Interpersonal and non-literal meaning

UNIT 21 SPEECH ACTS

Entry Test

*1. If Fred and Jack both greet each other one morning with ‘How are you today?’, have they both made the same
utterance?*

No. Although they have used the same sentence, the utterances are different because they have been spoken by
different people, at different times, and in different contexts.

*2. How many different sentences are involved when Jack and Fred greet each other as above?*

One. The same sentence (“How are you today?”) is being used by both speakers.

*3. Is it conceivable to give the exact time, date, and place of an utterance?*

Yes. It is possible to specify the exact time, date, and place of an utterance, which would uniquely identify it.

*4. Is a sentence an event?*

No. A sentence is a linguistic construct, whereas an event is an occurrence that happens in the world.

*5. Can it be said in the case of the English sentence “The man hit the bust of Stalin with a hammer”, used out of
context as an example, which particular person in the world is the referent of “the man”?*

No. Without additional context, it is impossible to determine which specific person is being referred to.

*6. In making the utterance ‘Elvis is great’, would a speaker normally be carrying out an act of referring, i.e. referring
to some particular person?*

Yes. In this case, the speaker is likely referring to the famous musician Elvis Presley.

Practice

(1) Would the main purpose of making the assertion ‘There is a wasp in your left ear’ normally be simply to
describe some existing state of affairs in the world?

Answer: No Justification: The speaker’s purpose is likely to warn the hearer of potential danger.

(2) Would the main purpose of making the assertion ‘Someone has broken the space-bar on my typewriter’
normally be simply to describe some existing state of affairs in the world?

Answer: No Justification: The speaker may be complaining or seeking help.

(3) Would the main purpose of making the assertion ‘This gun is loaded’ normally be simply to describe some
existing state of affairs in the world?

Answer: No Justification: The speaker may be warning someone of potential danger.

(4) Would the main purpose of making the assertion ‘You are a fool’ normally be simply to describe some
existing state of affairs in the world?

Answer: No Justification: The speaker is likely insulting or criticizing the hearer.

(5) Would the main purpose of making the assertion ‘I love you’ normally be simply to describe some existing
state of affairs in the world?

Answer: No Justification: The speaker is expressing emotions and committing to a relationship.

Important Concepts:- Speech acts: actions performed through language, such as asserting, warning, complaining,
etc.- Acts of assertion: actions performed through language, where a speaker commits to the truth of a statement.-
Descriptive Fallacy: the view that the sole purpose of language is to describe the world.

Practice

(1) For each of the above five utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had in mind
when uttering them.

Answer: (1) To warn the hearer of the danger of being stung, or to shock him (or both)Justification: The speaker’s
purpose is to alert the hearer to potential danger.

(2) For each of the above five utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had in mind
when uttering them.

Answer: (2) To complain about the damage, or to apologize to someone about to borrow the machine Justification:
The speaker’s purpose is to express dissatisfaction or regret.

(3) For each of the above five utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had in mind
when uttering them.

Answer: (3) As a warning during an armed robbery, or as an example during an elementary weapon-training lesson
for soldiers Justification: The speaker’s purpose is to caution or instruct.

(4) For each of the above five utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had in mind
when uttering them.

Answer: (4) To insult the hearer, or, between intimates, to tease him, or to impress a bystander with one’s directness
of manner Justification: The speaker’s purpose is to offend, playfully criticize, or impress.

(5) For each of the above five utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had in mind
when uttering them.

Answer: (5) To reassure the hearer, or to console him, or to make him feel indebted, or to please him Justification:
The speaker’s purpose is to comfort, console, or create a sense of obligation.

Important Concept: Speech acts: actions performed through language, such as asserting, warning, complaining, etc.

Practice

(1) Could this sentence be uttered as a means of complaining to a waiter in a restaurant that a table had not
been cleared properly?

Answer: Yes Justification: The sentence can be used to express dissatisfaction with the state of the table.

(2) Could it, in other circumstances, be uttered to warn one’s husband or wife not to let the cat in the kitchen?

Answer: Yes Justification: The sentence can be used to alert someone to a potential problem.

(3) Could it, in still other circumstances, be uttered to reassure one’s husband or wife that his or her lunch has
not been forgotten?

Answer: Yes Justification: The sentence can be used to provide comfort and reassurance.

