EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY

CARIGARA CAMPUS
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

VISION
A leading State
University in
Technological and
Professional
Education.

MISSION
Develop a strong
Technologically and
Professionally
Competent, productive
Human Resource
Imbued with Positive
Values needed to propel
sustainable
Development.

CORE VALUES
Excellence
Value-Laden
Service Driven
Unity in Diversity
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO FISH PHYSIOLOGY

1.1 Fish
There are 34,000 species of vertebrate animals (phylum Chordata) found in
the fresh and salt water of the world. Living species of fish ranges from primitive to
jawless lampreys and hagfish through the cartilaginous sharks, skates, and rays to the
abundant and diverse bony fishes. Most fish species are cold-blooded; however, one
specie, the opah (lampris gattus) is a warm-blooded.

The term fish is applied to a variety of vertebrates of several evolutionary lines, it

describes a life-form rather than a taxonomic group. As a member of phylum Chordata,
fish shares certain features with other vertebrates. These features are gill slits at some
point in the life cycle, a notochord, or skeletal supporting rod, a dorsal hollow
nerve cord, and a tail. Fishes are typically divided into thre groups: superclass Agnatha
(jawless fishes), class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes), and superclass
Osteichthyes (bony fishes). The latter two groups are included within the infraphylum
Gnathostomata, a category containing all jawed vertebrates.

Fishes live in seawaters while others live in freshwater. This type of environment
provides them with oppurtunities that have traditionally contributed to there survival. An
obvious difference between the two habitat is salt concentration or its salinity.
Freshwater fish maintain the physiological mechanism that permits them to
concentrate salts within their bodies in a salt deficient environment.an example of a
freshwater fish is the catfish. Marine fish excrete excess salts in a hypertonic
environment. Barracuda, pompano and groupers are some of the example of a marine
fish. Aside from salt concentration there are also other factors that affect the distribution
of fish in the waters. Among the varying factors which affect the fish are: temperature,
dissolved gasses depth of the water and rate of movement.
Marine fishes are often classified into three groups on the basis of where they
live. And the three major groups are: Pelagic, which refer to the open water in which
swimming and floating organisms live. Organisms living there are called the “pelagos”.
Another marine fishes are the Littoral, fish specie that stays close to shore in the
sheltered waters of inlets and bays or in the surf zone along beaches, and the Benthic
these are defined as the bottom sediments and other surfaces of a body of water such
as an ocean or a lake. Organisms living in this zone are called “benthos”. This three
major classification of marine fish, reveals special features that would enable them to
feed, escape from their enemies and reproduce in their special type of home.

Strange Fact
A Salmon spends most of its life in the sea
or in the river. In breeding season, they
tend to return to the streams where they
hatched. In order to reach to their
spawning ground, they even spring their
body up to the water falls.

Image source: https://www.oregonlive.com/outdoors/sockeye_salmon_run_sets_record.html

The study of fishes, the science of Ichthyology, is of broad importance. Fishes

are of interest to human for many reasons. A more obvious reason for interest in fishes
is their role as a moderate but important part of the world’s food supply. This resource
once thought unlimited, is now realized to be finite and in delicate balance with the
biological, chemical, and physical factors of the aquatic environment. Overfishing,
pollution, and alteration of the environment are the chief enemies of proper fisheries
management both in fresh waters and in the ocean.
Fishes have been in existence for more than 450 million years, during which time
they have evolved repeatedly to fit into almost every conceivable type of aquatic habitat.
In a sense, land vertebrates are simply highly modified fishes: when fishes colonized
the land habitat, they became tetrapod (four-legged) land vertebrates. The
popular conception of a fish as a slippery, streamlined aquatic animal that possesses
fins and breathes by gills applies to many fishes, but far more fishes deviate from that
conception than conform to it. For example, the body is elongate in many forms and
greatly shortened in others; the body is flattened in some (principally in bottom-dwelling
fishes) and laterally compressed in many others; the fins may be elaborately extended,
forming intricate shapes, or they may be reduced or even lost; and the positions of
the mouth, eyes, nostrils, and gill openings vary widely. Air breathers have appeared in
several evolutionary lines.

