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Politics in China
Politics in China
An Introduction

THIRD EDITION

Edited By William A. Joseph

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–0–19–087071–3 (pbk.)
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9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Paperback printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
 To my Sino-​Mentors,
John Wilson Lewis (1930–​2017) and Harry Harding
子曰、 學而時習之、不亦說乎
The Master said, “To learn something, and then to put it into practice at
the right time: is this not a joy?”
Confucius, The Analects, Chapter 1, Verse 1
Translated by Simon Leys, Norton, 1997
Contents

List of Illustrations ix
Acknowledgments xi
List of Contributors xiii
List of Abbreviations xix

INT R O D U C T IO N

1 Studying Chinese Politics 3

(William A. Joseph)

PART I PO L IT ICAL H I S T O RY

2 From Empire to People’s Republic 45

(R. Keith Schoppa)

3 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–​1976) 76

(Frederick C. Teiwes)

4 Deng Xiaoping and His Successors (1976 to the Present) 124

(Bruce Gilley)

PART II ID EO L O GY, GO V E R NANCE , AND P O LI TI CAL E CO NO MY

5 Ideology and China’s Political Development 157

(William A. Joseph)

6 China’s Communist Party-​State: The Structure and Dynamics of Power 201

(Cheng Li)
viii Co n t e n t s

7 China’s Legal System 237

(Jacques deLisle)

8 China’s Political Economy 274

(David Zweig)

PA RT III P O L I T I CS AND P O L I CY IN ACTI O N

9 Rural China: Reform and Resistance 317

(John James Kennedy)

10 Urban China: Changes and Challenges 347

(William Hurst and Christian Sorace)

11 Policy Case Study: The Arts 371

(Richard Curt Kraus)

12 Policy Case Study: The Environment 383

(Katherine Morton and Fengshi Wu)

13 Policy Case Study: Public Health 399

(Joan Kaufman)

14 Policy Case Study: Population Policy 418

(Tyrene White)

15 Policy Case Study: Internet Politics 440

(Guobin Yang)

PA RT IV P O L I T I CS O N CH I NA’S P E RI P H E RY

16 Tibet 457
(Robert Barnett)

17 Xinjiang 487
(Gardner Bovingdon)

18 Hong Kong 517

(Sonny Shiu-​Hing Lo)

19 Taiwan 538
(Shelley Rigger)

Timeline of Modern Chinese Political History 555

Glossary 561
Index 597
Illustrations

MAPS

Map 0.1 China xxi

Map 1.1 China’s Major Regions 7
Map 16.1 Tibet Autonomous Region and Tibetan Plateau 459
Map 17.1 Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 490
Map 18.1 Hong Kong 519
Map 19.1 Taiwan 541

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1.1 China’s Economic Growth 1980–​2017 4

Figure 1.2 Administrative Divisions of the People’s Republic of China 9
Figure 1.3 Major Periods in Chinese History from Imperial Times to
the Present 13
Table 1.1 China’s Economic Development in Comparative Perspective 17
Table 3.1 Top Leaders of China from 1949 to 1976 80
Table 4.1 Top Leaders of China since 1976 127
Figure 6.1 Organization of the Chinese Communist Party 205
Table 6.1 CCP Politburo Standing Committee (elected October 2017) 206
Figure 6.2 Organization of the People’s Republic of China 211
Figure 6.3 CCP Membership (1949–​2017) 215
Figure 6.4 Occupations of CCP Members (2016) 216
Figure 6.5 Politburo Members with Provincial Experience 219
Figure 6.6 Membership Turnover of Top CCP Organizations 19th Party
Congress (October 2017) 230
Figure 8.1 China’s GDP by Sector of the Economy (1976–​2017) 283
x Ill u s t rat i on s

