CHAPTER 9: Light-Reflection and Refraction

Key Points and Concepts

> Reflection of light: When light ray falls on a highly polished surface, it bounces back in certain direction. This
phenomenon is called reflection.
Laws of reflection of light:
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Angle of incident is always equal to angle of reflection ie. angle i= angle r.
> Real image: Image which can be obtained on screen. Real image is formed when light rays falling on the surface
actually meet at a point after reflection. Real image is inverted.
Virtual image:Image which cannot be obtained on screen. Virtual image is erect. It is formed when light rays after
reflection appears to pass through the point.
Image formed by plane mirror:
Virtual, and erect. The image do not form on screen.
The image is laterally inverted.
Size of image is equal to that of object.
Image formed is far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
 are
> Spherical mirror: Mirror who's reflecting surfaces are curved inward or outward spherically called spherical
mirro.
Spherical mirror are of two types: concave (converging mirror) and convex (diverging mirror).
> Relation between radius of curvature (R) and focal length ) isf = N
Uses of concave mirror:
Used in torch, search light, and in vehicle head lights to get powerful parallel beams of light.
Used as shaving mirror to see a larger image of the face.
Used by dentists to examine the larger images of the teeth of the patient.
Used in solar furnaces to concentrate sunlight to produce heat.
Uses of convex mirror:
Convex mirror is used as rear view mirror in vehicles, because, they always give an erect image. It also
the driver to viewmuch larger area. enables
Magnification: It is expressed as ratio of the height of the image to height of the object.
>Refraction of light: When light travel obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation inthe
second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light. Refraction is due to the change in
speed of light when it travel from one transparent medium to another.
Speed of light decreases as the beam of light travel from rarer medium to the denser medium.
> Laws of refraction of light:
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of media, This
law is also known as Snell's law of refraction.
sini
= constant
sin r

The constant value is the refractive index for a given pair of medium. It is the refractive index of the second
mediumn with respect to first medium.
> Refractive inde: The refractive index of glass with respect to air is given by ratio of speed of light in air to the sped
of light in glass.
> Spherical lens is a transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical.
Convex lens is a lens bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved outwards. It is thicker at the middle. These are
converging lens as it converges the light.
Concave lens is a lens in which both the spherical surfaces are curved inward. These are diverging lens as it
diverges the light.
> Power of Lens: It is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length.
>SI unit of power of a lens is "dioptre", denoted by 'D',
Impôrtant Formulae and ray diagrams:
MirrorFormula: L1.1E n O e - 2 r i eAIHAHD
Lens Formula:

Linear Magnification: m = h
(in lens)

m=
h
(in mirror)

h= Height of object
K= Height of image
v= Image distance
u=Object distance
 Convention in Mirrorn
> Sign
Direction of
incident
(tve)
ray Directlon of
incident ray
(tve)
Downward

Negative Positive Negative Positive

distance distance distance distance
Concave mirror Canvex mirror

> Sign Convention in Lens:

Positive Positive
fNegative +Positive Negative) -Positive

Negative Negitive,
Convex Lens Concave Lens

> Image formation by convex mirror:

Position of Characteristics Details of
S.No. Ray-diagram
object image
1 At infinity M Virtual, erect, very small
(m <<+ ), at E

B
At
infinity
2 In front of Virtual, erect, diminished
M
mirror (m<+1), betweenP
and E
R P B

> Image formation by concave mirror:

Position of
S.No. Ray-diagram Details of image
object
1, At infinity M Real, inverted, diminished
D (m <<-1), at E

At
infinity B
 2. Beyond C
Real, inverted,small
M
(m <-1),
C. betweenF and
B

3. At C M Real, inverted, equal

(m=-1), at C.
D

P
B'|C

A
N

4. Between F and M Real, inverted, enlarged

(m >-1), between Cand

D
B
P
B

5. At F M Real, inverted, very large

E
(m >>-1), at infinity.
4
D
B
P

At
infinity

6. Between Fand M Virtual, erect, enlarged (m

P E >+ 1), behind the mirro.

F B
 Refraction through glass slab:
Normal

Air (n)
Glass (n)
Lateral
displacement
or lateral shift

Air

Nomal
e= angle of emergence

> Image formation by convex lens:

Position of
S.No. Ray-diagram Characteristics of image
object
1 At infinity Real, inverted, diminished
M
(m <<-1), at F2

CI
21 2F2

2. Beyond 2 F M
Real, inverted, small
(m<-1), between Fand 2 F1
B1 B2
2F1 F1 2F2

3. At 2 F1 M
Real, inverted, equal
(m =-1), at 2 Fz

B F2 2F2
2F2 F1 C2 B'
C1

N
 4. Real, inverted, large
Between 2 E M (m>1), between 21 and
and E
21 B

22

At E Real, inverted, enlarged,

(m >>-1) at infinity,

B 212
2F2 C2
C1

Between F, Virtual, erect,magnified

and O
M
(m >+ 1), between and object
on the same side as that of object.