(4) Could it, in a different situation, be used to incriminate a child who had raided the refrigerator?

Answer: Yes Justification: The sentence can be used to accuse someone of misbehavior.

(5) Are individual sentences generally identifiable with single specific acts that are carried out by uttering them?
Answer: No Justification: Sentences can be used to perform a wide variety of acts depending on the context.

Important Concept: Speech acts: actions performed through language, such as complaining, warning, reassuring, etc.

Practice

(1) Can you congratulate someone by a pat on the back, or a hug?

Answer: Yes Justification: Physical gestures can be used to express congratulations.

(2) Can you congratulate someone by uttering ‘Well done’?

Answer: Yes Justification: Language can be used to express congratulations.

(3) Can you bid at an auction by nodding?

Answer: YesJustification: Physical gestures can be used to place a bid.

(4) Can you bid at an auction by saying ‘Eleven pounds’?

Answer: Yes Justification: Language can be used to place a bid.

(5) Can you promise someone something by a nod?

Answer: Yes Justification: Physical gestures can be used to make a promise.

(6) Can you promise someone something with an utterance beginning ‘I promise . . .’?

Answer: Yes Justification: Language can be used to make a promise.

Important Concept: Speech acts: actions performed through language, such as congratulating, bidding, promising,
etc.

Practice

(1) If I say to you, ‘I warn you not to come any closer’, do I, by so saying, actually perform the act of warning
you not to come any closer?

Answer: Yes Justification: The utterance itself constitutes the act of warning.

(2) Does the utterance ‘I warn you not to come any closer’ describe an act of warning by the speaker?

Answer: Yes Justifications: The utterance explicitly describes the act being performed.

(3) Is the utterance ‘I warn you not to come any closer’ a performative utterance?

Answer: Yes Justification: The utterance both performs and describes the act of warning.

(4) If Sam says to Rachel, ‘I admit that I took 50p from the coffee money’, does he, by so saying, actually
perform the act of admitting that he took the money?

Answer: Yes Justification: The utterance itself constitutes the act of admission.

(5) And does Sam’s utterance describe an act of admission?

Answer: Yes Justification: The utterance explicitly describes the act being performed.

(6) Is ‘I admit that I took 50p from the coffee money’ performative?

Answer: Yes Justification: The utterance both performs and describes the act of admission.

(7) If someone says, ‘I’m trying to get this box open with a screwdriver’, does that utterance itself constitute an
act of trying to open a box with a screwdriver?
Answer: No Justification: The utterance only describes the act, but does not perform it.

(8) Is ‘I’m trying to get this box open with a screwdriver’ performative?

Answer: No Justification: The utterance does not perform the act it describes.

Important Concept:Performative utterances: utterances that simultaneously perform and describe an act, such as
promising, admitting, or warning.

Practice

(1) Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative ©? ‘I name this ship Hibernia’

Answer: P Justification: The utterance performs the act of naming.

(2) Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative ©? ‘I believe in the dictatorship of the Proletariat’

Answer: C Justification: The utterance only describes the speaker’s belief.

(3) Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative ©? ‘I admit I was hasty’

Answer: P Justification: The utterance performs the act of admission.

(4) Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative ©? ‘I think I was wrong’

Answer: C Justification: The utterance only describes the speaker’s mental state.

(5) Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative ©? ‘I hereby inform you that you are sacked’

Answer: P Justification: The utterance performs the act of informing.

(6) Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative ©? ‘I give you supper every night’

Answer: C Justification: The utterance only describes a state of affairs.

Important Concept:- Performative utterances: utterances that simultaneously perform and describe an act.-
Constative utterances: utterances that make an assertion but do not perform an act.

Practice

(1) Are the following performative verbs, or not? Apologize

Answer: Yes Justification: Saying “I apologize” can constitute an act of apology.

(2) Are the following performative verbs, or not? Authorize

Answer: YesJustification: Saying “I authorize” can constitute an act of authorization.

(3) Are the following performative verbs, or not? Argue

Answer: No Justification: Saying “I argue” does not constitute an argument.

(4) Are the following performative verbs, or not? Condemn

Answer: Yes Justification: Saying “I condemn” can constitute an act of condemnation.

(5) Are the following performative verbs, or not? Squeal

Answer: No Justification: Saying “I squeal” does not constitute an act of squealing.