Figure 8.2 China’s Annual Growth Rates of Agriculture and Industry

(1978–​2017) 286
Figure 8.3 China’s Foreign Trade (1980–​2017) 294
Figure 8.4 China’s Imports and Exports as a Percent of GDP (1976–​2017) 294
Figure 8.5 China’s “Going Out” Strategy (2002–​2017) 298
Figure 8.6 China’s Rural-​Urban Income Gap (1978–​2017) 303
Table 8.1 Appendix: Selected Indicators of China’s Global Integration
(1978–​2016) 306
Figure 9.1 Party/​Government Officials and Administrative Divisions Below
the Provincial Level 320
Figure 9.2 Selection of Village Cadres and Town Officials 325
Figure 10.1 Urban Disposable Income per capita and Employment in
State-​Owned Enterprises (1990–​2016) 353
Figure 12.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1980–​2050) 387
Figure 12.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions per capita (1980–​2016) 387
Table 13.1 China’s Health (ca. 1950–​2016) 401
Figure 13.1 Sources of HIV/​AIDS Transmission in China (1985–​2014) 410
Figure 13.2 New Cases of HIV/​AIDS in China (2005–​2015) 411
Figure 14.1 China’s Population (1960–​2017) 420
Figure 14.2 China Total Fertility Rate in Comparative Perspective 423
Figure 14.3 Age Composition of China’s Population (1982-​2100) 434
Figure 15.1 The Growth of the Internet in China (2002–​2017) 441
Figure 19.1 Taiwan’s Economic Growth by Decade 544
Table 19.1 Survey on “Taiwan Public’s Views on Current Cross-​Strait
Relations” (2017) 547
Acknowledgments

In the most immediate sense, this project began when Oxford University Press invited
me to submit a proposal for an introductory textbook on Chinese politics about ten
years ago. But its true origins go back to the summer of 1966, when I took my first col-
lege course on China in summer school at the University of California, Berkeley. My
academic interest in China had been piqued during my freshman year at Cornell by
events unfolding in Beijing (we called it “Peking” then) as the Red Guards—​university
students like myself—​were challenging professors about their political views and
methods of education during the very early stages of China’s Great Proletarian
Cultural Revolution. It was a tumultuous time on American campuses (Cornell and
Berkeley were epicenters) and also on European college campuses, and the youthful
rebellion against authority in China seemed to many young people to be part of a
global generational movement.
The news from the People’s Republic of China (we called it “Communist China”
or “Red China” then) reaching Western audiences in the mid-​1960s was, at best,
piecemeal and sketchy because of Cold War hostilities and the PRC’s self-​imposed
isolation from much of the world. It would be quite a few years before the terrible
destructiveness of the Cultural Revolution and the atrocities committed by the Red
Guards would become widely known and well-​documented.
By then, I was immersed in Chinese Studies. I had been intellectually captivated
by that summer-​school course, taken at Berkeley, with the incomparable Benjamin
I. Schwartz of Harvard. When I returned to Cornell for my sophomore year in the
fall semester of 1966, I took the plunge into learning Chinese. I also began my study
of Chinese politics with Professor John Wilson Lewis. What an extraordinary time
that was to be learning—​and teaching—​about Chinese politics! I still vividly recall
Professor Lewis’s lecture on why the philosophical debate that had raged a few years
before in China over whether “one divides into two” or “two unites into one” was
crucial to understanding Chairman Mao Zedong’s ideological motives for launching
the Cultural Revolution. John became my undergraduate advisor, and I was very
fortunate to be able to continue my study of Chinese politics with him at Stanford,
where I completed an MA in East Asian Studies and a PhD in political science. I also
xii Ac k n o w l e d g m e n t s

benefited enormously in my training at Stanford as a China Watcher, political scien-

tist, and teacher from the guidance and inspiration provided by Harry Harding. I ded-
icate this book with deepest gratitude to my academic mentors, John Wilson Lewis
(1930-​2017) and Harry Harding.
At Oxford University Press, I am much indebted to David McBride, editor-​in-​chief
for the Social Sciences, and Emily Mackenzie, associate editor, for their support and
encouragement during the many stages of this book from conception to publication.
Jeremy Toynbee, project manager at Newgen, did a terrific job of sheparding this edi-
tion through the production process.
The contributors are what make this book unique. Each is a broadly trained China
scholar and practitioner of her or his discipline (mostly political science); but each is
also a specialist in the study of the particular subject of the chapter of which he or she
is the author or co-​author. It has been a pleasure and an honor to work closely with
them, and I want to thank them for being part of this project. I learned a great deal
from them, as I have from so many other colleagues in the China field.
The contributors and I are very grateful to the following China scholars for their
valuable comments on the chapters in this and earlier editions of this book: Marc
Belcher, Edward Friedman, Thomas B. Gold, Merle Goldman, J. Megan Greene, David
M. Lampton, Kenneth Lieberthal, Barrett McCormick, Kevin J. O’Brien, Margaret
Pearson, Benjamin Read, Michael Sheng, Wenfang Tang, and several anonymous
reviewers.
Wellesley College, my home institution for four decades, sits on the shores of
Lake Waban—​which the beloved Chinese writer and Wellesley alumna (MA, 1923),
Bingxin, affectionately called “Weibing Hu” 慰冰湖 —​“The lake that comforts Bing.”
For me, the college has been a beautiful and supportive academic setting in which to
ponder and teach about the ever fascinating subject of Chinese politics.
As editor, I assume full responsibility for any and all errors. I invite readers to send
comments and corrections directly to me at [email protected].

