CHAPTER 1 FOURIER SERIES

1 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

A function f ( t ) is said to be periodic if there is a positive number ω such that

f ( t )=f (t +ω), i.e. if its values are repeated at regular intervals of the independent variable.
This regular interval is given by ω and is called a period of f ( t ) . The graph of such a
function is obtained by periodic repetition of its graph in an interval of length ω .
Familiar periodic functions are sine and cosine functions. For the graphs of y=asin nt and
2 π 360 °
y=acos nt the period is ¿ = .
n n
The following is a graph of a periodic function, ω=6 and therefore f ( t )=f ( t+6 ).

2 FOURIER SERIES

A Fourier series arises from representing a given periodic function f (t) or f (x) in terms of
sine and cosine functions (or terms). We assume that f (t) is a periodic function with period
2 L that can be represented by a trigonometric series as follows:

( ) ( )
a ∞ nπ
∞
nπ
f ( t )= 0 + ∑ an cos t + ∑ b n sin t
2 n=1 L n=1 L
This is called a Fourier series and a 0 , a n and b n are called Fourier coefficients. The
expressions for the Fourier coefficients are found by integration and they are given by:
❑
1
a 0= ∫ f ( t ) dt
L 2L
❑
1
a n= ∫ f ( t ) cos
L 2L
❑
( )
nπ
L
tdt

1
b n= ∫ f ( t ) sin
L 2L ( )
nπ
L
tdt

Note that if f (t) is a periodic function, then

❑ 2L L

∫ f ( t ) dt=∫ f ( t ) dt=∫ f ( t ) dt
2L 0 −L

3 SOME USEFUL TRIGONOMETRIC RESULTS

When calculating the Fourier coefficients for n=1 ,2 , 3 , … … the following trigonometric
results are useful and each result can be deduced from the graphs of sin t and cos t .

1
 1. sin nπ =0
n
2. cosnπ =(−1 ) = {
−1 ,if n isodd
1 ,if n even

{
0 ,if n is even
3. sin n ()
π
2
= 1 , n=1 , 5 , 9 , … .
−1 , n=3 ,7 ,11, … .

{
0 ,if nis odd
4. cos n ()
π
2
= 1 , n=0 , 4 , 8 , ….
−1 , n=2 ,6 ,10 , … .

4 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

A function f (t) is said to be even if f (−t )=f (t ).

EXAMPLES:
1. f ( t )=t 2

2
 2. f ( t )=cos t

Note that the graph of an even function is symmetrical about the vertical axis ( y−axis ¿.

A function f ( t ) is said to be odd if f (−t )=−f (t ).

EXAMPLES:
1. f ( t )=t 3

2. f ( t )=¿ sint

Note that the graph of an odd function is symmetrical about the origin. The line joining two
points that are on the graph and equidistant from, and on either side of the origin, passes
through the origin.
Also note that there are functions that are neither even nor odd. These are not
symmetrical about the y-axis and also not symmetrical about the origin.

3
EXERCISE
State whether the following functions are even, odd or neither. Hint: Check using symmetry.
1)

2)

3)

4)

4
 5)

ANSWERS
1. Odd. 2. Odd. 3. Even. 4. Neither. 5. Even.

5 PRODUCTS OF ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS

1. EVEN times EVEN is EVEN

2. ODD times ODD is EVEN
3. EVEN times ODD is ODD
4. ODD times EVEN is ODD

Exercise: Prove the above statements.

6 SOME INTEGRALS OF EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Consider the following graph of an even function g(t ).

a 0 a

∫ g ( t ) dt =∫ g ( t ) dt +∫ g ( t ) dt
−a −a 0
But, from the graph
0 a

∫ g ( t ) dt=∫ g ( t ) dt
−a 0
a a a a
∴ ∫ g ( t ) dt=∫ g ( t ) dt +¿ ∫ g ( t ) dt=2∫ g ( t ) dt ≠ 0¿
−a 0 0 0

Conclusion: If g(t ) is an even function then ∫ g ( t ) dt ≠ 0

−a

5
Consider the following graph of an odd function g(t ).

a 0 a

∫ g ( t ) dt =∫ g ( t ) dt +∫ g ( t ) dt
−a −a 0
But from the graph
0 a

∫ g ( t ) dt =−∫ g ( t ) dt
−a 0
a a a
∴ ∫ g ( t ) dt=−∫ g ( t ) dt+∫ g ( t ) dt=0
−a 0 0

Conclusion: If g(t ) is an odd function then∫ g ( t ) dt =0

−a

From the examples on page 2, we note that sin t is an odd function and cos t is an even
function.

