University of Computer Studies (Taunggyi) Modern Control Systems

Mathematical Models in Control Systems

2.1 Control Systems - Mathematical Models
The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. In the world of control systems, there are three important math models:
• Differential Equation Model: This model is like a building block for control systems.
It helps us understand how different parts of a system interact.
• Transfer Function Model: Think of this as a shortcut. It quickly shows how inputs
and outputs relate in terms of frequencies. Very handy for analyzing and designing
systems.
• State Space Model: This one goes deep into a system's insides. It tells us about what's
happening inside the system and how things change over time.
These three models are like superheroes, each with its unique powers, helping us make
sense of and control the behavior of systems.
2.1.1 Differential Equation Model
Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.
Follow these steps for differential equation model.
• Apply basic laws to the given control system.
• Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).
Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The
input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage vo.

𝑑𝑖
Mesh equation for this circuit is: 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣0
𝑑𝑣0
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor 𝑖 = 𝑐 in the above equation.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣0 𝑑2 𝑣0
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑣0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 2 𝑣0 𝑅 𝑑𝑣0 1 1
+ ( ) + ( ) 𝑣0 = ( )𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑖
The above equation is a second order differential equation.

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2.2.2. Transfer Function Model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The
Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace
transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are
zero. If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s). Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the
ratio of Y(s) and X(s).
𝑌(𝑠)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑋(𝑠)
The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s) and output Y(s).
Example
Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as
𝑑 2 𝑣0 𝑅 𝑑𝑣0 1 1
2
+ ( ) + ( ) 𝑣0 = ( ) 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
Apply Laplace transform on both sides.
𝑠𝑅 1 1
𝑠 2 𝑉0 (𝑠) + ( 𝐿 ) 𝑉0 (𝑠) + (𝐿𝐶) 𝑉0 (𝑠) = (𝐿𝐶) 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑅 1 1
{ 𝑠 2 + ( 𝐿 ) 𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶 } 𝑉0 (𝑠) = (𝐿𝐶) 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)

1
𝑉0 (𝑠) 𝐿𝐶
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅 1
𝑠 2 + ( 𝐿 ) 𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶

Where,
vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi
vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.

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Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function inside
it. And this block has an input Vi(s) and an output Vo(s).
2.2. Differential Equation Modeling of Mechanical Systems
There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
• Translational mechanical systems
• Rotational mechanical systems

2.2.1. Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems

These systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and
dashpot or damper.
(a) Mass: A mass is denoted by M. If a force f is applied on it and it displays distance
𝑑2 𝑥
x, then 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑡 2 as shown in Fig.

Fig. Force applied on a mass with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a mass M and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑥2
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then 𝑓 = 𝑀 [ 𝑑𝑡 21 − ] as shown in the
𝑑𝑡 2
following figure.

Fig. Force applied on a mass with displacement two directions

(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a force f is applied on it and it displays distance

x, then f = Kx as shown in Fig.

Fig. Force applied on a spring with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a spring K and it displays distance x1in the direction of f
and
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f = K ( x1 - x2 ) as shown in the following
figure.

Fig. Force applied on a spring with displacement in two directions

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(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

𝑑𝑥
distance x, then 𝑓 = 𝐷 𝑑𝑡 as shown in Fig.

Fig. Force applied on a damper with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a damper D and it displays distance x1 in the direction of f

𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2
and distance x2 in the opposite direction, then 𝑓 = 𝐷 [ − ] as shown in the
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
following figure.

Fig. Force applied on a damper with displacement in two directions

2.2.2. Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

There are three basic elements in a Rotational mechanical system, i.e. inertia, spring
and damper.
(a) Inertia: A body with an inertia is denoted by J. If a torque T is applied on it and it
𝑑2 𝜃
displays distance Ө, then 𝑇 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2 . If a torque T is applied on a body with inertia J
and it displays distance Ө1 in the direction of T and distance Ө2 in the opposite direction,
then
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑2 𝜃2
𝑇 = 𝐽 [ 𝑑𝑡 21 − ].
𝑑𝑡 2

(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a torque T is applied on it and it displays

distance Ө, then T = KӨ. If a torque T is applied on a body with inertia J and it
displays distance Ө1 in the direction of T and distance Ө2 in the opposite direction,
then T = K (Ө1 - Ө2).

(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a torque T is applied on it and it displays

𝑑𝜃
distance Ө, then 𝑇 = 𝐷 𝑑𝑡 . If a torque T is applied on a body with inertia J and it
displays distance Ө1 in the direction of T and distance Ө2 in the opposite direction then
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃2
T= 𝐷 [ 𝑑𝑡1 − ].
𝑑𝑡

2.3. Differential Equation Modeling of Electrical Systems

There are three basic elements in an electrical system, i.e. resistor (R), inductor(L) and
capacitor (C).
Electrical systems are of two types:

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(i) voltage source electrical system and

(ii) current source electrical system.

2.3.1. Voltage Source Electrical System

• If i is the current through a resistor and v is the voltage drop in it, then v = Ri.
𝑑𝑖
• If i is the current through an inductor and v is the voltage developed in it, then 𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡.
• If i is the current through a capacitor and v is the voltage developed in it, then v=
1
𝐶
∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡.