William A. Joseph
Wellesley, MA
May 2019
Contributors

Robert Barnett is based at Pembroke College, Cambridge, and is an Affiliate

Researcher at King’s College, London. He founded the Modern Tibetan Studies
Program at Columbia University in New York, directed the program from 1999 to 2018,
and has taught at Columbia, Princeton, INALCO (Paris), and IACER (Kathmandu).
He ran an independent research project on contemporary Tibet in London from 1987
to 1998. His books and edited volumes include Conflicting Memories, with Benno
Weiner and Françoise Robin (2019); Tibetan Modernities: Notes from the Field,
with Ronald Schwartz (2008); Lhasa: Streets with Memories (2006). His writing
includes studies of Tibetan politics, cinema, television, religious regulations, social
management, women politicians, and contemporary exorcism rituals. He runs a
number of training programs in Tibet on ecotourism, small business skills, and is a
frequent commentator on Tibet and nationality issues in China for the media.
Gardner Bovingdon is associate professor in the Departments of Central Eurasian
Studies and International Studies, and adjunct associate professor of Political Science
at Indiana University. A specialist on nationalism, identity politics, and historiography
with a geographical focus on Central Asia, he has published a number of journal
articles and book chapters on these topics. His book, The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their
Own Land, was published in 2010.
Jacques deLisle is the Stephen A. Cozen Professor of Law and professor of political
science at the University of Pennsylvania, where he also serves as the director of
the Center for East Asian Studies and deputy director of the Center for the Study of
Contemporary China. He is the director of the Asia Program at the Foreign Policy
Research Institute. His scholarship, which has appeared in many international affairs
journals and law reviews, focuses on domestic legal and legal-​institutional reform, the
relationship of legal development to economic and political change, and the roles of
law in addressing crises in China; the PRC’s engagement with the international legal
order; and Taiwan’s international status and cross-​Strait relations. He is the coeditor
of China's Global Engagement: Cooperation, Competition, and Influence in the 21st
xiv C o n t ri b u to r s

Century (2017), The Internet, Social Media, and a Changing China (2017), and China’s
Challenges: The Road Ahead (2014).
Bruce Gilley is professor of political science in the Mark O. Hatfield School of
Government at Portland State University. His research centers on the comparative
and international politics of China and Asia as well as the comparative politics
of democracy and political legitimacy. He is the author of China’s Democratic
Future (2004) and The Right to Rule: How States Win and Lose Legitimacy (2009).
William Hurst is associate professor of political science at Northwestern
University. He is the author of The Chinese Worker after Socialism (2009) and Ruling
Before the Law: The Politics of Legal Regimes in China and Indonesia (2018), as well
as coeditor of Laid-​off Workers in a Workers’ State: Unemployment with Chinese
Characteristics (2009) and Local Governance Innovation in China: Experimentation,
Diffusion, and Defiance (2015). His ongoing research focuses on the political economy
of land and development in Mainland China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Taiwan.
William A. Joseph is professor of political science at Wellesley College and
an associate in research of the John King Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies at
Harvard University. He is the author of The Critique of Ultra-​Leftism in China (1984)
and editor or coeditor of New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution (1991), China
Briefing (1991, 1992, 1994, 1997), The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World (2nd
ed., 2001), Introduction to Comparative Politics: Political Challenges and Changing
Agendas (8th ed., 2018).
Joan Kaufman is the senior director for academic programs at the Schwarzman
Scholars Program, Lecturer on Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard Medical
School, and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. She was previously the
director of Columbia University’s Global Center for East Asia, based in Beijing, and
associate professor at Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health,
distinguished scientist at the Heller School for Social Policy and Management, Brandeis
University, founder and director of the AIDS Public Policy Program at Harvard’s
Kennedy School of Government, and China team leader for the International AIDS
Vaccine Initiative. She has lived and worked in China for more than fifteen years
for the Ford Foundation and the UN, was a Radcliffe Fellow at Harvard, and a Soros
Reproductive Health and Rights fellow. Dr. Kaufman teaches, works, and writes on
AIDS, gender, international health, infectious diseases, reproductive health, health
sector reform, and health governance issues with a focus on China
John James Kennedy is professor of political science and director of the Center
for East Asian Studies at the University of Kansas. His research focuses on rural,
social, and political development including village elections, tax reform, family
planning, and rural education. He frequently returns to China to conduct fieldwork
and collaborate with Chinese colleagues in Northwest China. Prof. Kennedy is the
co-​author (with Yaojiang Shi) of Lost and Found: the 'Missing Girls" in Rural China
(2019). He has also published a number of book chapters as well as articles in journals
such as Asian Survey, China Quarterly, Journal of Peasant Studies, Journal of Chinese
 Contributors xv