Practice

Examples of performative verbs used in conventionalized public and social occasions:

- name (e.g. ‘I name this ship Titanic’) – baptize - object (e.g. ‘I object, your Honour’) - declare (e.g. ‘I declare this
bridge open’) - plead (e.g. ‘I plead Not Guilty’)

Important Concept:Performative verbs: verbs that, when used in a simple positive present tense sentence with a 1st
person singular subject, can make the utterance of that sentence performative.

Practice

(1) Some of the following utterances are exceptions to the statement that all performative utterances have 1st
person singular subjects. Which utterances are the exceptions?

Answer: (1) ‘You are hereby forbidden to leave this room’ Justification: This utterance is performative but has a 2nd
person subject.

(2) Some of the following utterances are exceptions to the statement that all performative utterances have 1st
person singular subjects. Which utterances are the exceptions?

Answer: (2) ‘All passengers on flight number forty-seven are requested to proceed to gate ten’ Justification: This
utterance is performative but has a 3rd person plural subject.

(3) Some of the following utterances are exceptions to the statement that all performative utterances have 1st
person singular subjects. Which utterances are the exceptions?

Answer: Not an exception Justification: This utterance has a 1st person singular subject.

(4) Some of the following utterances are exceptions to the statement that all performative utterances have 1st
person singular subjects. Which utterances are the exceptions?

Answer: Not an exception Justification: This utterance is not performative.

(5) Some of the following utterances are exceptions to the statement that all performative utterances have 1st
person singular subjects. Which utterances are the exceptions?

Answer: (5) ‘We thank you for the compliment you have paid us’ Justification: This utterance is performative but has a
1st person plural subject.

Important Concept:Performative utterances: utterances that perform an action, such as forbidding, requesting, or
thanking.

Practice

(1) Can hereby be acceptably inserted in the space indicated in the following utterances? ‘I ( ) give notice that I
will lock these doors in sixty seconds’

Answer: Yes Justification: The insertion of hereby is acceptable and indicates that the utterance is performative.

(2) Can hereby be acceptably inserted in the space indicated in the following utterances? ‘Listeners are ( )
reminded that BBC wireless licences expire on April 4th’

Answer: Yes Justification: The insertion of hereby is acceptable and indicates that the utterance is performative.

(3) Can hereby be acceptably inserted in the space indicated in the following utterances? ‘It ( ) gives me great
pleasure to open this building’

Answer: No Justification: The insertion of hereby is not acceptable, indicating that the utterance is not performative.

(4) Can hereby be acceptably inserted in the space indicated in the following utterances? ‘I ( ) warn you not to
talk to my sister again’

Answer: Yes Justification: The insertion of hereby is acceptable and indicates that the utterance is performative.
 (5) Can hereby be acceptably inserted in the space indicated in the following utterances? ‘I ( ) believe in God
the Father Almighty, Creator of Heaven and Earth’

Answer: No Justification: The insertion of hereby is not acceptable, indicating that the utterance is not performative.

Important Concept:- Performative utterances: utterances that perform an action, such as giving notice, reminding, or
warning.- Test for performativity: inserting the adverb hereby before the verb to check if the utterance is performative.

Practice

(1) Indicate whether the following sentences are odd or not odd. I hereby warn you that you will fail

Answer: Not odd Justification: The sentence is acceptable and constitutes a performative utterance.

(2) Indicate whether the following sentences are odd or not odd. They hereby warn her that she will fail

Answer: Odd Justification: The sentence is odd because hereby typically accompanies a 1st person subject.

(3) Indicate whether the following sentences are odd or not odd. I hereby promised him that I would be at the
station at three o’clock

Answer: Odd Justification: The sentence is odd because hereby typically accompanies the present tense.

(4) Indicate whether the following sentences are odd or not odd. The management hereby warn customers that
mistakes in change cannot be rectified once the customer has left the counter

Answer: Not odd Justification: The sentence is acceptable and constitutes a performative utterance.

(5) Indicate whether the following sentences are odd or not odd. Spitting is hereby forbidden

Answer: Not odd Justification: The sentence is acceptable and constitutes a performative utterance.

(6) Indicate whether the following sentences are odd or not odd. I hereby sing

Answer: Odd Justification: The sentence is odd because singing is not typically something that can be done through
language.

