents occurred at UMLCs, and in 2015-16, about 28%.
How ISRO is helping Indian railway to curb accident at unmanned crossing?

• ISRO helping the Indian Railways use its satellite-based system to check accidents at unmanned railway
crossings and track train movements on a real-time basis.
• A hooter integrated with ISRO navigation system will be installed at an unmanned crossing.
• An IC chip will be installed on a train engine. The chip will get activated once a train is at a distance of
500 metres to 4km from the crossing.
• The hooter will go off as the train approaches, warning road users at the crossing and will fall silent after
the train has passed.
• The system will also help railways track train movement on a real-time basis
• The testing of this system is underway.
What explains the frequent number of railway accidents?
• More than half of the accidents are due to lapses on the part of
railway staff.
• Such lapses include:
Accidents due to failure of • carelessness in working,
railway staff: • poor maintenance work,
• Adoption of short-cuts
• Non-observance of laid down safety rules and procedures.
Accidents due to loco-pilots: • Accidents also occur due to signalling errors for which loco-pilots
are responsible.
• Slow expansion of rail networks has put undue burden on the
existing infrastructure, leading to severe congestion and safety
Under-investment in the compromises
Railways leading to Rail • Under-investment in the railways has resulted in congested routes,
accidents: inability to add new trains, reduction of train speeds and more rail
accidents.
• Maintenance is compromised due to lack of funds.
Safety Measures taken on Indian Railways:

• Measures taken to ensure rail safety envisage accident prevention and mitigation directed
towards continuous reduction in risk level to its passengers.
• In the Budget 2017-18, setting up of a Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK) had been announced.
Many new technologies have been introduced:
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• Train Protection Warning System (TPWS)/ Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) as means of
Automatic Train Protection on pilot section to prevent accident due to over speeding & passing signal at
danger.
• Vigilance Control Device (VCD) to check alertness of Loco Pilot Electrical/Electronic Interlocking
System with Centralised operations of points to eliminate human failure, Complete Track Circuiting,
• Axle Counter for Automatic Clearance of Block Section (BPAC),
• Interlocking of manned Level Crossing gates
• Replacement of filament type signal with Light Emitting Diode (LED) Signals
To improve safety of railway tracks following measures have been taken:
• Usage of pre-stressed concrete sleepers
• Provision of Thick Web Switches (TWS) for all important routes
• Track Management System
• Condition based monitoring system for rolling stock and track is being tried
• Ultrasonic broken rail detection system to be made operational
Suggestions by the World bank for Rail Safety in India:

• In April 2017, erstwhile Railway Minister had approached the World Bank for a study on the issue of rail
safety.
• The report - titled 'Strengthening Safety on Indian Railways' was submitted by the World Bank in late
August 2017.
• The guidelines that were put forth by the World Bank to keep a check safety of the overburdened Indian
rail infrastructure are as follows:
o As a measure to avert accidents, the trains are to be equipped with ‘ditch lights’ and painted
bright yellow that will enable more visibility even during twilight hours.
o The rail employees should be garbed in “high-visibility” clothes that can be worn round the year.
o Every train must be equipped with fire extinguishers and the staff must be well guided on various fire
prevention measures.
o The level crossings and paths are to be painted with a crosshatched pattern that can alert and highlight
the dangers for people to be in the area.
o The current investigators who have been employed to investigate root-cause of accidents are to be
trained for better analysis.
o The authorities have been suggested to review timetables such that a maintenance block of four hours
is provided weekly on all main lines as well as review safety performance in terminal operations with
the intent of recognising prevailing risks.
o An independent rail safety regulator is to be created by the railways to strengthen the powers
of commissioner of railway safety and form a safety management system under the Chairman,
Railway Board.
o To address derailments, fires, or any other possible mishap, an emergency response plan is to
be constituted.
9. Oil Spill:
• Recently, A Japanese ship named M V Wakashio struck a coral reef resulting in an oil spill of over
1,000 tonnes into the Indian Ocean.
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• The accident had taken place near two environmentally protected
marine ecosystems and the Blue Bay Marine Park Reserve, which
is a wetland of international importance.
• A number of popular tourist beaches and mangrove plantations are
located nearby the spill.
Concerns associated with Oil Spills

• Oil spills affect marine life by exposing them to harsh elements and destroying their sources of food and
habitat.
• Both birds and mammals can die from hypothermia as a result of oil spills, for instance, oil destroys the
insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals, such as sea otters.
• It also decreases the water repellence of birds’ feathers, without which they lose their ability to repel cold
water.
• Conservationists are also anxious about oil washing into mangrove forests, where roots serve as nurseries
for fish.
• Concerns are also growing for the thousands of local people whose livelihoods will be impacted by the
spill.
• The damage could impact Mauritius and its tourism-dependent economy for decades.
Methods of Cleaning the oil spill:

There are a few ways to clean up oil spills:
• Including skimming–It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it is able to reach the sensitive
areas along the coastline.
• In situ burning – It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in one area.
• Release of chemical dispersants–Releasing chemical dispersants helps break down oil into smaller
droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume, and further break it down into less harmful compounds.
• Natural actions –Natural actions in aquatic environments such as weathering, evaporation,
emulsification, biodegradation and oxidation can also help reduce the severity of an oil spill and accelerate
the recovery of an affected area.
Other instances of oil spills:

• Some of the world’s largest oil spills include the Persian Gulf War oil spill of 1991 when more than 380
million gallons of oil was poured into the northern Persian Gulf by Iraq’s forces.
• The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is also considered to be among the largest
known accidental oil spills in history. Starting April 20, 2010, over 4 million barrels of oil flowed over a
period of 87 days into the Gulf of Mexico.
• In 2016, a United States Geological Survey (USGS)-NASA study found that the 2010 oil spill led to
“widespread” shoreline loss along with the heavily oiled areas along Louisiana’s coast.
• Recently occurred Oil spill in Russia’s Arctic region.
10.Mine Disasters
• Mines Act, 1965 defines Disaster as an act Accident (unexpected event) causing loss of more than 10 lives.
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• A mining accident is an accident that occurs in the process of mining minerals.
Following types of mining disasters are classified by the Directorate General of Mine Safety (DGMS):
• Side fall (slope failure) disaster in opencast mines
• Roof and side falls in underground mines
• Collapse of mine pillars
• Air Blast
• Failure of rope haulage
• Accident due to electricity
• Mine Fires
• Accident due to explosive
• Inundations
• Explosions in Mines
• Rock Burst and bumps
Prevention of Disasters in Mines:
• The various safeguards and preventive measures against coal mine fires are outlined in the Coal Mines
Regulations, 1957 and related circulars, notifications and technical instructions.
• The Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) examines from each and every application for
underground and surface mining from all considerations.
• Wherever necessary the DGMS imposes additional precautionary and preventive measures.
• Thus, the role of DGMS is not only that of an enforcer of legislation but also a facilitator of Mine Safety.
Environment Clearance:
• For the new projects and re-organisational projects, after the issuance of the EIA Notification, 1994 under
the Environment (protection) Act, 1986, it has become compulsory to get environmental clearance from
the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF.
• The mines are required to develop their Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) in which the
problems of the mine fires are adequately addressed as the mine fires have considerable environmental
impacts.
Reasons for Mining Accidents