Political Science, Journal of Contemporary China, Asian Politics and Policy, and
Political Studies.
Richard Curt Kraus is professor emeritus of political science, University of
Oregon. He is the author of Class Conflict in Chinese Socialism (1981), Pianos and
Politics in China (1989), Brushes with Power: Modern Politics and the Chinese Art of
Calligraphy (1991), The Party and the Arty (2004), The Cultural Revolution: A Very
Short Introduction (2012), and coeditor of Urban Spaces: Autonomy and Community
in Contemporary China (1995).
Cheng Li is director and senior fellow at the Brookings Institution’s John L. Thornton
China Center. Dr. Li is the author/​editor of numerous books, including Rediscovering
China: Dynamics and Dilemmas of Reform (1997), China’s Leaders: The New
Generation (2001), Bridging Minds Across the Pacific: The Sino-​ US Educational
Exchange (2005), China’s Changing Political Landscape: Prospects for Democracy
(2008), China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation (2010),
China’s Political Development: Chinese and American Perspectives (2014), Chinese
Politics in the Xi Jinping Era: Reassessing Collective Leadership (2016), and The Power
of Ideas: The Rising Influence of Thinkers and Think Tanks in China (2017). He is the
principal editor of the Thornton Center Chinese Thinkers Series published by the
Brookings Institution Press.
Sonny Shiu-​Hing Lo is professor and deputy director (Arts and Sciences) in the
School of Professional and Continuing Education at the University of Hong Kong.
His new books include China’s New United Front Work in Hong Kong (forthcoming,
with Steven Hung and Jeff Loo), Interest Groups and the New Democracy Movement
in Hong Kong (2018), and The Politics of Controlling Organized Crime in Greater
China (2016).
Katherine Morton is the chair and professor of China’s International Relations
at the University of Sheffield. Her research addresses the domestic and international
motivations behind China’s changing role in the world and the implications for foreign
policy and the study of International Relations. Prior to her appointment at the
University of Sheffield she was the associate dean for research at the College of Asia
and the Pacific, Australian National University, and a Senior Fellow in the Department
of International Relations. She has published widely on the environment and climate
change, global governance, transnational security, food security, maritime security,
and the South China Sea. Her current book project examines the likely impacts of
China’s rising international status upon the evolving system of global governance.
Shelley Rigger is Brown Professor of East Asian Politics at Davidson College.
She has been a visiting researcher at National Chengchi University in Taiwan and a
visiting professor at Fudan University in Shanghai. She is the author of three books
on Taiwan: Politics in Taiwan: Voting for Democracy (1999),From Opposition to
Power: Taiwan’s Democratic Progressive Party (2001); and Why Taiwan Matters: Small
Island, Global Powerhouse (2011) as well as articles on Taiwan’s domestic politics, the
national identity issue in Taiwan-​China relations and related topics.
xvi C o n t ri b u to r s