Important Concept:- Performative utterances: utterances that perform an action, such as warning, promising, or
forbidding. Test for performativity: inserting the adverb hereby before the verb to check if the utterance is
performative.

Summary

The concept of performatives highlights the idea that language is not just used to describe the world, but also to
perform actions and carry out socially significant acts. Language is used to do things, not just describe things.
Performatives are special cases where uttering a sentence performs an action. Performatives illustrate the social
significance of language in carrying out actions.

Important Terms

An act of assertion is carried out when a speaker utters a declarative sentence, undertaking a responsibility or
commitment to the hearer that a particular state of affairs exists in the world. If I say, “Simon is in the kitchen”, I assert
to my hearer that a situation exists in which a person named Simon is in a room identified by the referring expression
“the kitchen”. An act of assertion involves a commitment to the truth of a proposition.

The Descriptive Fallacy Is the view that the sole purpose of making assertions is to describe some state of affairs,
ignoring the performative aspects of language. According to the Descriptive Fallacy view, my only purpose in uttering
“Simon is in the kitchen” would be to describe a particular state of affairs, and nothing more. The Descriptive Fallacy
overlooks the performative functions of language.
A performative utterance Is one that simultaneously performs and describes an act, such as promising, warning, or
apologizing. “I promise to repay you tomorrow” is performative because it both describes and performs the act of
promising. Performative utterances do what they say.

A constative utterance Is one that makes an assertion but is not performative, such as describing a state of affairs
without performing an action. “I’m trying to get this box open with a screwdriver” is a constative utterance because it
makes an assertion about a particular state of affairs but is not performative. Constative utterances describe but do
not perform.

A performative verb is one that, when used in a simple positive present tense sentence with a 1st person singular
subject, can make the utterance of that sentence performative. “Sentence” is a performative verb because “I
sentence you to be hanged by the neck” is a performative utterance. Performative verbs enable performative
utterances.

EXERCISE

1 You should understand these terms and concepts from this unit:

Speech acts / performative utterance / Act of referring / constative utterance / Act of assertion / performative
verb / Descriptive fallacy.

Speech Acts

Speech acts refer to the actions performed through language, such as promising, warning, or apologizing. These
actions go beyond the literal meaning of the words. Speech acts involve the speaker’s intention, the context, and the
effect on the listener.

Performative Utterance

A performative utterance is a sentence that simultaneously performs and describes an action. Examples include “I
promise to repay you” or “I apologize for my mistake.” These utterances do what they say.

Act of Referring

The act of referring involves using language to identify or point out objects, people, or concepts. This can be done
using nouns, pronouns, or other referring expressions. The act of referring is a fundamental aspect of communication.

Constative Utterance

A constative utterance is a sentence that makes an assertion or statement but does not perform an action. Examples
include “The sky is blue” or “I’m trying to get this box open.” These utterances describe a state of affairs but do not do
what they say.

Act of Assertion

The act of assertion involves making a claim or statement about the world. This can be done through declarative
sentences, such as “Simon is in the kitchen.” The act of assertion involves a commitment to the truth of the
proposition.

Performative Verb

A performative verb is a verb that, when used in a simple positive present tense sentence with a 1st person singular
subject, can make the utterance performative. Examples include “promise,” “apologize,” or “sentence.” These verbs
enable performative utterances.

Descriptive Fallacy

The Descriptive Fallacy is the view that the sole purpose of language is to describe the world. This fallacy ignores the
performative aspects of language, such as promising, warning, or apologizing. The Descriptive Fallacy overlooks the
fact that language can be used to do things, not just describe things.
2 Explain what it means to say that actions and words are not entirely distinct. Give an example.

Actions and words are not entirely distinct because words can be used to perform actions. This means that language
is not just a means of describing the world, but also a means of doing things in the world.

Example: Saying “I promise to meet you at 5pm” is both a statement and an action, as it commits the speaker to
meeting the listener.

3 What does it mean to say that actions can be performed with words (i.e. with an utterance)? What are such
acts called?

Actions can be performed with words through utterances that simultaneously perform and describe an action. Such
acts are called speech acts or performative utterances.

Example: Saying “I apologize for my mistake” is a speech act that both describes and performs the action of
apologizing.

4 For each of the following utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had in mind
when uttering them. Explain how such utterances exemplify the descriptive fallacy.