2F2
B' 2F2 F B
C1

Image formation by concave lens:

Position of
S.No. Ray-diagram Details of image
object
1. At infinity M
Virtual, erect, diminished
(m <<+1), at Fy.

2 Between Virtual, erect, diminished

infinity and (m<+ 1), between E
optical centre O and optical centre.
of the lens
2F B F B
 CHAPTER 10: Human Eye and Colourful World
KeyPoints and Concepts
The ability or the property of the eye lens to adjust its focal leneth in order to be able to focus both near and distant
objectsis known as the power of accommodation.
he minimum distance at which objects can be seen most distinctlv without strain is called the least distance of
distinct vision.
Retina contains light sensitive cells known as rod and cones. These cells get activated upon illumination and
generate electrical signals or pulses. The electrical signals are sent to the brain through optic nerves.In the brain,
the signals are processed, interpreted and the objects in frontof the eye are
perceived.
Rods aresensitive to the brightness of light and cones tells us the colour of the object.
Defects of vision and their corrections:
(a) Myopia (Near sightedness):
Reason of the defect:
"Excessive curvature of eye lens i.e,, eye lens becomes thick and its focal length decreases.
"Elongation of the eye ball.
Correction: This defect is corrected by using concave lens of suitable power.
) Hypermetropia (Far sightedness):
Reason of the defect:
"Increase in focal length of the eye lens.
"Eye ball has become too small.
Correction: Corrected by using convex lens of suitable power.
() Presbyopia:
Reason of defect: Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles, thereby decreasing the flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction: Using Bifocal lens with appropriate power.
(d) Cataract: The image cannot be seen distinctly because eye lens become milky and cloudy. This condition is
known as cataract, it can cause complete or partial loss of vision. This can be corrected by surgical removal of
extra growth (cataract surgery).
> Refraction of light through glass prism:
Aglass prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces which are inclined to each other.
The angle between two lateral surfaces of a prism is called angle of the prism.
Angle of deviation: It is the angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.
The process of splitting up of white light into its constituent colour as it passes through a refracting
medium is known as dispersion of light.
The phenomenon of scattering of white light by colloidal particles is known as Tyndall effect.
The sky appears blue due to atmospheric refraction and scattering of light.
Rainbow is formed due to dispersion, refraction and total internal reflection of light.
In the morning, the sunlight covers a larger distance from thick layers of atmosphere, so except the red colour light,
most of the other colours
are scattered into the atmosphere. Asonly red colour light reaches our eye, the morning
Sun appears to be red.
Important Graphs and Diagrams:
The Human Eye:
Ciliary muscles
Vitreous humour
Crystalline lengy Sclera

Aqueoug
hümour
Retina
MLens
Pupil
Iris Blind spoL Optic
nerves
Cornea
Choroid
 Myopia and its correction:
(a) Far point of a myopic eye:

(b) Myopic Eye:

(c)Correction for myopia: Rays are first

diverged by
concave lens
Parallel rays from Retina
distant object L
(at infinity)
F
Image is formed
Virtual image in front of
formed at F the retina
Concave lens to
correct myopia

Hypermetropia and its correction:

(a) Near point of a hypermetropic eye:

(b) Hypermetropic eye:

(c) Correction for hypermetropic eye:

R Corrected

Hypermetropic Eye
(sharp image of
object at N)

Refraction through a glass prism:

.H
N M

N M'

B
 Recombination of the spectrum of white
light:
Screen
P

White
light
White light

P1
Rainbow Formation:
Refraction
Whitethelight
from sun B
Dispersion
Total internal
Rain +reflection
drop
Red
D
Violet Refraction

Rainbow

CHAPTER 11: Electricity

Key Points and
Concepts
> Coulomb's Law: The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is (i) directly proportional to the
product of the two charges 41 and q2 (ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distance () between them.
Mathematically,
F= Kq,92
2
The value of K depends on the nature of the medium between the two charges and the system of units chosen. For
charges invacuum, K =9 x 10 Nm/c2,
> Electriccurrent = Charge
Time
orI= t