R. Keith Schoppa is Doehler Chair in Asian History emeritus at Loyola University,

Maryland. He has authored many books and articles, including, most recently, In a Sea
of Bitterness: Refugees during the Sino-​Japanese War (2011). His book Blood Road: The
Mystery of Shen Dingyi in Revolutionary China (1996) won the 1997 Association for
Asian Studies’ Levenson Prize for the best book on twentieth-​century China, and
he is also the author of textbooks on modern China and East Asia. He has received
fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council
of Learned Societies, and the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.
Christian Sorace is assistant professor of political science at Colorado College. He
is the author of Shaken Authority: China’s Communist Party and the 2008 Sichuan
Earthquake (2018) and coeditor of Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political
Concepts from Mao to Xi (forthcoming). His new research focuses on comparative
urbanization, crisis, and temporality in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, and Inner Mongolia,
China.
Frederick C. Teiwes is emeritus professor of Chinese Politics at the University of
Sydney. He is the author of numerous works on Chinese Communist elite politics
during the Maoist era, including Politics and Purges in China (1979), 2nd ed.,
1993), Politics at Mao’s Court (1990), The Tragedy of Lin Biao (1996), China’s Road
to Disaster (1999), and The End of the Maoist Era (2007) (the latter three studies
coauthored with Warren Sun). During the past decade he and Dr. Sun have published
revisionist studies of the early post-​Mao period, notably Paradoxes of Post-​Mao Rural
Reform (2016). He thanks the Australian Research Council for generous research
support over many years.
Tyrene White is professor of political science at Swarthmore College. She is
the author of China’s Longest Campaign: Birth Planning in the People’s Republic,
1949–​2005 (Cornell University Press, 2006), and many articles on rural politics
and population policy in China. She is the editor of China Briefing: The Continuing
Transformation (2000) and coeditor of Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the
State (1994). Her current research examines China’s regulatory politics in comparative
perspective and the causes of China’s fertility decline in the 1970s.
Fengshi Wu is senior lecturer in the Asia Institute, the University of Melbourne.
She specializes in environmental politics, state-​ society relations, and global
governance with the empirical focus on China and Asia. She was a visiting fellow at
the Harvard-​Yenching Institute (2008-​2009) and a graduate fellow of the American
Academy of Political and Social Sciences (2004). Her recent academic works have
appeared in China Journal, VOLUNTAS, China Quarterly, Journal of Environmental
Policy and Planning, and Journal of Contemporary China. She recently edited the
book China’s Global Conquest for Resources (2017) on China’s overseas investment in
and acquisition of natural resources.
Guobin Yang is the Grace Lee Boggs Professor of Communication and Sociology
at the Annenberg School for Communication and Department of Sociology at the
University of Pennsylvania. He is the author of The Red Guard Generation and Political
Activism in China (2016) and The Power of the Internet in China: Citizen Activism
 Contributors xvii

Online (2009). His Dragon-​Carving and the Literary Mind (2003) is an annotated
English translation of Wenxin Diaolong, the Chinese classic of rhetoric and literary
theory. He has edited or coedited four books, including China’s Contested Internet
(2015), The Internet, Social Media, and a Changing China (with Jacques deLisle and
Avery Goldstein, 2016), and Re-​Envisioning the Chinese Revolution: The Politics and
Poetics of Collective Memories in Reform China (with Ching-​Kwan Lee, 2007).
David Zweig is professor emeritus, Division of Social Science, at The Hong
Kong University of Science and Technology HKUST, and director, Transnational
China Consulting Limited (HK). He is vice president of the Center on China and
Globalization (Beijing). He is the author of four books, including Freeing China’s
Farmers (1997), Internationalizing China: Domestic Interests and Global Linkages
(2002), and China’s Brain Drain to the United States (1995), and coeditor of Sino-​
China Energy Triangles: Resource Diplomacy under Hegemony (2015). His current
book project focuses on the reverse migration of Chinese talent.
Abbreviations

ACWF All-​China Women’s Federation

BRI Belt and Road Initiative
CAC Cyberspace Administration of China
CC Central Committee
CCP Chinese Communist Party
CCRG Central Cultural Revolution Group
CCTV China Central Television
CCYL Chinese Communist Youth League
CMC Central Military Commission
CMS Cooperative Medical Scheme
CNNIC China Internet Network Information Center
CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union
DPP Democratic Progressive Party
ELG Export-​Led Growth
GAPP General Administration of Press and Publication
HIV/​AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/​Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome
HKSAR Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
HLLAPCs Higher-​Level Agricultural Producer Cooperatives (Collectives)
IMF International Monetary Fund
KMT Kuomintang
LegCo Legislative Council
LLPAPCs Lower-​Level Agricultural Producer Cooperatives (Cooperatives)
LSG Leading Small Group
NCNA New China News Agency (Xinhua)
NPC National People’s Congress
PAP People’s Armed Police
PBSC Politburo Standing Committee
PLA People’s Liberation Army
PRC People’s Republic of China
xx A b b r e v i a t i o n s