• Poor safety conditions for workers: The main reason remains
collapse of roofs and walls or Inundation fatalities.
• Rat hole mining involves suffocating narrow tunnels through
which miners go into the hillsides to extract coal.
• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) not followed:
Surface movement of heavy machinery.
• Administrative failures: “Illegal” mining that employs a large
number of the marginalised and child labour. E.g. Justice B.P.
Katoki committee of the NGT reported rampant illegal mining
as primary reason for accidents.
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• Outsourcing to private sector: Under the Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015 and the Mines and
Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 coal mines are auctioned to private players. Private
sector is accused of neglecting safety standards.
• Carelessness of miners: In transportation and use of explosives For example, Lalmatia tragedy in 2016,
workers’ complaint about cracks in the slope were neglected.
• No lessons learnt: Findings of previous disasters not incorporated in pre-mining surveys and safety
protocols.
• Misuse of 6th Schedule of Constitution: Illegal miners and local councils portray administrative
safeguards against dangerous mining as undue interference in autonomous areas and hence go ahead with
illegal mining operations.
E.g. rat-hole mining in Meghalaya.
• 6th Schedule provides tribal communities right over land and use of its resources.
Measures taken for improvement of safety by Coal India Limited (CIL) in 2016:
• Internal safety Organization (ISO): Continuous
review of safety status of mines is being done by the
multidisciplinary ISO
• Guidelines of Corrective Measures: After analysis
of fatal accidents which occurred in different point
of time in 2016, guidelines of corrective measures to
prevent recurrence of similar type of accidents in
future have been issued by Safety and Rescue
Division of CIL
• Training for Preparation of Risk Assessment
based Safety Management Plans (SMP)
• Preparation and Implementation of Risk
Assessment based SMP
• Standard Operating Procedure (SOP): 8 risk
assessment-based site-specific SOP are formulated and being implemented for various mining and allied
operations
• Adoption of the state-of-art Technology suitable to geo-mining locales
• Monitoring of Mine Environment by installing Environment Tele-Monitoring System (ETMs) and
Local Methane Detectors
• Water Danger management
• Strata Management: Use of modern strata monitoring instruments.
• Risk management training.
In December, 2018, illegal coal mine at Ksan in Meghalaya flooded, trapping at least 13 workers despite
NGT banning unscientific and illegal mining including rat-hole mining in
Meghalaya.
Way Ahead
• NHRC report 2014 mining sector should adopt best practices such as:
o Scientific ‘training need assessment’ for officers and workers.
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o Developing effective training delivery mechanisms.
o Working on comprehensive specialised training on accident investigation.
• Integrate Occupational health with primary healthcare: It is the mandate of the Labour Ministry.
o This has to be shifted to Health Ministry for better synergy and finance allocation.
• Regulator on occupational health safety.
• Effective implementation of 6th schedule provisions through regulation of land leasing and protection
of “community” right over land resources.
• Diversifying livelihood opportunities in concerned districts through better implementation of schemes
like MGNREGA, Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Program (PMEGP).
• Curb on illegal mining that is more dangerous and unregulated by using satellites.
• State Responsibility: Moreover, under the rules of Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation)
Act, the responsibility of illegal mining lies with the State government. For example, NGT imposed 100
crore penalty on Meghalaya govt. for failing to curb illegal mining.
• District Mineral Fund (DMF): Use DMF for rehabilitation and welfare of the workers from
impoverished communities including child labourers who take these risky work because
of the higher wages.
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CH-3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
Disaster Management in India:

Phases of disaster management:
Preparedness: This is the period when the potential hazard, risk and
vulnerabilities can be assessed and steps can be taken for:
• Preventing and mitigating the crisis, and
Phase 1: • Preparing for actual occurrence.
Before the Crisis (Risk Crisis can also be mitigated through various short-term measures
reduction) which either reduce the scale and intensity of the threat or improve
the durability and capacity of the elements at risk. For example,
better enforcement of building codes and zoning regulations, proper
maintenance of drainage systems, better awareness and public
education to reduce the risks of hazards, etc. help in containing the
damage.
Phase 2: Emergency Response: When a crisis actually occurs, those affected
During the Crisis (Response) by it require a speedy response to alleviate and minimize suffering
and losses. In this phase, certain 'primary activities' become
indispensable. These are:
1. Evacuation
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2. Search and rescue, followed by
3. Provision of basic needs, such as food, clothing, shelter,
medicines and other necessities essential for bringing being the life
of the affected community back to a degree of normalcy.
• Recovery: This is the stage when efforts are made to achieve early
recovery and reduce vulnerability and future risks. It comprises
activities that encompass two overlapping phases of rehabilitation
Phase 3: and reconstruction.
Post Crisis (Recovery) • Rehabilitation: Includes provision of temporary public utilities
and housing as interim measures to assist long term recovery.
• Reconstruction: Includes construction of damaged infrastructure
and habitats and enabling sustainable livelihoods.
Elements of Disaster Management:
Risk Reduction (Enhancing Resilience)

• Disaster risk reduction strategies have the potential to save thousands of lives by adoption of simple
preventive measures. Lack of coherent disaster reduction strategies and the absence of a 'culture of
prevention' are the major causes for increasing casualties due to disasters. Disaster risk reduction
(disaster reduction) has been defined as the systematic development and application of policies,
strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities, hazards and the unfolding of disaster impacts
throughout a society, in the broad context of sustainable development'.
• Disaster reduction strategies include appraisal of likelihood and intensity of hazards and analysis of
vulnerabilities thereof to the community. Building of institutional capabilities and community
preparedness is the next step. Crucial to all these efforts, however, is the existence of a 'safety culture' in
societies. Inputs like education, training and capacity building play a very significant role. It needs to be
understood that such preparedness cannot be a 'one time' effort, but is a continuous process.
• Knowledge plays an important role in disaster reduction. The traditional knowledge available with the
community has to be used along with knowledge acquired through research and past experiences.
The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action:
1. Policies towards risk management
2. Assessment of risk, including hazard analysis and vulnerability
3. Generating risk awareness with the help of mass media and social media
4. Preparation of plans for risk mitigation
5. Implementation of the plan
6. Early warning systems with the help of latest technology relating to data capture transmission,
analysis and even dissemination
7. Use of knowledge
8. Information: Effective disaster risk management depends on the informed participation of all
stakeholders. The exchange of information and easily accessible communication practices play key
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roles. Data is crucial for ongoing research, national planning, monitoring hazards and assessing risks.
The widespread and consistent availability of current and accurate data is fundamental to all aspects
of disaster risk reduction.
Mitigation:
Mitigation involves:
• Measures aimed at reducing the impact of disasters
• Efforts to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether
• Differs from the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk
• It embraces actions taken in advance of a disaster to reduce its effects on a community.
Significance of Mitigation:
• A number of special programmes are in operation for mitigating the impact of natural disasters and local
communities have developed their own indigenous coping mechanisms.
• In the event of an emergency, the mobilisation of community action supported by NGOs adds strength
to the national disaster management capacity.
• Despite initiating various disaster mitigation measures, there has been little improvement. Accordingly,
India has taken initiatives for linking disaster mitigation with development plans, promoting the
application of effective communication systems and information technology, insurance, extensive public
awareness and education campaigns (particularly in rural areas), involving the private sector and
strengthening institutional mechanisms and international community cooperation.
Quick Response:
• Quick response can save lives, protect property and lessen disruptions caused by crises. This calls for a
total and effective response, which must subsume the coordinated response of the entire governmental
system as also the civil society.
• The response should not only incorporate traditional coping mechanisms, which have evolved over the
centuries but also involve meticulous planning and coordination. Cumulative experience with
crisis management over the years points to an urgent need for putting in place a holistic and effective
response mechanism which is professional, result-oriented, innovative and people-centric.
Quick response entails the following:

• This phase includes mobilisation of necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster area.
This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency vices, such as fire-fighters, police and ambulance
crews. They may be supported by a number of secondary emergency services, such as specialist rescue
teams.
• It entails restoring physical facilities, rehabilitation of affected families/ populations, restoration of
lost livelihoods and reconstruction efforts.
• Retrospectively, it brings to light the flaws in policy and planning with respect to infrastructure, its
location, social scheme, etc.
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Significance:
• It has immediate mitigation impact and losses can be minimised to a greater degree. According to the
estimate of the insurance industry, natural disasters represent 85 per cent insured catastrophe.
• Thousands of lives lost and millions of people are left weakened each year due to reluctance on part of
donors to invest in measures that reduce the impact of disasters. (World Disaster Report 2002)
• Long term resilience of vulnerable communities.
Issues:
• Coordination among the actors involved (government, civil society and international donor
organisation).
• Recent example is the case of Uttarakhand floods (June 2013) where international organisations found
it hard to immediately get government approval to start work.
• Institutionalisation of disaster response structure at local level.
Recovery:
• In the long-term aftermath of a disaster, when restoration efforts are in addition to regular services, it
involves implementation of actions to promote sustainable redevelopment (reconstruction, rehabilitation).
It differs from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions
that must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with
actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the repair of other essential
infrastructure.
• The recovery phase starts when the immediate threat to human life has subsided. In the reconstruction, it
is desirable to reconsider the location or construction material of the property.
• Community resilience is a key factor in disaster recovery.
This phase encompasses three overlapping phases of 3