Many fishes are cryptically coloured and shaped, closely matching their
respective environments; others are among the most brilliantly coloured of all
organisms, with a wide range of hues, often of striking intensity, on a single individual.
The brilliance of pigments may be enhanced by the surface structure of the fish, so that
it almost seems to glow. A number of unrelated fishes have actual light-
producing organs. Many fishes are able to alter their coloration—some for the purpose
of camouflage, others for the enhancement of behavioural signals.

Fishes range in adult length from less than 10 mm (0.4 inch) to more than 20
metres (60 feet) and in weight from about 1.5 grams (less than 0.06 ounce) to many
thousands of kilograms. Some live in shallow thermal springs at temperatures slightly
above 42 °C (100 °F), others in cold Arctic seas a few degrees below 0 °C (32 °F) or in
cold deep waters more than 4,000 metres (13,100 feet) beneath the ocean surface. The
structural and, especially, the physiological adaptations for life at such extremes are
relatively poorly known and provide the scientifically curious with great incentive for
study.

When salmon and trout are exposed to very high temperatures, they often die.
Thanks to the study of physiology, we now know that one cause of death in fish living at
high temperatures can be a heart attack – fishes’ hearts try to speed up to
accommodate the warm temperatures, but eventually can’t keep up. Physiology is the
study of how an animal’s body functions and responds to its environment. In fishes,
physiology studies often involve measuring factors such as swimming performance,
heart rate, oxygen consumption, body chemistry and hormones, and survival under
a variety of conditions. Knowledge of fish physiology is essential for managing fish
populations, especially in modified waterways.

READ AND LEARN

1.3 Water Parameters

The aquatic environment has a wide variety of parameters, all of which has a
direct influence to the maintenance of homeostasis, essential for growth and
reproduction of fishes. These if altered beyond acceptable limits, may predispose to, or
actually cause disease. The five following paramaters are basic to life within aquatic
system:

Dissolved oxygen, it is the amount of oxygen dissolved in water. Most aquatic

organisms need oxygen to survive and grow.
Temperature, it is the measure of the average energy (kenetic) of water molecules. It
one of the most important water quality parameters. Temperature affects water
chemistry and the function of aquatic organisms.

Electrical Conductivity/ Salinity, solid can be found in nature in a dissolved form.

Salts that dissolved in water break into positively and negatively charged ions. Salinity is
a measure of the amount of salts in the water. Salts and other substances affects the
quality of water. It has a critical influence on aquatic biota, and every kind of organism
has a typical salinity range that it can tolerate.

pH is a measure of how acidic or basic (alkaline) the water is (the term pH comes from
the French: “puissance d’Hydrogen). It is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen
ion concentration. As the pH decreases, water becomes more acidic. As the water
becomes more basic, the pH increases. At the extreme ends of the pH scale, (2-13)
physical damage to gills, exoskeleton and fins occurs.

Turbidity is a measure of the amount of suspended particles in the water. Algae,

suspended sediments, and organic matter particles can cloud the water making it more
turbid. Suspended Particles diffuses sunlight and absorb heat. This can increase
temperature and reduce light available for algal photosynthesis. If turbidity is caused by
sediment, it can be an indicator of erosion, either natural or man-made. Suspended
sediments can clog the gills of the fish. Once the sediments settles, it can foul gravel
beds and smother fish eggs, it can also carry pathogens, pollutants and nutrients.

Fish live in a different environment and are exposed to different water

parameters that has a direct effect to their health. Considering those various parameters
and constantly changing environment fish had adjusted to this environment in order to
survive. On our next topic we will dig deeper on how fish adjust its body in order to
survive. And we will start it on checking its external parts

References

Books
• Fishes and Their Ways, Clarence J. Hylander, 1964
• General Zoology Sixth Edition, T. Storer, R.C. Stebbins, R. L. Usinger, J. W.
Nybakken, 1979

Web
• www.dec.ny.gov
• http://www.arroyo.org/wqparameters.html
• https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Stanley-H-Weitzman/3151
 Chapter 2 The External Parts of the Fish and its Function

The following illustration of a largemouth bass shows some of the common external features that are used to describe the
differences between fish that are explained in more detail below.
Image source: http://www.ipma.pt/resource.www/docs/publicacoes.site/pescado/site/introducao/fish.htm

2.1 Fins -are appendages used by the fish to maintain its position, move, steer and
stop. They are either single fins along the centreline of the fish, such as the dorsal
(back) fins, caudal (tail) fin and anal fin, or paired fins, which include the pectoral (chest)
and pelvic (hip) fins. Fishes such as catfish have another fleshy lobe behind the dorsal
fin, called an adipose (fat) fin that is not illustrated here. The dorsal and anal fins
primarily help fish to not roll over onto their sides. The caudal fin is the main fin for
propulsion to move the fish forward. The paired fins assist with steering, stopping and
hovering.