ROC Republic of China

SAR Special Administrative Region
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SASAC State-​owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission
SCNPC Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SMEs Small-​ and-​Medium Enterprises
SOE State-​Owned Enterprise
SAPPRFT State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film, and
Television
TAR Tibet Autonomous Region
TVE Township and Village Enterprise
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VRA Villager Representative Assembly
WTO World Trade Organization
XPCC Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (bingtuan)
XUAR Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region
 RUSSI A

KAZAKHSTAN
N HEILONGJIANG

M ON G OL I A

JILIN
KYRGYZSTAN

LIAONING
XINJIANG SE A OF
O LIA NORTH JA PA N
TAJIKISTAN INNER MONG KOREA
AFGHANISTAN Beijing
GANSU Tianjin
PAKISTAN HEBEI SOUTH
SHANXI KOREA
Yan’ an
NINGXIA Yan’an SHANDONG Y E L LOW
QINGHAI SE A
e r
Yellow Riv JIANGSU
SHAANXI HENAN
JAPAN
TIBET ANHUI
Shanghai
HUBEI E A ST
SICHUAN ngtze River CHINA

Ya
ZHEJIANG SE A
NEPAL Chongqing
JIANGXI
BHUTAN HUNAN

GUIZHOU FUJIAN
INDIA
BANGLADESH
YUNNAN TAIWAN
GUANGXI GUANGDONG
PAC I F I C
Pea
rl River Shenzhen
OCE AN
BURMA
Hong Kong
VIETNAM Macao
(MYANMAR)
0 300 mi SO U T H
LAOS HAINAN C HIN A
Disputed Border 0 500 km THAILAND SE A

MAP 0.1 China

Politics in China
Introduction
 1
Studying Chinese Politics
WILLIAM A. JOSEPH

In 1978, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was

one of the world’s poorest countries, and the standard
of living for the vast majority of the population had
improved only slightly in the nearly two decades since
the PRC was founded. China was also diplomatically iso-
lated, barely engaged in the international economy, and
little more than a regional military power.
Today, China is the world’s second largest and most
dynamic major economy. Over the last forty years it has
experienced “the fastest sustained expansion by a major economy in history”1 that is
widely hailed as a “miracle”2 (see Figure 1.1). During that time, more than 800 million
people have been lifted out of poverty that even in the early 1990s was recognized
as “one of the biggest improvements in human welfare anywhere at any time.”3 The
PRC is now the world’s largest trading nation, and its export and import policies have
an enormous impact in literally every corner of the globe. It is a rising power that is
challenging the United States for global influence and a key member of all important
international organizations. The Chinese military is world class, with a formidable ar-
senal of nuclear weapons, a rapidly modernizing oceangoing navy, and on the cutting
edge of cyberwarfare.
But prior to the beginning of its remarkable rise to relative economic prosperity
and international prominence, the PRC experienced a series of national traumas. In
the late 1950s and early 1960s, China went through the deadliest famine in human
history, caused largely by the actions and inactions of its political leaders during the
Great Leap Forward. Not long after that catastrophe, over the decade from 1966 to
1976 when China went through the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, there
was first a collapse of central government authority, which pushed the country to
4 P o l i t ic s i n C h in a

16% $10,000

$9,000
14%

$8,000
12%
$7,000
% Annual GDP Growth

10%

GDP per capita, US$

$6,000

8% $5,000

$4,000
6%

$3,000
4%
$2,000

2%
$1,000

0% $0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

GDP per capita (Foreign Exchange US$) GDP growth (annual %)

FIGURE 1.1 China’s Economic Growth 1980–​2017

Note: GDP per capita is given in its foreign exchange value since purchasing power parity data were not available before
1993. In PPP, China’s GDP per capita in 2017 was about $16,800.
Source: World Bank Development Indicators