7 FOURIER COSINE SERIES

a0
A Fourier cosine series is a Fourier series containing the term and cosine terms only (no
2
sine terms). Let f ( t ) be a periodic even function with period 2 L.
L L
1 1
a 0= ∫ f ( t ) dt= ∙2∫ f ( t ) dt ≠ 0(since f ( t ) is even)
L −L L 0
L
1
a n= ∫ f (t)cos
L −L
nπ
L
t dt ( )
Let g ( t )=f ( t ) cos ( nπL )t . This means g ( t ) is even since it is a product of two even functions.
L
1
Hence a n= ∫ g ( t ) dt ≠ 0 (using the conclusion at the top of this page).
L −L

L
b n=
1
∫
L −L
f ( t ) sin
nπ
L ( )
t dt

6
Let g ( t )=f ( t ) sin ( nπL ) t . This means g(t ) is odd since it is a product of an even function and
an odd function. Hence
L
1
b n= ∫ g ( t ) dt
L −L
But
L

∫ g ( t ) dt=0 (since g ( t ) is odd )

−L
1
∴ bn = ∙ 0=0 (using the conclusion in the middle of page 6)
L

Conclusion: If f ( t ) is even then a 0 ≠ 0;a n ≠ 0 and b n=0. We therefore have

( )
a0 ∞ nπ
f ( t )= + ∑ an cos t
2 n=1 L
This is a Fourier cosine series.

8 FOURIER SINE SERIES

A Fourier sine series is a Fourier series containing sine terms only. Let f (t) be a periodic
odd function with period 2 L.
L
1
a 0= ∫ f ( t ) dt
L −L
But
L

∫ f ( t ) dt=0(since f ( t ) is odd )
−L
1
∴ a0 = ∙ 0=0
L
L
1
a n= ∫ f ( t ) cos
L −L ( )
nπ
L
t dt

Let g ( t )=f ( t ) cos ( nπL )t . This means g(t ) is odd since it is a product of an odd function and
an even function. Hence
L
1
a n= ∫ g ( t ) dt= 1L ∙ 0=0
L −L
L
1
b n= ∫ f ( t ) sin
L −L ( )
nπ
L
t dt

Let g ( t )=f ( t ) sin ( nπL ) t . This means g(t ) is even since it is a product of two odd functions.
L
1
∫ g ( t ) dt ≠ 0
∴ bn =
L −L
Conclusion: If f (t) is odd then a 0=0; a n=0 and b n ≠ 0. We therefore have

( )
∞
nπ
f ( t )=∑ bn sin t
n=1 L
This is a Fourier sine series.
7
Note that if a given function f (t) is neither even nor odd then each of the Fourier
coefficients may or may not be zero. We have to calculate each one.

9 APPLICABLE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND REDUCTION

FORMULAS

1. 2 sin α cos β =sin ( α + β ) +sin (α −β)

2. 2 cos α sin β =¿ sin ( α + β )−sin(α −β )¿
3. 2 cos α cos β=cos ( α + β ) +cos (α −β)
4. 2 sin α sin β=cos ( α −β )−cos (α + β)
5. sin (−α )=−sin α
6. cos (−α ) =cos α

7. sin( π2 −θ )=cos θ
8. cos ( −θ ) =sin θ
π
2

9. sin ( +θ )=cos θ
π
2

10. cos ( +θ )=¿−sin θ ¿

π
2
11. sin ( π−θ )=sin θ
12. cos ( π −θ )=−cos θ
13. sin ( π +θ ) =−sin θ
14. cos ( π +θ )=−cos θ

10 EXERCISES

Determine the Fourier series for the following functions:

1) f ( t )=t ,−π <t < π and f ( t +2 π )=f ( t ).
2sin 3 t sin 4 t
Ans :f ( t )=2 sin t−sin 2t + − +…
3 2

2) f ( t )= { −t ,−4 <t <0

t , 0<t < 4
and f ( t +8 ) =f ( t ).
16 πt 16 3 πt 16 5 πt
Ans :f ( t )=2− 2 cos − 2 cos − cos −…
π 4 9π 4 25 π
2
4

{
π
, 0< x< π
f ( x ) = 4
3) and f ( x )=f ( x+ 2 π ) .
−π
, π < x< 2 π
4
sin3 x sin 5 x
Ans :f ( x )=sin x + + +…
3 5

8
 4) f ( x )= {
1 ,−1< x <0
x , 0< x <1
and f ( x +2 )=f ( x ).
3 2 cos πx 2 cos 3 πx 2 cos 5 πx sin πx sin 2 πx
Ans :f ( x )= − − − −…− − −…
4 π
2
9π
2
25 π
2
π 2π

5) f ( t )= {
V ,0< t< π
0 , π <t< 2 π
and f ( t )=f ( t+2 π ).
V 2Vsin t 2Vsin 3 t 2 Vsin 5 t
Ans :f ( t )= + + + +…
2 π 3π 5π

6) f ( t )= {
2 ( 1+ t ) ,−1< t<0
0 , 0<t <1
and f ( t +2 )=f ( t ) .