R’s:
Relief: It is the period immediately after the
disaster when steps are taken to meet the
need of survivors.
Rehabilitation: These are activities undertaken to support
the victims' return to normalcy and
reintegration in regular community
function. It encompasses provision of
temporary employment and restoration of
livelihood.
Reconstruction: It is an attempt to return communities to
improved pre-disaster functioning.
Institutional framework:
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National level:
The overall coordination of disaster management vests with the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Cabinet
Committee on Security and the National Crisis Management Committee are the key committees
involved in the top-level decision making regarding disaster management. The NDMA is the agency
responsible for the approval of the National Disaster Management Plan and its implementation.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):

• The Government of India established the NDMA in 2005, headed by the Prime Minister. Under the
DM Act 2005, the NDMA, as the apex body for disaster management, shall have the responsibility for
laying down the policies and guidelines for disaster management for ensuring timely and effective
response to disaster.
• The guidelines of NDMA will assist the Central Ministries, Departments, and States to formulate their
respective DM plans.
• It will approve the National Disaster Management Plan and DM plans of the Central Ministries/
Departments.
• It will take such other measures, as it may consider necessary, for the prevention of disasters, or mitigation,
or preparedness and capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• Central Ministries/ Departments and State Governments will extend necessary cooperation and assistance
to NDMA for carrying out its mandate.
• NDMA has the power to authorise the Departments or authorities concerned, to make emergency
procurement of provisions or materials for rescue and relief in a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• The general superintendence, direction, and control of the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
are vested in and will be exercised by the NDMA. The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
works within the framework of broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA.
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• The NDMA has the mandate to deal with all types of disasters – natural or human-induced. However,
other emergencies such as terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situations, hijacking, air
accidents, CBRN weapon systems, which require the close involvement of the security forces and/or
intelligence agencies, and other incidents such as mine disasters, port and harbour emergencies, forest
fires, oilfield fires and oil spills will be handled by the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC).
• Nevertheless, NDMA may formulate the guidelines with advice/ inputs drawn from experts of DAE and
facilitate training and preparedness activities in respect of response to CBRN emergencies with technical
advice obtained from experts from DAE.
Shortcomings and challenges in NDMA:

• NDMA’s role during Uttarakhand Flooding in 2013 was questioned, where it failed to timely inform
people about the flash floods and landslides. The post disaster relief response had not been upto NDMA’s
benchmarks. Experts blamed unfinished projects for flood and landslide mitigation which were resulted
due to poor planning of NDMA.
• A CAG report observed that there were delays in completion of projects under the flood management
programmes. It also stated that the projects were not taken up in an integrated manner and blamed
NDMA for institutional failures for poor flood management.
o There were huge delays in completion of river management activities and works related to
border areas projects which were long-term solutions for the flood problems of Assam, north Bihar
and eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• Devastations caused by Kerala Floods in 2018 and Chennai Floods in 2015 showed shortcomings in the
institutions regarding preparedness for the disaster situation.
o CAG report, 2015 Chennai Floods termed it as a “man-made disaster” and holds Tamil Nadu
government responsible for the catastrophe.
• The NDRF lack sufficient training, equipment, facilities and residential accommodation to deal with
the crisis situation properly.
• Misutilization of Funds-
o Audit findings shows that some states have mis-utilised funds for expenditures that were not
authorised for disaster management.
o There was significant delay in releasing funds. Additionally, some States didn’t invest the funds
thereby incurring huge interest losses. This shows financial indiscipline in states regarding
management of funds.
Way Forward:
• Policy guidelines at the macro level are needed to inform and guide the preparation and implementation
of disaster management and development plans across sectors.
• Operational guidelines should be formed for integrating disaster management practices into
development.
• Efficient early warning systems coupled with effective response plans at district, state and national levels
is the need of the hour.
• Involve Community, NGOs, CSOs and the media at all stages of disaster management.
• Climate risk management should be addressed through adaptation and mitigation.
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o A dynamic policy is required to develop disaster-resilient infrastructure through proper
investment in research. ISRO, NRSA, IMD and other institutions have to collectively provide
technological solutions to enhance capabilities to tackle disasters.
• India should learn from best global practices.
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM):

• As per the provisions of the Chapter-VII of the DM Act, Government of India constituted the National
Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) under an Act of Parliament with the goal of being the premier
institute for capacity development for disaster management in India and the region.
• The vision of NIDM is to create a Disaster Resilient India by building the capacity at all levels for disaster
prevention and preparedness.
• NIDM has been assigned nodal responsibilities for human resource development, capacity building,
training, research, documentation, and policy advocacy in the field of disaster management.
• The NIDM has built strategic partnerships with various ministries and departments of the central,
state, and local governments, academic, research and technical organizations in India and abroad and other
bi-lateral and multi-lateral international agencies.
• It provides technical support to the state governments through the Disaster Management Centres (DMCs)
in the Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs) of the States and Union Territories.
• Some of them are emerging as centres of excellence in the specialised areas of risk management – flood,
earthquake, cyclone, drought, landslides, and industrial disasters.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

• The NDRF has been constituted as per the Chapter-VIII of the DM Act 2005 as a specialist response
force that can be deployed in a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• As per the DM Act, the general superintendence, direction and control of the NDRF shall be vested
and exercised by the NDMA.
• The command and supervision of the NDRF shall vest with the Director General appointed by the
Government of India.
• The NDRF will position its battalions at different locations as required for effective response.
• NDRF units will maintain close liaison with the designated State Governments and will be available to
them in the event of any serious threatening disaster situation.
• The NDRF is equipped and trained to respond to situations arising out of natural disasters and CBRN
emergencies.
• The NDRF units will also impart basic training to all the stakeholders identified by the State
Governments in their respective locations.
• A National Disaster Response Academy is operational in Nagpur and new infrastructure is being set up
to cater to National and international training programmes for disaster management.
• It has also been decided that Disaster Management Training Wings of four CAPFs (BSF, CRPF, ITBP and
CISF) will be merged with this Academy.
• Experience in major disasters has clearly shown the need for pre-positioning of some response forces to
augment the resources at the State level at crucial locations including some in high altitude regions.
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State level:
• As per the DM Act of 2005, each state in India/ Union Territory (UT) shall have its own institutional
framework for disaster management. Each State/UT will have one nodal department for coordination of
disaster management, referred as DM department (DMD), although the name and department is not the
same in each State/UT.
• Among other things, the DM Act, mandates that each State/UT shall take necessary steps for the
preparation of State/UT DM plans, integration of measures for prevention of disasters or mitigation into
State/UT development plans, allocations of funds, and establish EWS. Depending on specific situations
and needs, the State/UT shall also assist the Central Government and central agencies in various aspects
of DM. Each state shall prepare its own State Disaster Management Plan.
State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA):

• As per provisions in Chapter-III of the DM Act, each State Government shall establish a State Disaster
Management Authority (SDMA) or its equivalent as notified by the state government with the Chief
Minister as the Chairperson. In case of other UTs, the Lieutenant Governor or the Administrator shall
be the Chairperson of that Authority.
• For the UT of Delhi, the Lieutenant Governor and the Chief Minister shall be the Chairperson and Vice-
Chairperson respectively of the State Authority.
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• In the case of a UT having Legislative Assembly, except the UT of Delhi, the Chief Minister shall be the
Chairperson of the Authority.
• The SDMA will lay down policies and plans for DM in the State.
• The SDMA will approve the disaster management plans prepared by various departments.
• It will, inter alia approve the State Plan in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the NDMA,
coordinate the implementation of the State Plan, recommend provision of funds for mitigation and
preparedness measures and review the developmental plans of the different departments of the State to
ensure the integration of prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures.
• The State Government shall constitute a State Executive Committee (SEC) to assist the SDMA in the
performance of its functions. The SEC will be headed by the Chief Secretary to the State Government.
• The SEC will coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan,
and the State Plan. The SEC will also provide information to the NDMA relating to different aspects of
DM.
District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA):