the brink of (and in some places actually into) civil war and anarchy, a reign of terror
that tore at the very fabric of Chinese society, and a vicious and destructive assault
against traditional culture, followed by destabilizing power struggles among the top
leadership.
The famine and political chaos occurred during the period when Mao Zedong was
chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the undisputed and largely
indisputable leader of the People’s Republic from its founding in 1949 to his death in
1976. The Maoist era was not without its accomplishments (which are discussed in
this book), but overwhelming scholarly opinion is that it was, as a whole, a disaster
for China, economically, politically, culturally, environmentally, and in other ways.
The emergence of China as a global power that we are witnessing today did not begin
until the early 1980s, with the onset of the post-​Mao economic reform era under
the leadership of Deng Xiaoping who, along with Mao Zedong, ranks as the most in-
fluential Chinese political leader of modern times. Deng and the other leaders who
have followed Mao in power have taken the country in a very un-​Maoist direction,
with spectacular economic results and many other profound changes. The political
story of China’s incredible journey from Mao to now is one of the central themes of
this book.
But one thing about China has not changed since the founding of the People’s
Republic on October 1,1949: the CCP has never been seriously challenged as China’s
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 In 1809 an obverse head of Liberty; forehead encircled by a band,
“liberty” inscribed upon it, surrounded by thirteen stars. Exergue:
“1809.”
Reverse: Wreath in a circular garland inclosing the words “one
cent.” No change took place during the issues of 1808 to 1814,
inclusive.

Half-Cent of 1793.
The first half-cent was issued in 1793, having on obverse: Bust of
Liberty, facing to the left; staff surmounted by liberty-cap over right
shoulder. Legend: “liberty.” Exergue: “1793.”
Reverse; Inscription, “half cent,” surrounded by a wreath, tied
with a ribbon. Weight, 132 grains.

Wreath Cent.
Obverse: Bust of Liberty, hair flowing. Legend: “liberty.” Exergue:
“1793.”
Reverse: A wreath with berries, the stems of wreath tied in a bow
with a ribbon. Inscription: “one cent.” Legend: “united states of
america.” Exergue: “⅟₁₀₀.”
Third. Known as the “Liberty Cap Cent.”

Liberty and Security Washington Coin.

Obverse: A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing right, hair in a
queue. Legend: “george washington.”
Reverse: A shield with sixteen argent and gules impaling argent,
fifteen mullets; above the shield an eagle, left talon, an olive branch,
right talon, six arrows. Legend: “liberty and security.” Exergue:
“17 95,” divided by the point of the shield. Border: A plain circle, and
outside of the same, milled edge, lettered “an asylum for all
nations.” Size, 20½; weight, 310 grains. This piece is extremely
rare.

Virginia Half-Penny.
The well-known Virginia half-pennies seem to have been very
plentiful. A number of different dies were used. A laureated bust of
George the Third is surrounded, as on the English half-penny, with
his title, “georgivs III. rex.” The reverse has an ornamental and
crowned shield, emblazoned quarterly: 1, England empaling
Scotland; 2, France; 3, Ireland; 4, the electoral dominions. Legend:
“virginia.”

PLATE XI.
 Cent. 1809. Half Cent. 1793. Chain Cent. 1793.
Pattern “Two Cent” Piece. Cent. 1799. Small Pattern Cent. 1792.
See description.

PLATE XII.
Double Head Washington. Liberty and Security Washington Medal. 1795.
Granby or Higley Copper Token.
N. Y. Colonial Cent. 1787. Carolina Elephant Token. 1694. Virginia Half
Cent.
See description.

PLATE XIII.
 Medal of 1776, Commemorative of the Nation’s Independence.
“Kittanning Medal,” one of the earliest Medals executed in America.

PLATE XIV.
1795 Silver Dollar. Obverse and Reverse.
1798 Silver Dollar. Obverse and Reverse.

PLATE XV.
Rosa Americana. Massachusetts Half Cent. Rhode Island Medal.
Pitt Medal. Immunis Columbia. New York Token.
See description.

PLATE XVI.
 Pattern Half Dollar. 1859. Pattern Cent. 1854. Liberty Cent. 1793.
Liberty Half Cent. 1795. Pattern Cent, Copper and Silver. 1850. Pattern
Cent. 1855.

PLATE XVII.
Rare Colonial Cent, of New Jersey.[18] Washington Half Dollar. 1792.
Washington Cent. 1783.
Washington Cent. 1783. Washington Cent. Very Rare. 1792. Washington
Cent. 1791.

PLATE XVIII.
 Tribute Money. Constantine the Great.
Counterfeit Shekel, of European Manufacture. Jewish. Lepton, B. C.
Jewish. Lepton, A. D.
Syrian. Grecian. Maximus Phillipus.