In many freshwater fishes the fins are supported by spines that are rigid and may be
quite sharp thus playing a defensive role. Catfish have notably hard sharp fins, of which
anglers should be wary.
Fish Fins: Types, Modefication and Function

Dorsal Fin
This type of fin is located on the top or back of the fish which help the fish in quick turns
or stops. It also helps the fish against rolling. In fish, there are three distinct dorsal fins
such as proximal, central or middle, and distal dorsal fins. Some fish have two dorsal
fins where the central and distal fins are combined together.

The Types of Dorsal Fins

• Single
• Pointed
• Split
• Spine triangular
• Trigger
• Trailing

Pelvic Fin
In fishes, pair of pelvic fins is present which are located ventrally below and behind the
pectoral fins. In some fishes, they are situated in front of the pectoral fins (Cod
family). This type of fin helps in stability and slowing down the fish. Generally, fish use
pelvic fins for moving upwards and downwards in the water.

Anal Fin
The Anal fin is also known as cloacal fin which is located on the ventral side just behind
the anus. It supports the dorsal fin and stabilizes the fish during swimming and
contrinols the rolling motion.

Pectoral Fin
Pectoral fins are located on both sides usually just behind the operculum. It is
homologous to the tetrapod`s forelimbs. It provides supports during swimming. It
creates dynamic lifting force and also helps the fish to turn left or right.

Adipose Fin
They are soft fins and located between the dorsal and caudal fins, usually very near to
the caudal fin. It is mainly found in Salmonidae, Characins, and catfishes. This type of
fin helps to navigate the fish in rough water.

Caudal Fin
The caudal fin is the primary appendage which is used for locomotion in many fishes.
The caudal fin is also known as tail fin or a median fin which is usually homocercal or
heterocercal. Generally, it is a vertically expanded structure which is located at the
caudal end of the body. The base of the caudal fin is known as caudal peduncle with
strong swimming muscles. In general, caudal fin acts like a propeller while the caudal
peduncle functions as a motor.

The caudal fin has two lobes such as dorsal epichordal and ventral hypochordal lobe
which are supported by the modified last three caudal vertebrae. The shape of the
caudal fin may vary in different species from rounded to pointed, notched, emarginated,
truncated, etc. It is used to identify the fish species. Generally, fish use it for forwarding
propulsion and speed.

Varieties of Caudal Fins

The internal and external structure of caudal fin varies which depends on the swimming
habits of the fish. Generally, these variations involve special modification of the
vertebral column. Following seven main types of caudal fins are found in fishes:

• Lunate or Crescentic: It is used for Continuous long distance swimming. e.g. Tuna
• Forked: It is used for rapid swimming, e.g. Herring, Mackeral.
• Emarginate: e.g. Trout, Carp, Perch.
• Truncate: It aids in turning quickly. e.g. Flounder
• Rounded: It is used for slow swimming, accelerating, and maneuvering. e.g. Turbot
and Lemon-Sole.
• Pointed: e.g. Gobby
• Double emarginate

Image source: http//biologyeducare.com/fish-fins-its-types-and-functions/

2.2 Scales
 Many species of fish lack scales. All the clingfishes (family Gobiesocidaae) for
example, are scale less. Their bodies are protected by a thick layer of mucous. The
primary purpose of scales is to give the fish external protection. Scales protects the
fish from scrapes, parasites and other external injuries. Because they are attached at
only one point, they provide flexibility so that the scales can slide over each other as the
fish’s body bends while swimming. Scales sizes vary greatly between species. Some
fishes, such as the fresh water eels have tiny embedded scales. Fishes such as tunas
have tiny scales often found in discreet area of the body. Many fishes such as the coral
Snappers have medium size scales of others such as Tarpon, are large enough to be
used as jewellery. The scales of the Indian Mahseer are known to reach 10 cm in
length.