> Potential difference =

Work done or V W
Charge Q

1 volt= 1 Joule or 1 V =
1Coulomb
º Ohm's law: This law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions like temperature, density etc., remain unchanged.
Ioc V or I = xV or V = IR
R
Ris called resistance of the conductor.
º Resistance = Potential difference or R=
Current

> 1Ohm = 1Volt 1V

Or 12=
1A
1 Ampere
Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends: The resistance Rof a conductor depends on its length L, area
of cross-section Aand the nature of its material. It is given by:
 L
R=PA
The proportionality constant pis called resistivity of the conductor
> Joule's law of Heating: It states that the heat produced in a conductor is directly proportional to (i)
the squar
itecan
the current Ithrough it, (ii) its resistance Rand (iii) the time t, for which current is passed.
be expressed as
PR:
Mathematical y, of

H= R: Joule = 4.18 cal

VIt
or
H= VIt Joule = 4.18 cal
W
P= = VI= PR =
R

> Electric Power Efficiency, n= Output power

Input power
>Quantities and Units:
Quantities S. I. Units

Charge Coulomb
Electric Current Ampere
Potential Difference Volt

Resistance Ohm

Resistivity Ohm metre

Heat Joule
Electric Power Watt
> Important Equations:
Resistance in Series, R = R + R, + R, t
Resistance in parallel, 1 1 1 1 .+....
Rp R, R, R
Important Graphs and Diagrams:
Schematic Diagram of an electric circuit

>Components of an electric circuit:

S. No. Components Symbols
1. An electric cell

A battery or a combination of cells

2

Plug key or switch (open)

HH
3
 Plug key or switch (closed)
5
A wire joint

6 Wires crossing without joining

Electric bulb
7. or

A resistor of resistance

9 Variable resistance or rheostat or

10. Ammeter

11. Voltmeter

CHAPTER 12 : Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Key Points and Concepts
> Magnetic field is the region surrounding the magnet in which the force of the magnet can be detected.
> Magnetic field has both direction as well as magnitude.
> The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north pole of the compass needle moves
inside it.

> Magnetic field line is a path along which a hypothetical free north pole tend to move towards South Pole.
> When iron fillings are brought near the bar magnet, it gets influenced by the magnetic field of the bar magnet and
arrange themselves in a pattern of curved lines called magne tic field lines.
> Properties of magnetic field lines:
Magnetic field lines are closed curves.
They emerges from North and merge into South Pole.
Inside the magnet, the direction of the field lines are from South to North Pole.
Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
>Electromagnet: Astrong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetize a piece of magnetic
material like soft iron. The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet. It is a temporary magnet.
Right Hand Thumb Rule: Hold the wire carrying current in your right hand, such that the thumb indicates the
direction of current, then the folded fingers will indicate the presence of magnetic field (lines) surrounding the
wire.

Magnetic
Field

Current
 > Flemíng's Left Hand Rule:
Magnetic Field

Thumb-Force Current

> Galvanometer: It is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit. If poínter is atzero (the
centre of scale), then there willbe no flow of current. If the pointer deflect on either side right or left, this willshow
the direction of current.
There are two types of current: Alternating current (AC) and Direct current (DC),
> The difference between the direct and alternating current is that the direct current always flows in one direction,
whereas the alternating current reverses its direction periodically.
> In India, the AC changes direction after every 1/100 second, that is, the frequency of AC is 50 Hz.
> Advantages of Alternate Current (AC) over Direct Current (DC): Electric power can be transmitted to longer
distances without much loss of energy. Therefore, cost of transmíssion is low.
> Domestic Electric Circuits: In our homes, the electric power supplied is of potential difference
V= 220 Vand frequency 50 Hz.
> Earth wire: It provide a low resistance to the current hence any leakage of current to the metallicbody ofthe
appliances, keep its potential equal to that of earth that means zero potential. Thus, the user issaved from severe
electric shock.
> Fuse: It is a safety device that can prevent the circuit from overloading and short circuiting
> Important Graphs and Diagrams:
Magnetic Lines around a bar magnet:

Uniform Magnetic Field:

Magnetic Lines due to acurrent carrying loop:

Magnetic Lines around two magnets:

S N N

Magnetic field in a solenoid:

Magnetic lines produced around a current carrying conductor:

Variable
resistance

Magnetic compass
K

Common Domestic Circuit:

Earth wire

Live wire
220 V8
Neutral wire
Electricity
board's fuse
Electricity
meter Distribution
Box containing
main switch and Yuses
for each circuit