PLATE XIX.
Double Eagle, 1849. “Unique,” beyond price. Gold Dollar, 1849. Double
Eagle. 1885.
Half Eagle, 1849. Ten Dollar Eagle, 1795. Half Eagle, 1885.
Eagle, 1849. Half Eagle, 1795. Eagle, 1885.
Three Dollars. Gold Piece, 1885. Quarter Eagle, 1847. Quarter Eagle,
1885. Gold Dollar, 1885.
PLATE XX.
 Rhodes. Antiochus VII. Sybaris.
Greek Coin. Alexander the Great. 300 B.C. Athens. Heroclea.

PLATE XXI.
 1804 Dollar, “The King among Rarities.” Pattern Dollar, None issued.
Pattern Dollar of 1871, Rejected. Pattern Piece known as the Barber
Dollar, Rejected.

PLATE XXII.
 Silver Dollar, 1849. Standard Dollar, 1885.
Half Dollar, 1849. Dime, 1849. Half Dollar, 1885.
Half Dollar, 1794. Quarter Dollar, 1885. Quarter Dollar, 1849.
Half Dime, 1849. Dime, 1885. Half Dime, 1794. Dime, 1796.

PLATE XXIII.
 Liberty Cap Cent, 1793. Chain Cent, 1793. First issue. Chain Cent, 1793.
Second issue.
Pattern Twenty Cent Piece, Rejected. Half Cent, 1793. Cent, 1849.
Cent, 1885. Three Cent Nickel, 1885. Half Cent, 1849. Three Cent Piece,
1885.

PLATE XXIV.
 Antiochus VII. Addera. Prusias.
Antiochus VIII. Epiphanes. Panormus. Alexander the Great.
Grecian Coins about 300 years b.c.
 Coins issued at the United States
Mint at Philadelphia, from its
establishment in 1792 to 1888.
Gold.
Double Eagle.

Authorized to be coined, Act of March 3, 1849. Weight, 516 grains;

fineness, 900; size, 21.
1850 to 1865, inclusive. No. 1. Obverse: Liberty head, facing left,
hair tied behind, a coronet on the forehead inscribed “liberty,”
thirteen stars and date.
Reverse: An eagle with shield upon its breast, and an olive branch
and three arrows in its talons; in its beak, an elaborate scroll,
inscribed “e pluribus unum.” Above, a circle of thirteen stars and a
curved line of rays extending from wing to wing. “united states of
america.” “twenty d.”
1866 to 1876, inclusive. No. 2, same, with the motto “in god we
trust” inscribed within the circle of stars on the reverse.
1877. No. 3. Same, with “twenty dollars” for “twenty d.”

Eagle.

Authorized to be coined, Act of April 2, 1792. Weight, 270 grains;

fineness, 916⅔. Weight changed, Act of June 28, 1834, to 258
grains. Fineness changed, Act of June 28, 1834, to 899.225.
Fineness changed, Act of January 18, 1837, to 900.
 1795. Obverse: Liberty head, wearing a cap, facing right. Fifteen
stars. Above, “liberty;” beneath, “1795;” size, 21.
Reverse: An eagle with displayed wings, standing on a palm
branch; in beak, a laurel wreath. “united states of america.”
1796. Same, with sixteen stars.
1797. No. 1. Same, with sixteen stars.
1797. No. 2. Obverse: Same, with sixteen stars.
Reverse: An eagle with the United States shield upon its breast, a
bundle of arrows in the right talon, and an olive branch in the left; in
its beak, a scroll inscribed “e pluribus unum.” Around the head are
sixteen stars; above, is a curved line of clouds extending from wing
to wing. “united states of america.”
1798 to 1801, inclusive. Same, with thirteen stars on the obverse.
Of 1798, two varieties with four stars facing.
1802. None issued.
1803 and 1804. Same as No. 2 of 1797. Thirteen stars.
1805 to 1837, inclusive. None issued.
1838 to 1865, inclusive. Obverse: Liberty head facing left, hair tied
behind, a coronet on the forehead inscribed “liberty,” thirteen stars,
and date.
Reverse: An eagle with the United States shield upon its breast,
and an olive branch and three arrows in the talons. “united states
of america.” Size, 17.
1866. Same, with a scroll above the eagle inscribed “in god we
trust.”

Half Eagle.

Authorized to be coined, Act of April 2, 1792. Weight, 135 grains;

fineness, 916⅔. Weight changed, Act of June 28, 1834, to 129
grains. Fineness changed, Act of June 28, 1834, to 899.225.
Fineness changed, Act of January 18, 1837, to 900.
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