4 Main Kinds of Scales

The structure and configuration of scales can be used to determine the species from
which they came. The type of scale will affect the behaviour of fish. Large, heavy scales
provide more protection but restricting movement. Smaller, lighter scales offer more
freedom of movement but less protection. The following are the four main kinds of
scales:

 Placoid Scales also called denticles, are similar in structure to teeth. Found in
shark, skates and rays. Formed of a rectangular base plate that is embedded
within the skin of the fish. The interior of the scale is a pulp that receives blood
from the fish’s vascular system, while the outside is made of enamel like
substance called vitrodentine. The enamel ridge is called an ectodermal cap, and
this is important because without this enamel cap the shark could not feed,
 Cosmoid scale very rare scale, but in no doubt common in extinct species.
Cosmoid scales evolved from placoid scales fusing together. This is because
cosmoid scales have two base plates and similar external spines composed of
vitrodentine. This scale grows along with the fish,
 Ganoid Scales, what’s unusual about these scales is that they do not overlap but
instead fit together like pieces of jigsaw puzzle. They act like armour to form a
nearly impenetrable barrier to predator. They also grow with the fish not only in
length but in thickness as well, and
 Cycloid Scales this scales lack spines

Placoid scale Cosmoid scale Ganoid scale Cycloid scale

Image source: https:/www.slideshare.net/mobile/gurya87/types-of-scales-in-fishes-4459366

Explore for more…

✓ https://australian.museum/learn/animals/fishes/fish-scales/html
✓ www.visitflorida.com/en-us/things-to-do/florida/fishing/internal-and-external-anatomy-of-a-
fish.html

2.3 Mouth, is located on the anterior end of the body. The mouth is used to take in
food. It also plays a big role in getting water to the gills so that oxygen can be supplied
to the body. The mouth of fishes might look different and have different kinds of teeth.
These things depend on what that fish eats and how it hunts food the mouth shape is a
good clue to what fish eat. The larger it is, the bigger the prey it can consume. Fish
have a sense of taste and may sample items to taste them before swallowing if they are
not obvious prey items. Fish may or may not have teeth depending on species. Fish like
chain pickerel and gar have obvious canine teeth. Other fish have less obvious teeth,
such as cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like roughened area at the front of the
mouth, or vomerine teeth that are tiny patches of teeth, for example in the roof of a tiny
bass’ mouth.

Most fish mouths fall into one of three general types:

Superior, or sometimes called supra-

terminal. Superior mouths are generally
ambush predators, meaning they generally
are hidden and wait for fish to come close to
them before they strike. The superior mouth
is oriented upwards, and the lower jaw is
longer than the upper jaw. Fishes with this
type of mouth feed at the surface of water. They lie in wait for prey to appear above
them, and then strike suddenly from below. Many species of fish with a superior mouth
feed largely on insects, however, some may feed on other fish that swim near the
surface. Some species with a superior mouth have an elongated lower jaw that
functions much like a scoop. Archers, half-beaks, and hatchetfish are all examples
of species of aquarium fish that have a superior mouth.

Terminal, Fish that have terminal or

protrusible mouths generally feed on other
fish mouths point straight forward and are
the most common mouth type. Terminal
mouths are located in the middle of the head and point forward. Both jaws are the same
length. More fish have this mouth type than any other. Fish having a terminal mouth are
generally mid-water feeders; however, they can feed at any location. These species of
fish are often omnivores, eating anything that is available. They typically feed on the
move, either grabbing bits of food that they pass or preying on other fish that they chase
down. Most fish that feed on other fish have terminal mouths, which are often hinged to
allow them to accommodate the action of snatching and swallowing another fish. They
may also possess specialized teeth, and in some cases an additional jaw. Moray eels
are one type of species that have a pharyngeal jaw placed well back in their
throat. Most barbs, cichlids, gouramis, and tetras have terminal mouths.