1 4 cos πt 4 cos 3 πt 2 sin πt sin 2 πt 2 sin 3 πt

Ans :f ( t )= + + +…− − − −…
2 π
2
9π
2
π π 3π
7) f ( x )=x 2 , 0< x <2 π and f ( x +2 π )=f ( x ) .
2
4π 4 cos 3 x
Ans :f ( x )= +4 cos x+ cos 2 x + +…−4 π sin x−2 π sin2 x−…
3 9
8) f ( x )= {
sinx , 0< x < π
0 , π < x< 2 π
and f ( x )=f ( x+ 2 π ) .
1 2 cos 2 x 2 cos 4 x 2 cos 6 x
Ans :f ( x )= − − − −…
π 3π 15 π 35 π

{
π
t , 0<t<
2
9) f ( t )= and f ( t + π )=f ( t ) .
π
π−t , < t< π
2
π 2 cos 2 t 2 cos 6 t 2 cos 10 t
Ans :f ( t )= − − − −…
4 π 9π 25 π

{
π
0 ,−π < t←
2
π π
10) f ( t )= 4 ,− <t < and f ( t +2 π )=f ( t ) .
2 2
π
0 , <t< π
2

8 cos t 8 cos 3 t 8 cos 5 t

Ans :f ( t )=2+ − + −…
π 3π 5π

11 HALF-RANGE FOURIER SERIES

Sometimes a function of period 2 L is defined over the interval 0 to L instead of the normal
– L to L or 0 to 2 L. In this case the Fourier series is called a half-range Fourier series. Also,
some additional information must be given as to whether the function is even or odd.
The expressions for the Fourier coefficients are:

9
 L
2
a 0= ∫ f ( t ) dt
L0
L
a n=
2
L 0 ( )
∫ f ( t ) cos nπ
L
t dt
L
b = ∫ f ( t ) sin ( ) t dt
2 nπ
n
L 0 L
Note: To find a Fourier cosine series, assume that the given function is even and to find a
Fourier sine series, assume that the given function is odd.

EXERCISE

1) Determine the Fourier cosine series for the following function:

f ( t )=t , 0<t< π and f ( t +2 π )=f ( t ).
π 4 cos t 4 cos 3 t 4 cos 5 t
Answer : f ( t )= − − − −…
2 π 9π 25 π
2) Determine the Fourier series for the following function where f ( x ) is an even
function:
f ( x )=sin x , 0< x < π and f ( x +2 π )=f ( x ) .
2 4 cos 2 x 4 cos 4 x 4 cos 6 x
Answer : f ( x ) = − − − −…
π 3π 15 π 35 π
3) Determine the Fourier series for the following function where f ( t ) is an odd function:
π
f ( t )= −t , 0<t < π and f ( t )=f ( t+2 π ).
2
sin 4 t sin 6 t
Answer : f ( t )=sin 2t + + +…
2 3
4) Determine the Fourier sine series for the following function:
π
f ( x )=sin x , 0< x < and f ( x + π )=f ( x ).
2
8 sin 2 x 16 sin 4 x 24 sin 6 x
Answer : f ( x ) = − + −…
3π 15 π 35 π
5) Determine the Fourier cosine series for the following function:
π
f ( t )=cos t , 0<t < and f ( t )=f ( t+ π ) .
2
2 4 cos 2 t 4 cos 4 t 4 cos 6 t
Answer : f ( t )= + − + −…
π 3π 15 π 35 π
6) Determine the Fourier series for the following function where f ( x ) is an even
function:
f ( x )=x ( π−x ) , 0< x< π and f ( x )=f ( x+ 2 π ) .
2
π cos 4 x cos 6 x
Answer : f ( x ) = −cos 2 x− − −…
6 4 9

12 HARMONIC ANALYSIS

The area under the curve of f from x=a to x=b is given by:
b
A=∫ f ( x ) dx
a
Trapezoidal rule:

10
 b n−1

∫ f ( x ) dx=s ∑ f ( x k )
a k =0

b−a
where s= and n is the number of equal-width strips into which the area has been
n
divided. Suppose f is a periodic function with period 2 π . Considering one cycle, then we
π π
have a=0, b=2 π . If we let n=12 then s= =30 ° . If n=6, then s= =60 ° .
6 3
b 11
π
If n=12, then ∫ f ( x ) dx= ∑ f ( xk )
6 k=0
a
b
π
∴∫ f ( x ) dx= [ f ( x 0 ) + f ( x1 ) + f ( x 2 )+ f ( x 3 ) +… … …+ f ( x 10 ) +f ( x 11 ) ]
a 6

13 FOURIER SERIES

Consider a periodic function f with period 2 π .

∞ ∞
f ( x )=a0 + ∑ a n cos nx +∑ bn sin nx
n=1 n=1
¿ a 0+ a1 cos x+ a2 cos 2 x+ …+b1 sin x+ b2 sin 2 x +…
To find the expression for the Fourier series we have to find a 0 ; a1 ; a 2 ; a 3 ; … … and
b 1 ; b 2 ; b3 ; … … …

14 FOURIER COEFFICIENTS

2π
1
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx
π 0
11
1
a 0= ∙ s ∑ f ( x k )
π k=0
11
1
a 0= ∑ f ( x k )
6 k=0
❑
1
a 0= ∑ f ( x )
6 ❑

11
1
a n= ∑ f ( x k ) cos n x k
6 k=0
11 11 11
1 1 1
∴ a1= ∑ f ( x k ) cos x k ; a 2= ∑ f ( x k ) cos 2 x k ; a 3= ∑ f ( x k ) cos 3 x k; etc
6 k=0 6 k=0 6 k=0

11
 ❑
1
a 1= ∑ f ( x ) cos x
6 ❑
❑
1
a 2= ∑ f ( x ) cos 2 x
6 ❑
❑
1
a 3= ∑ f ( x ) cos 3 x
6 ❑

Similarly,
11
1
b n= ∑ f ( x k ) sin n x k
6 k=0
11 11 11
1 1 1
∴ b1= ∑ f ( x k ) sin x k ; b 2= ∑ f ( x k ) sin 2 x k ; b 3= ∑ f ( x k ) sin3 x k ; etc
6 k=0 6 k=0 6 k=0
❑
1
b 1= ∑ f ( x ) sin x
6 ❑
❑
1
b 2= ∑ f ( x ) sin 2 x
6 ❑
❑
1
b 3= ∑ f ( x ) sin 3 x
6 ❑

15 EXERCISES

Determine the first two harmonics of the Fourier series for the values given in the following
tables:
1)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
18 276 364 436 488 522 556 558 550 516 440 318
0
Ans: f ( x )=434−152 cos x−50 cos 2 x−…−40 sin x−2 , 9 sin 2 x …

2)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
1,57 0,52 1,05 1,57 2,09 2,62 3,14 3,14 3,14 3,14 3,14 3,14
Ans: f ( x )=2, 36−0 , 65 cos x++ 0 , 19cos 2 x−¿ …−0 , 98 sin x−0 , 45 sin2 x−… ¿

3)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
3,14 0,52 1,05 1,57 2,09 2,62 3,14 3,67 4,19 4,71 5,24 5,76
Ans: f ( x )=3 ,14−0 , 44 cos x +0 , 26 cos 2 x−…−2 ,0 sin x−1 , 0 sin 2 x−…

12
4)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
0 2,3 5,5 8,9 10,8 11,4 9,9 4,8 0 0 0 0
Ans: f ( x ) =4 , 5−4 , 1 cos x +0 , 3 cos 2 x −…+ 4 , 6 sin x−1 , 4 sin 2 x + …

5)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
13 164 265 325 156 -54 -137 -164 -265 -325 -156 54
7
Ans: f ( x )=127 cos x+ …+248 sin x+ …

6)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
36,61 36,50 36,40 36,54 36.69 36,76 36,94 37,13 37,35 37,25 36,98 36,86
Ans: f ( x )=36 ,86−0 , 18 cos x−0 ,06 cos 2 x−…−0 ,35 sin x +0 , 02sin 2 x−…

7)
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
29 356 373 337 254 155 80 51 60 93 147 221
8
Ans: f ( x )=202+107 cos x−13 cos 2 x+ …+121 sin x+ 9 sin2 x +…

13