A ‘The car is dirty.’

Purpose: To inform or complain.

Descriptive Fallacy: This utterance may not only describe a state of affairs but also imply a request for action (e.g.,
cleaning the car).

B ‘Is it right to allow skateboarding on our sidewalks?’

Purpose: To question or provoke discussion.

Descriptive Fallacy: This utterance may not only describe a question but also express a concern or opinion, going
beyond mere description.

C ‘Look at the mess you just made!’

Purpose: To criticize or reprimand.

Descriptive Fallacy: This utterance may not only describe a state of affairs but also perform an action of blaming or
scolding.

D ‘Some of the pages have been torn out.’

Purpose: To inform or report.

Descriptive Fallacy: This utterance may not only describe a state of affairs but also imply a request for action (e.g.,
repairing or replacing the pages).

5.Try to identify the kind(s) of acts mentioned in your answer to question 4 above (such as warning,
requesting, ordering, complaining, apologizing, etc.).

The kinds of acts mentioned are:

- Complaining (‘The car is dirty.’)

- Questioning/Provoking discussion (‘Is it right to allow skateboarding on our sidewalks?’)

- Criticizing/Reprimanding (‘Look at the mess you just made!’)

- Informing/Reporting (‘Some of the pages have been torn out.’)

6 Identify whether the following utterances are performative or constative. If an utterance is performative,
describe the act being performed, as well as the act being described.

a. ‘I order you to pay the bill.’ Performative: Act being performed – ordering; Act being described – ordering.

b. ‘I pronounce you man and wife.’ Performative: Act being performed – pronouncing; Act being described –
pronouncing.

c. ‘I promise to drop by tomorrow.’ Performative: Act being performed – promising; Act being described – promising.

d. ‘The minister pronounced them man and wife.’ Constative: Describes an action, but does not perform it.

e. ‘I promised to drop by tomorrow.’ Constative: Describes a past action, but does not perform it.

f. ‘I sweep the floor every Tuesday.’ Constative: Describes a regular action, but does not perform it.

g. ‘I believe you were wrong.’ Constative: Describes a mental state, but does not perform an action.

7 Identify which of the following is a performative verb and use it in asentence as a performative. Use the
hereby test to help you make your decision. Think of three additional performative verbs not listed here, and
also use them performatively in a sentence.

a. declare: “I hereby declare this meeting open.” (Performative)

b. warn: “I hereby warn you of the danger.” (Performative)

c. think: Not performative (fails the hereby test)

d. promise: “I hereby promise to repay you.” (Performative)

e. write: Not performative (fails the hereby test)

f. approve: “I hereby approve your proposal.” (Performative)

g. remind: “I hereby remind you of your appointment.” (Performative)

h. consider: Not performative (fails the hereby test)

Additional performative verbs:

- sentence: “I hereby sentence you to community service.”

- nominate: “I hereby nominate John for the position.”

- congratulate: “I hereby congratulate you on your graduation.”

8 Performative verbs follow certain conventions. What are they? Are there exceptions? Give an example or
two of each.

Performative verbs typically follow these conventions:

- Used in the first person singular (I)

- In the present simple tense

- With the adverb “hereby” (optional)

Exceptions:- Some performative verbs can be used in other persons or tenses, e.g., “You are hereby allowed…”. -
Some performative verbs do not require “hereby”, e.g., “I apologize…”.

Examples:- “I apologize for my mistake.” - “I hereby declare this meeting open.”

Exceptions:- Other persons or tenses: “You are hereby allowed…” - No “hereby”: “I promise to repay you.”
9 Identify which of the following utterances are performative. Also identify the utterances which are
exceptions to the conventions you mentioned in the answer to the previous question. Explain why they are
exceptions.

Performative utterances:

- b ‘You are hereby allowed to enter the vault.’ (exception: 2nd person)

- d ‘We apologize for our mistake.’ (exception: 1st person plural)

- e ‘I admit that I made a mistake.’

- g ‘Wearing hats inside is forbidden.’ (exception: imperative form)

10 Why do we talk about utterances being performative (rather than sentences Or propositions)?

We discuss utterances as performative because context, speaker’s intention, and circumstances determine the
performative force. Sentences or propositions alone don’t capture this context-dependent aspect. Utterances highlight
language’s dynamic, interactive nature.