Inferior, also called a sub-terminal or

ventral mouth. Mouths are turned
downward. Inferior mouth types generally
denote that the fish is a bottom feeder and
often possess barbels that assist in locating
food particles and eats things such as
crustaceans or shellfish. The lower jaw is
shorter than the upper jaw, and the jaw will often be protrusible. Most members of the
catfish family have inferior jaws, and many of them also have a sucker mouth as well.
The diet of fish with inferior mouths includes algae, invertebrates (such as snails), as
well as detritus and any food that falls to the bottom.

Image source: https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/fishanatomu/mouth-types/

Other types of fish mouth

Protrusible Mouth, a protrusible mouth allows a fish to extend its reach when
attempting to snatch prey or food particles. This feature can be seen in all mouth types.
Fish with a protrusible and hinged terminal mouth can create a vacuum when they open
their mouths, thus sucking in their prey. Various species of fish may use a protrusible
mouth while chasing down prey, while other species quietly lie in wait for prey to pass
by, and then rapidly extend the mouth to snatch the hapless victim. Some species use
this feature to engage in non-feeding activities. For example, kissing gourami uses its
protrusible mouth to defend territory against others of the same species. Although it
may appear to be kissing the other gourami, it is a combative move to show its
opponent who owns that space. Other species, such as some members of the sucker
catfish family, use a protrusible mouth to stay in place by attaching to a rock or other
stationary object

Sucker mouths are a common feature in fish with inferior mouths. Catfish, is the
popular plecostomus (which literally translates to folded mouth), uses a sucker mouth
to rasp algae off driftwood or rocks. Some species use a sucker mouth to hold on to
help them combat currents. By attaching itself to rock via its sucker mouth, it can stay
where it wishes, even in a strong current. These sucker mouths are also protrusible,
which allows the fish to extend its reach when sifting through the substrate for food
particles. Sucker mouths can also be used when defending territory or quarrelling with
another fish.

Elongated Mouth greatly elongated snout is another kind of mouth adaptation. This
type of mouth allows the fish to poke into small crevices and holes to find food. They
may also use this mouth to dig through the substrate to reach buried food treasures.
Some surface feeding fish also have an elongated mouth that allows them to scoop
insects and food particles from the surface. Freshwater species with elongated mouths
include the halfbeaks, gars, and pencilfish. Saltwater species include the needlefish and
fish in the wrasse family.

Beak Mouth is an interesting, but less common, mouth variation; it's also known as a
rostrum. In this design, the mouth consists of two very hard pieces that are hinged and
come together in a scissor-like fashion. This allows them to crush hard shells of
invertebrates. Puffer fish, both freshwater and saltwater species, and saltwater
parrotfish possess a beak type mouth.

Fish Forms and Function: Mouth

mouth diagram Description Adapted Function

Jawless Scavenging or
parasitic behavior

Tweezer-like snout Poking into crevices

Suction tube Slurping in prey

 Large mouth Swallowing large prey

Beak-like teeth Biting hard objects

Tiny and turned up Capturing plankton

Image source: https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringfluidearth/biological/fish/structure-and-function-fish

2.4 Eyes, fish can detect colour. The eyes are rounder in fish than mammals because
of the refractive index of the water and focus is achieved by moving the lens in and out,
not reshaping the lens as in mammals. Fish eyes differ mightily from those of terrestrial
animals, because the shape of their internal eye structure must account for the watery
environment in which they live. While you see fish with their eyes wide open , it a myth
that fish don’t sleep, they don’t have eyelids necessary to close their eyes while they
rest.

Structure of Fish Eye

Cornea Structure
Fish eyes contain many of the same components as human eyes, but they are
structured and used differently. Fish have a cornea or outer covering, a lens for “taking
a picture,” an iris for adjusting light, a retina containing light-sensitive cells and an optic
nerve for translating the picture to the brain. The cornea is very round so the fish can
receive images of its environment in almost a full hemisphere about the eye, or 360
degrees. Because water has a powerful ability to refract, or bend, images, fish corneas
compensate by being almost the same density as water, resulting in minor bending as
images are transmitted from water into fish eyes.

Lens Structure
Unlike the corneas, fish eye lenses tend to refract light a significant amount of light.
Their lenses are spherical, which means that when pointed at an image straight on, they
have a good picture in the center, but vision becomes increasingly fuzzy and refracted
at the edge of vision. To focus, fish must point directly at something, meaning that while
their vision exists almost in 360 degrees, their vision is clearest in the middle of the
picture.