Fig. Current and voltage shown in resistor, inductor and capacitor

2.3.2. Current Source Electrical System

𝑣
• If i is the current through a resistor and v is the voltage drop in it, then i = 𝑅.
• If i is the current through an inductor and v is the voltage developed in it, then i =
1
𝐿
∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑣
• If i is the current through a capacitor and v is the voltage developed in it, then i= 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 .

2.4. Initial Value Theorem and Final Value Theorem

Two theorems are now presented that can be used to find the values of the time-domain
function at two extremes, t = 0 and t = ?, without having to do the inverse transform. In control,
we use the final-value theorem quite often. The initial-value theorem is less useful.

2.4.1. Initial Value Theorem

Initial Value Theorem determines the value of the time function when t=0 without
finding the inverse transform.
Lim 𝑥(𝑡) = Lim 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞

2.4.2. Final Value Theorem

Final value theorem determines the steady-state value of the system response without
finding the inverse transform.
Lim 𝑥(𝑡) = Lim 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

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Example: Determine the transfer function of the system shown in Fig.

Differential equations:
1 𝑡
𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝑅1 𝑖(𝑡) + 𝑅2 𝑖(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
1 𝑡
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑅2 𝑖(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0

Laplace transform:
1
𝑉1 (𝑠) = 𝑅1 𝐼(𝑠) + 𝑅2 𝐼(𝑠) + 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠.𝐶
1
𝑉2 (𝑠) = 𝑅2 𝐼(𝑠) + 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠.𝐶

Transfer function:
𝑉 (𝑠) 𝑅2 . 𝐶 .𝑠+1
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑉2 (𝑠) =
1 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 )𝐶 .𝑠+1
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Example: The Laplace equation for the charging current, i(t) of a capacitor arranged in series
𝑠𝐶
with a resistance is given by I(s) = . 𝐸(𝑠) . The circuit is connected to a supply voltage
1+𝑠𝑅𝐶
of E. If E=100 V, R=2 MΩ, C = 1 µF. Calculate the initial value of the charging current.

Solution:
Since, E =100 v(t)
Taking Laplace Transform, E (s) = 100/s

Substituting the given values,

1 × 10−6 𝑠 100 10−6 𝑠 100 10−4
𝐼(𝑠) = × = × =
(2 × 106 × 1 × 10−6 𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 2𝑠 + 1 𝑠 2𝑠 + 1

Applying the initial value theorem,

10−4 10−4
𝑖(0+ ) = Lim 𝑖(𝑡) = Lim 𝑠 𝐼(𝑠) = Lim 𝑠 . = Lim = 50µA
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 2𝑠 + 1 𝑠→∞ 1/𝑠 + 2

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Example: A series circuit consisting of resistance R and inductance of L is connected to a d.c
supply voltage of E. Derive an expression for the steady-state value of the current flowing in
the circuit using final value theorem.

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Solution:
The differential equation relating the current i(t) flowing in the circuit and the input voltage E
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
is given by 𝐸 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform of the equation yields,
E(s) = R I(s) + L [(sI(s) – i(0+) ) ]

Assume, i(0+) = 0
E(s) = R I(s) + Ls I(s)

E is constant (d.c. voltage)

𝐸
E(s) = 𝑠 = R I(s) + Ls I(s)
𝐸
𝐼(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠)

Applying the final value theorem to find the steady-state value,

𝐸 𝐸
Lim 𝑖(𝑡) = Lim 𝑠 𝐼(𝑠) = Lim 𝑠. =
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠(𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠) 𝑅

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Example: Write the differential equations for the following system with respect to position
and solve them using Laplace transform methods. Assume f(t) = F and that the mass slides on
a frictionless surface, x(0) = 0.

Solution:
𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑀 + 𝐵 + 𝐾. 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace transform of both sides,

𝐹
F (s) = 𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐵. 𝑠. 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐾. 𝑋(𝑠)

𝐹
= 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑠( 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)

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Example: Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper problem. Find
1. The modeling equation of this system (F input, x output).
2. The transfer function. Let M = 1 kg b = 10 N s/m k = 20 N/m F = 1 N.

Solution:
1. The modeling equation of this system: 𝑀𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ +̇ 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹

2. The transfer function: taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation, we get
̇
𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)+𝑘 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)

𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘

Since M = 1 kg b = 10 N s/m k = 20 N/m F = 1 N

𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺(𝑠) = = 2
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠 + 10𝑠 + 20

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Example: The plant consists of rotating mass with inertia J and a viscous friction b, a torque
T is applied to control the position of the mass.
1. Find the system model.
2. Find the transfer function.

Solution:
1. The modeling equation of this system: 𝐽𝜃̈ = 𝑇 − 𝑏𝜃̇
𝐽𝜃̈ + 𝑏𝜃̇ = 𝑇

𝜃̈ + 0.05𝜃̇ = 0.1𝑇

2. The transfer function:

𝑠 2 𝜃(𝑠) + 0.05 𝑠𝜃(𝑠) = 0.1 𝑇(𝑠)

𝜃(𝑠) 0.1
= 2
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠 + 0.05𝑠
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