• As per provisions in Chapter-IV of the DM Act, each State Government shall establish a District Disaster
Management Authority for every district in the State with such name as may be specified in that
notification.
• The DDMA will be headed by the District Collector, Deputy Commissioner, or District Magistrate as
the case may be, with the elected representative of the local authority as the Co-Chairperson.
• The State Government shall appoint an officer not below the rank of Additional Collector or Additional
District Magistrate or Additional Deputy Commissioner of the district to be the Chief Executive Officer
of the District Authority.
• The DDMA will act as the planning, coordinating and implementing body for DM at the District level
and take all necessary measures for the purposes of DM in accordance with the guidelines laid down by
the NDMA and SDMA.
• It will prepare the DM plan for the District and monitor the implementation of the all relevant national,
state, and district policies and plans.
• The DDMA will also ensure that the guidelines for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and
response measures laid down by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the district-level offices
of the various departments of the State Government.
Financial setup:
National Disaster Response Fund:
• The state government is primarily responsible for undertaking rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures
in the event of a disaster.
• At times, its efforts need to be strengthened and supplemented with Central assistance.
• Providing financial assistance for disaster preparedness, restoration, reconstruction and mitigation in the
event of a natural disaster are not part of National Disaster Response Fund’s mandate.
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• In the event of a calamity of a severe nature, where the requirement of funds for relief operations is beyond
the funds available in the State’s Disaster Response Fund account, additional Central assistance is provided
from National Disaster Response Fund, after following the laid down procedure.
• As per this procedure, the State Government is required to submit a memorandum indicating the sector
wise damage and requirement of funds.
• On receipt of the memorandum from the State, an inter-Ministerial Central Team is constituted and
deputed for an on the spot assessment of damage and requirement of funds for relief operations, as per the
extant items and norms of State Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster Response Fund.
• A Sub-Committee of the NEC will examine the request under Section 6 of the DM Act, 2005. The NEC
will assess the extent of assistance and expenditure, which can be funded from the National Disaster
Response Fund as per norms and make recommendations.
• Based on the recommendations of Sub-Committee of the NEC, a High-Level Committee (HLC) will
approve the quantum of immediate relief to be released from National Disaster Response Fund.
• The Disaster Management Division of MHA will provide support to the HLC. The MHA shall oversee the
utilisation of funds provided from the National Disaster Response Fund and monitor compliance with
norms.
State Disaster Response Fund:

• The State Disaster Response Fund shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing
immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide,
avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack, frost and cold wave.
• While the state can draw from State Disaster Response Fund for the emergency response and relief, there
are provisions to adjust a proportion of the expense against funds released from National Disaster
Response Fund between the fiscal year in which National Disaster Response Fund is released and the
expenses incurred by state in the previous fiscal year under State Disaster Response Fund.
• In case the same state faces another severe disaster during the same year, no reduction will be made
while releasing assistance from the National Disaster Response Fund. The state-specific disasters within
the local context in the State, which are not included in the notified list of disasters eligible for assistance
from State Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster Response Fund, can be met from State Disaster
Response Fund within the limit of 10 per cent of the annual funds allocation of the State Disaster
Response Fund.
The two funds have provisions for the following:

• Gratuitous Relief
• Search and Rescue operations
• Relief measures
• Air dropping of essential supplies
• Emergency supply of drinking water
• Clearance of affected area, including management of debris
• Agriculture, Animal husbandry, fishery, Handicrafts, artisans
• Repair/ Restoration (of immediate nature) of damaged Infrastructure
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• Capacity development
• The default period of assistance is as per norms prescribed. However, based on assessment of the ground
situation, the SEC may extend it beyond the prescribed time limit subject to the condition that expenditure
on this account should not exceed 25 per cent of State Disaster Response Fund allocation for the
year.
• National Disaster Mitigation Fund As per Section 47 of the DM Act 2005, Central Government may
constitute a National Disaster Mitigation Fund for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation.
The Fourteenth Finance Commission restricted its recommendation to existing arrangements on the
financing of the already constituted funds (National Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster Response
Fund) only, as per its terms of reference. The Fourteenth Finance Commission did not make any specific
recommendation for a mitigation fund.
Legislations dealing with disasters:

National Disaster Management Act 2005:
Major provisions of the act:
1. The Act calls for the establishment of NDMA, with the Prime Minister of India as chairperson.
2. The Act under Section 8 enjoins the Central Government to constitute a National Executive Committee
(NEC) to assist the National Authority. The NEC is composed of secretary-level officers of the
Government of India in the Ministries of Home, Agriculture, Atomic Energy, Defence, Drinking Water
Supply, Environment and Forests, Finance (expenditure), Health, Power, Rural Development, Science and
Technology, Space, Telecommunications, Urban Development and Water Resources, with the Home
Secretary serving as the Chairperson, ex-officio. The Chief of the Integrated Defence Staff of the Chiefs
of Staff Committee is an ex-officio member of the NEC. The NEC is responsible for the preparation of
the National Disaster Management Plan for the whole country and to ensure that it is 'reviewed and updated
annually.
3. All State Governments are mandated under Section 14 of the Act to establish a State Disaster
Management Authority (SDMA). The SDMA consists of the Chief Minister of the State, who is the
Chairperson, and no more than eight members appointed by the Chief Minister. The State Executive
Committee is responsible for drawing up the state disaster management plan and implementing the
National Plan. The SDMA is mandated to ensure that all the departments of the State prepare disaster
management plans as prescribed by the national and state authorities.
4. The Act directs to establish District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA). The Chairperson of
DDMA will be the Collector or the District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner of the district. The
elected representative of the area is member of the DDMA as an ex-officio Chairperson. The district
authority shall act as the planning, coordinating and implementing body for disaster management in the
district and take all measures for the purposes of disaster management in the district in accordance with
the guidelines laid down by the national and state authorities.
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5. The Act provides for constituting a National Disaster Response Force 'for the purpose of specialist
response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster' under the Director General to be appointed by the
Central Government.
6. The Act contains provision for constitution of National Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster
Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and the district levels.
7. The Act also provides for specific roles to local bodies, including Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIS) and
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in disaster management. At the district level, the DM Act 2005 provides for
the constitution of District Disaster Management Authorities under the chairmanship of the District
Magistrate/Collector while the elected representative of the local authority would be the co-chairperson.
In those districts where Zilla Parishads exist, the chairman would be the ex-officio co-chairperson of the
District Disaster Management Authority.
8. The planning process has been carried down to the sub-divisional, block and village levels. Each village
in multi-hazard prone district will have a Disaster Management Plan. The Disaster Management
Committee which draws up the plans consists of elected representatives at the village level, local
authorities, government functionaries, including doctors/paramedics of primary health centres located in
the village, primary school teachers, etc. The plan encompasses prevention, mitigation and preparedness
measures. The Disaster Management Teams at the village level consist of members of youth organisations
like Nehru Yuva Kendra and other non-governmental organisations as well as volunteers from the
village. The teams are provided basic training in evacuation, search and rescue, first aid trauma
counselling, etc. The disaster management committee will review the disaster management plan at least
once in a year. It would also generate awareness among the people in the village about the dos and don'ts
for specific hazards depending on the vulnerability of the village. A large number of village level disaster
management committees and disaster management teams have already been constituted.
Initially the Act was criticised for marginalising non-governmental organisations (NGOs), elected local
representatives, local communities and civic groups; and for fostering a hierarchical, bureaucratic, command
and control, "top down' approach that gives the central, state and district authorities sweeping powers. But
overall, the disaster response has improved to a large extent after the slow and steady implementation of
NDMA.
2nd ARC on National Disaster Management Act 2005:

• Disaster/Crisis Management should continue to be the primary responsibility of the State Governments
and the Union Government should play a supportive role.
• The Act should provide categorization of disasters (say, local, district, state or national level). This
categorization along with intensity of each type of disaster will help in determining the level of authority
primarily responsible for dealing with the disaster as well as the scale of response and relief – detailed
guidelines may be stipulated by the NDMA on this subject.
• The law should make provisions for stringent punishment for misutilization of funds meant for
crisis/disaster management. The role of the local governments should be brought to the forefront for
crisis/disaster management.
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• The NEC as stipulated under the Disaster Management Act need not be constituted, and the NCMC should
continue to be the apex coordination body. At the state level, the existing coordination mechanism under
the Chief Secretary should continue.
COVID-19 and Disaster Management:

• COVID19 is the first pan India biological disaster being handled by the legal and constitutional institutions
of the country.
• It is for the first time that a pandemic has been recognized as a notified disaster in the country by the
Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Subsequently Disaster Management Act 2005 has also been invoked for the first time to effectively
manage this crisis. Till now all nationwide lockdowns has been imposed under DM Act 2005.
Issues with Disaster Management Act with reference to COVID19:

• DM Act has two inherent issues with regards to COVID19:
1. Lack of appropriate legal framework to manage epidemics
2. An over centralization of powers
• The act was meant to be used in situations where a state government was unable to cope with natural
disasters on its own. It was never meant to be a legal mechanism to control the functional state
governments.
• As per the central guidelines on the lockdowns, the state governments exercised powers under the
Epidemics Act 1897 to issue further directions. This led to further confusion among the masses,
especially the vulnerable sections like migrants, slum dwellers etc.
• The Central Government has adopted top-down approach. It left states with no maneuvering space that
could be used to enforce the lockdowns keeping cultural and social norms in mind.
• The management of health crisis became an issue of law and order. Major guidelines relating to
COVID-19 have been issued by Ministry of Home Affairs and not the Ministry of Health.
• The DM Act is not capable to deal with fake news and fake warnings being spread through social
media and internet.
• The DM Act imposes criminal liabilities for violation of lockdown orders. This provision is major
hurdle for the conduct of economic policy on nationwide scale.
• The bureaucracy and police administration were entrusted with enforcement of lockdown. But they
also got wide ranging discretionary powers in deciding who to permit and who to ban.
• All the guidelines and policies formed during lockdown have been reactive and ad hoc. This was
observed in the way migrant workers have been treated. The migrant issue has also exposed the lack of
coordination between the Centre and state governments.
The Epidemic Diseases Act 1897 and its limitations:

• The Act was passed during the outbreak of bubonic plague in Bombay.
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• Over the years this act has been used as a basic framework for containing the spread of various diseases
including cholera and malaria.
• The law authorizes the Central and state governments to take exceptional measures and prescribe
regulations to be observed by the citizens to contain the spread of diseases.
• It also specifies punishments for the violation of the Act.
Limitations:
• The law does not define various terms like ‘dangerous’, ‘infectious’, ‘contagious diseases’ and
‘epidemic’. Also, there are no rules, regulations, procedures mentioned in the act to be followed while
declaring disease as epidemic.
• The act contains no provisions for isolation, quarantine measures and other preventive steps that need
to be taken during epidemics.
• The Act provides powers of states and central government during the epidemics but it fails to mention
the duties of governments in preventing and controlling the epidemics. It also fails to mention the rights
of citizens during the outbreak of the diseases.
Partnerships for Mitigation and Preparedness

Community Based Disaster Preparedness:
• During any disaster, communities are not only the first to be affected but also the first responders.
Community participation ensures local ownership, addresses local needs, and promotes
volunteerism and mutual help to prevent and minimize damage. Therefore, the efforts of the States/UTs,
in this regard need to be encouraged.
• The needs of the elderly, women, children and differently abled persons require special attention.
Women and youth need to be encouraged to participate in decision making committees and action groups
for management of disasters.
• As first responders to any disaster, communities can be trained in the various aspects of response such
as first aid, search and rescue, management of community shelters, psycho-social counseling, distribution
of relief and accessing support from government/agencies etc. Community plans can be dovetailed into
the Panchayat, Block and District plans.
Stakeholders’ Participation
• The participation of civil society stakeholders can be coordinated by the SDMAs and DDMAs. Civil
Defense, NCC, NYKS, NSS and local Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) can be encouraged
to empower the community and generate awareness through their respective institutional mechanisms.
Efforts to promote voluntary involvement need to be actively encouraged.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Public-Private Partnership (PPP)

• Historically, the corporate sector has been supporting disaster relief and rehabilitation activities. However,
the involvement of corporate entities in disaster risk reduction activities is not significant. Corporate
entities should redefine their business continuity plan to factor in hazards, risks and vulnerabilities. They
should also create value in innovative social investments in the community.
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• PPP between the Government and private sector would also be encouraged to leverage the strengths
of the latter in disaster management.
• The NDMA and SDMAs need to network with the corporate entities to strengthen and formalize their
role in the DM process for ensuring safety of the communities.
Media Partnership
• The media plays a critical role in information and knowledge dissemination in all phases of DM.
• The versatile potential of both electronic and print media needs to be fully utilized. Effective
partnership with the media will be worked out in the field of community awareness, early warning and
dissemination, and education regarding various disasters.
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CH-4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: ROLE OF
TECHNOLOGY IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
National Disaster Management Services (NDMS):

• NDMS is conceived by NDMA in 2015-16 for setting up of Very Small Aperture Terminal Network
Connecting Ministry of Home Affairs, NDMA, NDRF, all state/UTs headquarters and 81 vulnerable
districts.
• The project will be implemented by BSNL.
• The scope of this pilot project is to provide the failsafe communication infrastructure and technical
support for Emergency Operation Centre’s operations across the country.
• The project includes conducting workshops and imparting training for the capacity building of
functionaries on the usage of communication equipment’s covered in this project.
Earthquake Disaster Risk Indexing:

• NDMA has taken this initiative for 50 important cities and 1 district in seismic zone IV and V.
• The project will be implemented by International Institute of Information Technology. The indexing
will be useful for comparing overall risk across large number of cities and also in prioritization of cities
to implement appropriate disaster mitigation measures.
Early Warning Dissemination System:

• This system integrates technologies such as digital mobile radio, location based alert systems, remotely
operated siren systems and universal gateways.
• The system helps in disseminating warning communication simultaneously from the state, district and
block levels in different forms like messages, voice, siren, etc.
Case study: Odisha

• Odisha State Disaster Mitigation Authority (OSDMA) in collaboration with Regional Integrated Multi-
Hazard Early Warning System (RIMES) has developed a web and smartphone-based platform called
“SATARK” (System for Assessing, Tracking and Alerting Disaster Risk Information based on Dynamic
Risk Knowledge). The application is developed to provide real time watch, alert and warning
information for different hazards like heat wave, lightning, agriculture risk (drought), flood monitoring,
ocean state information and tsunami risk, earthquake monitoring, cyclone/storm surge for improved
disaster management.
• Odisha is the first state in the country that has implemented an Early Warning Dissemination
System (EWDS). This aims at establishing a foolproof communication system to address the existing gap
of disseminating disaster warning from the state, district and block levels to communities. It covers 1205
villages in 22 blocks of six coastal districts of the state which are prone to multifarious hydro-
meteorological disasters like cyclones, floods and tsunamis.
Satellites:
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• India has proved its capabilities in satellite technologies by launching various earth observation
satellites, disaster specific satellites.
• These satellites are used for early developments of disasters like cyclones, heat waves, cold waves.
• During disasters also satellites provides direct view of disaster affected areas, communication
networks, identification of possible shelter areas etc.
Examples:
RESOURCESAT, South Asia Satellite, RISAT, INSAT 3D. India also use Terra and Aqua Satellites of NASA
for forest fires detection along RISAT.
Drones and Social Media

• In 2015, the social media platform, Twitter, was used by a number of government groups and people to
share vital information (helpline phone numbers, train schedules, relief counters, weather forecasts, etc)
about the Chennai floods on Twitter.
• This became a test case for Twitter, and showed government agencies on how social media platforms
could be leveraged for effective communication related to natural disasters.
• During the 2013 Uttarakhand floods, drones were used to locate missing people and scan the terrain
to provide relevant updated information to the authorities.
• Recently, students from IIT Madras developed an AI-enabled drone that can help authorities provide
vital information on people trapped in disaster-hit areas.
• Social Media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram offer various features like Marking Safety
of people, identification of safe areas, pin pointing stranded people.
GIS and GPS:

• Tamil Nadu has built a web GIS based system called TNSMART. This application, which is developed
in collaboration with ISRO, has modules related to thresholds, hazard forecast, disaster impact forecast,
advisory, response planning, etc.
• Similarly, Karnataka has a GPS enabled system for near real-time monitoring and communication of
disasters in the state. In India, the Government has encouraged the use of digital technologies in ensuring
help during disasters. For example, the Digital India Action Group (DIAG) recently released a white paper
on using IoT for effective disaster management.
Internet:
• Internet has the potential to reach the millions of people even in the remotest corner of the country
within considerable time. Nowadays internet is provided through satellite technology, thus it provides
round the clock connectivity even during disasters.
• Reach of internet can be used to identify stranded people, most affected areas, dissemination of
information, awareness generation, crowdsourcing etc.
Case Study: Kerala
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Kerala State IT Mission has developed a crisis management platform and hosted and made available to the
public available at the URL www.keralarescue.in It was up and running within 12 hours after the first day of
flooding in 2018.
The text-based rescue requests posted were enhanced to capture geo-coordinates automatically and the geo-
tagged information provided by the people in this portal came handy for the rescue teams during rescue
operations.
With each disaster, there are numerous lessons to be learnt. India needs to document best practices that were
observed during each disaster and ensure that these are captured in the form of a knowledge management
platform, coupled with modern e-learning tools, so that each state can learn from each other and put in place
systems that are ready for handling disasters of the future.
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CH-5 NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT 2009
National Policy on Disaster Management 2009:

Approach:
A holistic and integrated approach will be evolved towards disaster management with emphasis on building
strategic partnerships at various levels. The themes underpinning the policy are:
• Community based DM, including last mile integration of the policy, plans and execution.
• Capacity development in all spheres.
• Consolidation of past initiatives and best practices.
• Cooperation with agencies at National and International levels.
• Multi-sectoral synergy.
Objectives:
The objectives of the National Policy on Disaster Management are:
• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through knowledge,
innovation and education.
• Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and environmental
sustainability.
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
• Establishing institutional and techno- legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory environment
and a compliance regime.
• Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster risks.
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and fail-safe
communication with information technology support.
• Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the vulnerable
sections of the society.
• Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and habitat for ensuring
safer living.
• Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster management.
Issues:
• Lack of updation and outdated in nature
• Lack of coordinated and coherent approach in policy formulation.
• Policy formulated in 2009, so it does not cover recent and emerging disasters such as cold waves and heat
waves.
• Policy does not recognize climate refugees which results from climate change.
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CH-6 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS REGARDING DISASTERS
Disaster Risk Index of the world

• India has been ranked 77th on the World Risk Index, topped by Island state of Vanuatu.
About the Report

• The World risk report analyses the role that infrastructure plays in shaping a country’s disaster risk.
• The Index, calculated by the University of Stuttgart, ranks 171 countries according to their risk of
becoming a victim of a disaster as a result of natural hazards.
Disaster Resilient Infrastructure:

Indian Government recently held a two-day International Workshop on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure
(DRI) under the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in collaboration with United
Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).
Background:
• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) identifies investing in Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR) for resilience and to “build back better” in reconstruction as priorities.
• India is one of the first to create a National Disaster Management Plan based on the Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction.
• According to an UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) report, India has been ranked as
the world's most disaster-prone country for displacement of residents.
Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (GPDRR):

• The GPDRR is a global forum for strategic advice, coordination and review of progress in the
implementation of the Sendai Framework. It marked the first opportunity since 2015 to review global
progress in the implementation of SFDRR
• India participated in the five-day Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (GPDRR) summit
held in Cancun, Mexico. It was attended by delegates comprising heads of state, ministers, CEOs, experts
etc.
UN SASAKAWA Award:
• It was issued at the 2017 Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction; the biennial
awards recognize projects that have made a substantial contribution towards saving lives and reducing
global disaster mortality.
National Disaster Risk Index:

The Union ministry of home affairs with the support of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
have prepared for the first time a national disaster risk index for India.
• It mapped hazards and vulnerabilities including economic vulnerabilities across 640 districts and all states
including UTs.
• The index factors in exposure of population, agriculture and livestock and environmental risk.
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• It will be used to prepare a composite disaster scorecard (DSC).
• The index is in line with India’s commitment to the Sendai Framework.
• North 24 Parganas
High Risk districts: • Pune
• South 24 Parganas
• Maharashtra
High Risk States: • West Bengal
• Uttar Pradesh
Global Assessment Report (GAR):

• Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction (GAR) was launched.
• It is published biennially by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), and is product of
contributions of nations, public and private disaster risk-related science and research, amongst others.
Findings:
• Asia Pacific region accounts for 40% of the global economic losses due to extreme climate changes, with
the greatest impact in the largest economies of Japan, China, Korea and India.
• Economic losses to the extent of 4% of GDP annually are projected if countries don’t invest in DRR.
Sendai Framework (2015-30)

• The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 was
adopted at the Third UN World Conference in Sendai, Japan, on
March 18, 2015.
• It is the outcome of stakeholder consultations initiated in March 2012
and inter-governmental negotiations from July 2014 to March 2015,
supported by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction at
the request of the UN General Assembly.
• The foreword to the Sendai Framework describes it as “the successor
instrument” to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015:
Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters.
• The Sendai Framework for DRR (SFDRR or Sendai Framework), the first international agreement
adopted within the context of the post-2015 development agenda, marks a definitive shift globally
towards comprehensive disaster risk management aimed at disaster risk reduction and increasing disaster
resilience going far beyond disaster management.
• This approach calls for setting the overall goal as that of preventing new and reducing existing disaster
risk through the implementation of integrated measures. The goal now is on DRR as the expected outcome,
setting goals on preventing the creation of new risks, reducing the existing ones, and strengthening overall
disaster resilience. In addition, the scope of DRR has been broadened significantly to focus on both
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natural and human induced hazards including various related environmental, technological and
biological hazards and risks.
• The Sendai Framework acknowledges the inter-linkages between climate change and disaster risks.
Disasters that tend to be exacerbated by climate change are increasing in frequency and intensity.
In the domain of disaster management, the Sendai Framework provides the way forward for the period
ending in 2030.
There are some major departures in the Sendai Framework:

• For the first time the goals are defined in terms of outcome -based targets instead of focusing on sets
of activities and actions.
• It places governments at the centre of disaster risk reduction with the framework emphasizing the need
to strengthen the disaster risk governance.
• There is significant shift from earlier emphasis on disaster management to addressing disaster risk
management itself by focusing on the underlying drivers of risk.
• It places almost equal importance on all kinds of disasters and not only on those arising from natural
hazards.
• In addition to social vulnerability, it pays considerable attention to environmental aspects through a
strong recognition that the implementation of integrated environmental and natural resource management
approaches is needed for disaster reduction
• Disaster risk reduction, more than before, is seen as a policy concern that cuts across many sectors,
including health and education.
Four Priorities & Seven Targets under the Sendai Framework

1. Understanding disaster risk
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction
India is a signatory to the Sendai Framework for a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement which
recognizes that the State has the primary role to reduce disaster risk, but that responsibility should be shared
with other stakeholders including local government, the private sector and other stakeholders. India will make
its contribution in achieving the seven global targets set by the Sendai Framework.
Seven Targets under Sendai Framework:

1) Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower the average per 100,000 global
mortality rates in the decade 2020–2030 compared to the period 2005– 2015;
2) Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average
global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020–2030 compared to the period 2005–2015;
3) Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030;
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4) Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among
them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030;
5) Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction
strategies by 2020;
6) Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and
sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the present Framework by
2030;
7) Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and
disaster risk information and assessments to people by 2030.
India’s action on Sendai Framework:

• In June 2016, PM of India launched the National Disaster Management Plan, which aligns with the
Sendai Priorities.
• At regional Level, India has hosted the first Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction after the adoption of Sendai Framework in Nov 2016 which brought more than 50 countries
from the Asia-Pacific and adopted the Asian Regional Plan for the implementation of Sendai
Framework.
• With regards to Target A, India is analyzing the patterns of disaster mortality both spatially and
temporally, for different hazards and taking focused, urgent steps to reduce preventable deaths.
• India is on course towards achieving Target E of the Sendai Framework pertaining to development of
plans and strategies by 2020. On 7th of May 2017, India has launched South Asia Geostationary
Communication Satellite with an aim to support and improve communication, weather forecasting,
natural resource mapping, disaster information transfer etc. among the South Asian Countries, which
demonstrates India’ strong sense of commitment towards Target F and G.
• India is also mainstreaming Sendai Principles in the national flagship program.
• DRR is a work in progress and in this respect, we look for opportunities to collaborate with other
countries, learn from their experiences and share what we have learned through our work.
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Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Disaster Resilience:
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adopted by the UN General Assembly on 25 September
2015, consisting of 17 Global Goals and 169 targets, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect
the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
• The 17 Goals build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), while including
new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace and
justice, among other priories.
• The goals are interconnected – often the key to success on one will involve tackling issues more commonly
associated with another.
• Sustainable Development (SD) and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) are closely interlinked. A single
major disaster or “shock” incident (i.e. a rapid onset disaster like an earthquake, storm, tsunami or
landslide) can undo hard-won development progress and set back development by years.
• A “stress” incident (i.e. a slow onset disaster like drought, sea level rise, and salinity intrusion into
groundwater stocks) can also cause long-term socio-economic harm.
• Climate change aggravates impacts from both natural hazards and human-induced vulnerabilities by acting
as a threat multiplier.
• Driven by climate change, there is increase in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events
(including storms, droughts, heat waves and cold “snaps”). Such events multiply the risks that people
living in areas prone to natural hazards already face.
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• The possibilities of attaining SDGs are jeopardised because disasters undermine economic growth and
social progress.
• No country or sector is immune to the impacts of natural hazards, many of which – the hydro-
meteorological – are increasing in frequency and intensity due to the impacts of climate change.
• While necessary and crucial, preparing for disasters is not enough, to realise the transformative potential
of the agenda for SDGs, all stakeholders recognize that DRR needs to be its integral core.
• Progress in implementing the Sendai Framework contributes to the progress of attaining SDGs. In turn,
the progress on the SDGs helps to substantially build resilience to disasters.
• There are several targets across the 17 SDGs that are related to DRR. Conversely, all seven global DRR
targets of the Sendai Framework are critical for the achievement of the SDG.
Retrofitting of buildings-The Key is to Let it Swing:

• Quake-resistant buildings, an expression being widely used these days, refer to buildings that are
designed to withstand the shock of earthquakes and not crumble. Depending on the seismic zone they
are in, buildings are constructed to withstand a certain magnitude of earthquake. But earthquake-resistant
is not earthquake-proof. Faced with earthquakes of higher magnitudes, they would go down.
• The key idea in making a building earthquake-resistant is to make it ductile, that is, to give it a certain
flexibility to shake horizontally. Stiff buildings, when faced with earthquakes, would go down, but the
flexible ones would sway and come back to their original position. The idea is to soften the impact of the
earthquake, and to let the building absorb the energy.
• Most of the newer high-rises these days, especially those in the high-seismic regions, are constructed to
withstand the impact of earthquakes of up to a certain strength.
• Older buildings can also be retrofitted with technologies to make them resistant, even though it involves
investments of time and funds. It makes sense to build an earthquake-resistant building — experts say the
cost differential in newer buildings is not more than 15 to 20 per cent of the original cost. Retrofitting, on
the other hand, might be more expensive.
Developing Disaster Proof Cities:

• Around 10,000 lives were lost, houses and city infrastructure got destroyed across Nepal and
Northern part of India in the earthquake in April 2015.
• This came as a reminder to Indians, especially those living in high rise urban dwellings in the northern
part of the country, that their habitation falls in either of the seismic zones 3,4 or 5 with zone 5 being most
prone to earthquakes.
• According to the Government of India, at least 38 cities lie in high-risk seismic zones and almost 60 per
cent of the landmass of the subcontinent is immensely vulnerable to earthquakes or other natural disasters.
• The fact that a large section of the population is poor and lives in houses and cities that are hastily
built and are not earthquake resistance raises the risk of human impact, in case of any disaster.
• Also, the lack of government’s preparedness to deal with such situations may add to the woes.
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• While the Indian government has embarked upon building urban infrastructure across the country and
develop 100 smart cities over the coming years, it is important that cities and infrastructure being built
take into account the topography and vulnerability of the area to various hazards.
• A report prepared by the World Bank on urbanization in South Asia states that while the risks are
high and growing on account of rising population density in urban areas, government’s need to plan more
resilient cities and policy makers need to plan holistically to deal with any situation.
• The report enlists four recommendations that policy makers of a country need to take into account.
1. Identify risk by using urban risk assessment framework
2. Mitigate risk by planning critical and multipurpose safe and resilient infrastructure
3. Develop a risk financing scheme to provide immediate liquidity in the aftermath of disasters and to
build financial resilience
4. Build strong institutions and collect, share, and distribute disaster data.
Identifying And Mitigating Risk

• The first step in developing a resilience strategy is to identify risks at national and city level. It is also
important to identify the vulnerabilities of communities and potential exposure to disasters. Urban risk
assessments aim to identify critical infrastructure and develop early warning systems.
• Mitigating risks call for developing both structural and nonstructural measures. While structural measures
include dams, wave barriers and retrofitting of buildings etc, the nonstructural measures comprise policies
and laws, practices, and agreements such as building codes, land-use planning, public awareness and
information.
• With Indian government embarking upon developing infrastructure across cities, it would make sense to
build transport, water, sanitation and power infrastructure with optimum physical resilience and
not overlook them to save on marginal costs.
• Also, since many cities are densely populated, it is not realistic to relocate millions of people away from
their homes and jobs and so, cities can revisit urban design and ensure enforcement of building codes
and land-use plans to minimize or prevent further building in risk-prone areas and to reinforce structures
so that they are resilient to various hazards.
• Substandard construction practices have to be stopped; city authorities have to provide incentive for
enforcing building codes as it would reduce post-disaster cost.
• While planning city leaders should fill the huge infrastructure gap, consider future risks and hazards,
and ensure that the new infrastructure is not built in hazard-prone areas and does not expose communities
to additional risks.
Financing The Risk:

• Governments and local authorities need to build finances to respond post disaster.
• An advance financing plan should include reserves, calamity funds, budget contingencies, a contingent
debt facility and risk transfer mechanisms.
• While having insurance, reinsurance and parametric insurance is important, alternative risk transfer
instruments include catastrophe bonds.
• A detailed risk assessment is necessary for designing a national catastrophe risk strategy.
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• While several South Asian countries have developed financing programs for disasters, the most
extensive risk financing is in Sri Lanka. It is the first country to develop a “catastrophe draw down option”
with assistance from the World Bank through a development policy loan.
Disaster Risk Insurance

• Disaster risk insurance is one of the financial method used as a mitigation measure.
• It triggers a pay-out by the insurer when a disaster occurs, e.g. when a flood hits or drought occurs.
• Disaster risk insurance covers hazards arising from geological, meteorological, hydrological,
climatological, oceanic, biological, and technological/man-made events, or a combination of any of
them.
Stakeholders in Disaster Risk Insurance
Why Disaster Risk Insurance needed?
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• Insurance provides reliable and timely financial relief for the recovery of livelihoods and reconstruction,
providing security in the post-disaster period. As a result, it can prevent people from falling into poverty
and destitution, or provide the liquidity necessary to restore livelihoods.
• Insurance helps create certainty and stability for the individual, institutions, and government.
• Technological innovations, such as satellite imaging and mobile phones, drones have substantially
lowered the costs of evaluating claims in remote and poor regions and thus of insurance products.
• Pooling risks over a wide geographical area allow risk diversification: It helps to reduce risk
premiums, thus ensuring affordability for many countries.
• Disaster risk insurance—especially pooled mechanisms—can help countries cope with loss of tax
revenue and sudden increase in expenditure. Thus it will help maintaining fiscal standards.
Cons of Disaster Risk Insurance

• Insurance cannot prevent risks as such nor the loss of lives and assets.
• Insurance alone will not be sufficient. Insurance schemes need to be complemented with other disaster-
risk reduction strategies, such as integrating disaster risks into development planning, setting up early
warning systems, awareness raising etc.
• It can be comparatively costly compared with other disaster risk reduction measures.
• In some cases, insurance premiums may be set too high for the poor or the poorest countries.
• Affordability will be determined by the availability of public incentives.
Risks associated with Disaster Risk Insurance

• Access to reliable information: Risk assessment requires reliable data and institutional risk assessment
capabilities, which is still limited in many countries like India.
• Accessibility: People from all corners of the country should be able to access the insurance in efficient
way.
• Affordability: Premiums may not be affordable for low-income households.
• Financial sustainability of the scheme: Direct insurance schemes can only be commercially viable if
there is a steady stream of premium income.
• Un-insurability associated with increasing frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events: As
frequency of disasters is increasing insurers may not find it beneficial to offer insurance products.
Way Forward
• Disaster management approaches require administrative support and medical intervention, apart from
psychosocial intervention.
• Improvement in government policy frameworks to better manage risk and mitigate economic and social
costs is the foremost necessity.
• We should be able to estimate the probability of such shocks and identify local vulnerabilities and
integrate these into plans for contingencies, invest in risk reduction, insurance, self-insurance, and disaster
response.
• There must be a provision in the budget for emergency spending that helps in crisis mitigation,
resolution and insurance coverage. A low public debt can bolster government spending and increase its
flexibility for relief work especially if reconstruction needs arise.
• There should be public investment in risk reduction. Tax and spending policies need to be flexible, to
allow rapid redeployment of spending when needed.
84
• Coordination with foreign partners before disaster strikes could mobilise external assistance for risk
reduction, which is likely to earn a higher return than emergency help after the fact.
Disaster: Current Affairs in News