Iris Structure
Land animals have an adjustable iris controlling light to the pupil. Fish do not have this -
- except a few species of sharks -- but rather adjust light levels by moving their irises up
and down. This takes much longer, so they sometimes have trouble adjusting to
changing light levels in less than 15 or 20 minutes. Combining this with the lack of an
outer eyelid, fish have a hard time shutting out bright light. To compensate, they must
find shelter or dive deeper in the water. In aquariums, this often results in fish hiding for
several minutes after you turn their light on.

Eyelid Replacements
Fish completely lack an outer eyelid. In most fish, this translates to no eyelid at all,
though some sharks possess a nictitating membrane. This is a thin, transparent film that
can draws over the eye for protection. Fish have developed other eyelid replacements
as well. Some species of bonefish have a fatty layer they can draw over their eye that,
while not technically an eyelid, shuts out some light and only allows it through a small
hole over the pupil. Some fish have light-activated pigments in their eyes that shade out
bright lights by becoming darker.

Fish Forms and Functions: Eye Feature

Eye Diagram Description Adapted Function

Tiny eyes, head length approximately Receiving high intensity

six times longer than eye width light
 Large eyes, head length approximately Receiving low intensity
three times longer than eye width light or spotting predators

Average eyes head length three to five Receiving normal intensity

times longer than eye width light

Tubular eyes Receiving low light from

above often in deep water

Eyes on dorsal side of the fish Seeing above

Image source: https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringfluidearth/biological/fish/structure-and-function-fish

Image source: www.vetmed.wisc.edu

Parts and Function of Fish Eye

Aqueous Humour: is a transparent, gelatinous fluid similar to plasma, but containing

low-protein concentrations. It is secreted from the ciliary epithelium, a structure
supporting the lens. It is located in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, the
space between the lens and the cornea. It is not to be confused with vitreous humour,
which is contained within the larger cavity of the eye behind the lens.
Choroid: The choroid, also known as the choroidea or choroid coat, is the vascular
layer of the eye, containing connective tissue, and lying between the retina and the
sclera.
Cornea: the outermost transparent layer of the eye. It is consist of conjunctiva and
sclera. Fish cornea is thinner than that of terrestrial vertebrates.
Iris: In mammals the iris opens and closes to let the right amount of light enter the eye.
The iris of the fish's eye is normally immovable in Teleost's, and very slowly moveable
in Elasmobranchs, (sharks and rays) taking up to an hour to fully open from fully closed.

Lens: The lens of a fish’s eye is spherical and non-adjustable which means the focus is
fixed and can't be altered to near or distant objects.

Ligament: The suspensory ligaments are connecting tissues composed of thin fibers.
They connect the ciliary body to the eye's lens.

Muscle: Controls eye movement.

Optic Nerve: Fish have large eyes, with short optic nerves that are continually flexed by
compensatory eye movements during swimming.
Pigment Layer: is the pigmented cell layer just outside the neurosensory retina that
nourishes retinal visual cells, and is firmly attached to the underlying choroid and
overlying retinal visual cells.

Retina: A thin transparent laminar structure situated at the back of the eye. The retina is
sandwiched between the vitreous body of the actual eyeball, and the sclera. The retinas
of fishes do not differ fundamentally from those of other vertebrates.

Sclera: The sclera is commonly known as the white of the eye. It is the tough, opaque
tissue that serves as the eye's protective outer coat.

Tapeta Licidum: is a layer of tissue in the eye of many vertebrate animals. It lies
immediately behind the retina. It reflects visible light back through the retina, increasing
the light available to the photoreceptors. This improves vision in low-light conditions.

Eye Adaptions
Omega iris: The omega iris found in the Loricariidae family of fishes. The omega iris
can be raised or lowered in order to either to increase or decrease the amount of light
entering the fish’s eye.
2.5 Operculum/Gill cover, the gills are the breathing apparatus of fish and are
highly vascularized giving them the bright red colour. An operculum or the gill cover is a
flexible bony plate that protects the sensitive gills. Water is “inhaled” through the mouth,
passes over the gills and is “exhaled” from beneath the operculum. Operculum plays a
major role in the pumping mechanism that regulates the continuous flow of water over
the fish.

Fish Forms and Function: Operculum

GILL DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION ADAPTED FUNCTION

Elasmobranchs have naked gills Easy water flow

Operculum covers gills Gill protection

Preoperculum and operculum Armor and protection

spines

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2.6 Nostrils/nares, paired nostrils are used to detect odours in water and can be
quite sensitive. The sense of smell is also called olfaction. Fish have olfactory bulbs
just like terrestrial vertebrates have, sensitive to the same type of odorants (i.e.,
olfactory chemicals). Eels and catfish have particularly well developed senses of smell.
 The major difference between olfaction in fish and olfaction in mammals is in
their geometry. The nares of most fish are disconnected from their respiratory system,
including both gills and air bladder, staying on one side of their ‘gums’. The nares of
terrestrial vertebrates directly connect our air bladders (i.e., lungs) and esophagus to
our outer nose, bypassing our ‘gums’. The nares of terrestrial vertebrates are directly
connected to their pharyngeal cavity. This does not make olfaction in fish chemically
different from olfaction in land vertebrates. Fish and mammals can smell the same
odorants. However, it makes big differences in how the odorants are physically
gathered.

Image source: https://www.sciencesource.com/archive/fish-Nostril-Anatomy-SS2289710.html

Fish have to move rapidly to force odorants past their olfactory bulb. Their nares
are not directly connected to their lungs, their gills, or even their pharyngeal cavity. The
velocity of the fluid relative to their out nare has to be large in order for them to smell. A
fish can smell by swimming rapidly in stationary water. Fish can also smell by swimming
to keep still in running water, noses facing upstream. Either way, their sense of smell
depends on an external flow of water fluid through their nostrils.

The nares of fish ARE NOT connected to their respiratory system. Fish nostrils
have one advantage over the nostrils of their land-lubber relatives. Fish can smell both
under water and in gaseous air as long as the fluid is flowing rapidly past their nostrils.

2.7 Lateral Line also called lateralis system is a sensory organ consisting of fluid filled
sac with hair like sensory apparatus that are open to the water through a series of pores
(creating a line along the side of the fish). The lateral line primarily senses water
currents and pressure, and movement in the water.
 Functions of the lateral Line

 Detecting Food
 Avoiding predators
 Awareness of surroundings
 Judging distance
 Detecting flow direction
 Homing and migration

Lateral line system of a fish. (A) Bodily location of lateral lines. (B) Longitudinal section of a canal. (C) Superficial neuromast.

Image Source: http://usdbiology.com/cliff/Courses/Behavioral%20Neuroscience/CStart/CStartfigs/Ccirpics

A system of tactile sense organs, unique to aquatic vertebrates from cyclostome

fishes (lampreys and hagfish) to amphibians. It is made up of a series
of mechanoreceptors called neuromasts (lateral line organs) arranged in an
interconnected network along the head and body. This network is typically arranged in
rows; however, neuromasts may also be organized singly. At its simplest, rows of
neuromasts appear on the surface of the skin; however, for most fishes, they lie
embedded in the floor of mucus-filled structures called lateral line canals. These canals
are placed just underneath the skin, and only the receptor portion of each neuromast
extends into the canal. In amphibians the lateral line system occurs only in larval forms
and in adult forms that are completely aquatic.
2.8 Vent is the external opening to digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts. In most
fish, it is immediately in front of the anal fin. It is the site of waste elimination from the
fish’s body. It is also the entry of the genital tract where eggs or sperms are released.
(To be discuss further in the topic digestive system.

References

Books
• Fishes and Their Ways, Clarence J. Hylander, 1964
• General Zoology Sixth Edition, T. Storer, R.C. Stebbins, R. L. Usinger, J. W.
Nybakken, 1979
Web
• www.visitflorida.com/en-us/things-to-do/florida/fishing/internal-and-external-
anatomy-of-a-fish.html
• https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/gurya87/types-of-scales-in-fishes-44959366
• https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringfluidearth/biological/fish/structure-and-function-fish
• https://www.earthlife.net/fish/sight.html#:~:text=The%20internal%20part%of
20the,called%20the%20’Vitreous%20humour’.