Indian Tsunami Early Warning System:
• The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) was established in 2007 and is based at & operated
by INCOIS, Hyderabad.
• It is an integrated effort of different organizations including the Department of Space (DOS), Department
of Science and Technology (DST), the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Survey of
India (SOI) and National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
• ITEWS comprises a real-time network of seismic stations, tide gauges and a 24X7 operational tsunami
warning centre to detect tsunamigenic earthquakes, to monitor tsunamis and to provide timely advisories
to vulnerable communities.
South Asian Flash Flood Guidance System (FFGS)

• India Meteorological Department (IMD) has launched the South Asian Flash Flood Guidance
System (FFGS), which is aimed at helping disaster management teams and governments make timely
evacuation plans ahead of the actual event of flooding.
• A dedicated FFGS centre will be established in New Delhi, where weather modelling and analysis of
rainfall data observations from member countries will be done.
Forest Fire & Monitoring:

• A joint study report of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF&CC) and World
Bank titled “Strengthening Forest Fire Management in India” released in June 2018 revealed that in the
year 2000, 20 districts, representing 3% of India’s land area and 16% of forest cover accounted for 44%
of all fire detections.
• The upgraded version of the Forest Fire Alert System (FAST 3.0) was released in January, 2019 with a
separate activity of monitoring large forest fires.
• It is seen that most of the fire prone forest areas are found in the north-eastern region and the central part of
the country.
Need for Regional Disaster Relief Mechanism In SAR

• South Asia is exposed to a variety of hazards due to the geo-climatic characteristics of the region.
• These hazards range earthquakes in the Himalayas, droughts and floods in the Plains, and cyclones in
coastal areas that originate in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. But more importantly, many
countries in the region share common geological formations (Indian sub-continent) and river basins, and
natural hazards frequently transcend national boundaries.
Tsunami Ready Communities
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• Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO (also known as UNESCO-IOC)
has approved the recognition of two communities of Odisha viz., Venkatraipur and Noliasahi as
Tsunami Ready Communities.
• With this recognition, India has become the first country in the Indian Ocean Region to achieve the honour
from the UNESCO-IOC.
• Odisha is the first state in India to have such recognised communities.
Tsunami Ready:
• It is a community performance-based programme initiated by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC) of UNESCO to promote tsunami preparedness through active collaboration of public,
community leaders, and national and local emergency management agencies.
• The main objective of this programme is to improve coastal community's preparedness for tsunami
emergencies, to minimize the loss of life and property and to ensure a structural and systematic approach
in building community preparedness through fulfilling the best-practice indicators set by
the Intergovernmental Coordination Group for the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System
(ICG/IOTWMS) of UNESCO-IOC.
Drought Tool Box

• The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is currently testing a drought
toolbox which uses a total of 15 to 30 different parameters to assess drought risk and vulnerability of a
geographical region.
First Resilient Kerala Program

• The Government of India, the Government of Kerala and the World Bank have signed a Loan Agreement
of USD 250 million for the First Resilient Kerala Program to enhance the State's resilience against the
impacts of natural disasters and climate change.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has launched two initiatives: Angikaar, a campaign for
behavioural change and an e-Course on ‘Vulnerability Atlas of India’.
• E-course on Vulnerability Atlas-It is a unique course that offers awareness and understanding about
natural hazards, helps identify regions with high vulnerability with respect to various hazards and specifies
district-wise level of damage risks to the existing housing stock.
• The e-course will be a tool for effective & efficient disaster mitigation & management in the field of
Architecture, Civil Engineering, Urban & Regional Planning, Housing & Infrastructure Planning,
Construction Engineering & Management and Building & Materials Research.
‘National Migrant Information System (NMIS)

• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has developed an online dashboard called ‘National
Migrant Information System (NMIS)
• The online portal (NMIS) would maintain a central repository of migrant workers and help in speedy inter-
state communication to facilitate the smooth movement of migrant workers to their native places.
86
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
• Each time a natural disaster occurs anywhere in the world, countries try to provide immediate relief, but
there is no focus on building disaster-resilient Infrastructure.
• In this context, Indian PM proposed CDRI which will act as a convening body that will pool best practices
and resources from around the world for reshaping construction, transportation, energy,
telecommunication and water, so that building in these core infrastructure sectors factors in natural
catastrophes.
• According to Sendai framework, every $1 spent in disaster risk reduction leads to gain of $7. But
developing countries face the dilemma of balancing economic investment for development vs disaster
resilient infrastructure.
• CDRI could fill this gap of funds and technology and help developing countries to build disaster-
resilient Infrastructure.
• For instance, India is a world leader in preventing human deaths due to disasters. The United Nations
Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) has praised India’s zero casualty approach and playing a
pioneering role model for global community for drawing up a national and local strategy to reduce disaster
losses and risks.
Previous year question

1. Write note on Causes of droughts in India. (UPSC 2005/2 Marks)
2. Which parts of India were mainly affected by the severe drought of 1987-88? What
3. were its main consequences? (88/II/6b/20)
4. Why are floods such a recurrent feature in India? Discuss the measures taken by the
5. Government for flood control. (85/II6c/20)
6. How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management? As an administrator,
what are key areas that you would focus in a disaster management (UPSC mains-2013)
7. Drought has been recognised as a disaster in view of its party expense, temporal duration, slow onset and
lasting effect on various vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September 2010 guidelines from the
National disaster management authority, discuss the mechanism for preparedness to deal with the El Nino
and La Nina fallouts in India. (UPSC mains-2014)
8. The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India’s
preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects (UPSC mains-2015)
9. With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the measures to
be adopted to mitigate the impact of the recent incidents of cloudbursts in many places of Uttarakhand
(UPSC mains-2016)
10. The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the
reasons for urban floods. highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.
(UPSC mains-2016)
11. On December 2004, tsunami brought havoc on 14 countries including India. Discuss the factors
responsible for occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In the light of guidelines of
87
NDMA (2010). Describe the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events. (UPSC
mains-2017)
12. Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing
‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for
Action, 2005? (UPSC mains 2018)
13. Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impacts and its threat to people. How and in
what ways can vulnerability to disasters be characterized? Discuss different types of vulnerability with
reference to disasters. (UPSC mains-2019)
14. Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain how hazard zonation
mapping will help in disaster mitigation in the case of landslides (UPSC mains-2019)
88

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A Complete Solution to

Disaster Management Mains

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Sr. Topic Page no

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)

The DM Act 2005 uses the following definition for disaster:

Difference between hazards and disasters

Important terms used in disaster management:

Natural disasters Man-made disasters

Natural disasters in India:

Seismic Zones in India

Earthquakes: 59% of India’s territory is vulnerable to earthquakes.

Socio environmental consequences of earthquakes:

Earthquake hazard mitigation:

1. Research and Development:

Sagar Vani App:

Initial conditions for emergence of tropical cyclones:

Tropical cyclones: NDMA Guideline

7. Mock drills or exercises:

8. Vocational Training/ Skill Development:

9. Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities:

10. Community-Based Disaster Management

IMD definitions for Cold Wave and Cold Day:

Cold Wave conditions for coastal stations:

Cold waves: Mitigation measures for Cold waves: Mitigation measures

The State Governments must maintain close coordination with India

The signs and symptoms are as follows:

Heat waves: Capacity Building

2. Dissemination of warnings, data, and information:

4. Warnings, information, data:

5. Heat waves shelters and other measures:

7. Empowering women, marginalised communities, SC/ST, and persons with disabilities:

Floods: NDMA Guideline

2. Zoning, mapping, and classification flood prone areas:

3. Research and Development:

4. Dissemination of warnings, data, and information:

8. Mock drills or exercises:

9. Vocational Training/ Skill Development:

10. Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities:

The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:

The IMD recognizes five drought situations:

Droughts: NDMA Guideline

2. Assessment, Monitoring, Forecasting, Early Warning:

8. Agricultural credit, agricultural inputs, finance, marketing, and crop insurance:

9. Drought management plan:

10. Awareness Generation:

11. Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities:

Roles and Responsibilities

Salient Features of Action Plan

NATIONAL LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGY:

Highlights of the strategy

Mass Nuclear and

Recent examples of stampedes:

NDMA guidelines on crowd management:

1. Understanding venue, visitors and stakeholders:

3. Safety and Security:

5. Medical and Emergency care:

6. Role of Event Managers:

7. Role of Civil society:

The states with frequent occurrence of forest fires are: