KENYA POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

DIPLOMA IN MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING

2011/2012

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING

June 24, 2011

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 Table of Contents

Table of Contents i

List of Figures v

COURSE OUTLINE v

1 Course Outline vi

2 Engineering 1
2.1 History of Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Definition of Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Career paths in engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Relationships with other disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.1 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.2 Medicine and biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.3 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Fields of engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.6 The Engineering Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.7 Common Traits of Good Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8 Functions of Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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3 The Engineer as a Professional 10
3.1 What is a Professional Engineer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Responsibilities and Obligations of the Professional Engineer . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.1 Functions of Engineers Registration Board of Kenya . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Professional Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.1 Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.2 Public and workplace safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.3 Community well-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.4 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.5 Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.6 Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.7 Sustainable management and environmental stewardship . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 The engineer’s problem solving approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Other professional Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.1 Institute of Engineers of Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Tools of engineering 18
4.1 Engineering Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1.1 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 SI Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 Force, Weight and Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.4 Mathematics in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4.1 Mathematical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5 Computer Tools for Creating Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.1 Some Uses of Computers in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.2 Experimentation in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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5 Engineers and Communication 30
5.1 The information seeking process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2 The Engineer as a Writer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.1 Types of Engineering Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.2 Engineering Drawing as a Means of Communication . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.3 ANSI Line Convention and Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 The Engineer as a Speaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.1 Guidelines for effective speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.2 Presentation Tips for Public Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

6 Engineering Economics 37
6.0.3 Physical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.0.4 Economic Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.1 Economic Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2 Role of Uncertainity in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 The engineering process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4 FUNDAMENTAL ECONOMIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4.1 UTILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.2 VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.3 CONSUMER AND PRODUCER GOODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.4 UTILITY OF GOODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.5 ECONOMY OF EXCHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.6 ECONOMY OF ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.6 SUPPLY AND DEMAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.7 INTEREST RATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.8 TIME VALUE OF MONEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.8.1 Cash–Flow Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.9 EARNING POWER OF MONEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.10 PURCHASING POWER OF MONEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.10.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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 6.11 Interest Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.11.1 Simple interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.11.2 Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.12 Comparison of Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.12.1 NET CASH FLOW OF INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . 47
6.12.2 PRESENT-WORTH AMOUNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.12.3 ANNUAL EQUIVALENT AMOUNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.12.4 FUTURE WORTH AMOUNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.12.5 INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.12.6 PAYBACK PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

7 Interest Calculations 50
7.0.7 Simple interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.0.8 Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.1 Comparison of Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.1.1 NET CASH FLOW OF INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . 52
7.1.2 PRESENT-WORTH AMOUNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.1.3 ANNUAL EQUIVALENT AMOUNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.1.4 FUTURE WORTH AMOUNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1.5 INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1.6 PAYBACK PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

APPENDICES 55

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List of Figures

3.1 The engineer’s problem solving approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6.1 Cash–flow diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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1. Course Outline
1. Definition of engineering

• Scope of the engineering profession

• Profession of engineering
• Fields of engineering
• Functions of engineering
• Levels of personnel in the engineering team - the scientist, the engineer, the tech-
nologist, the technician, the craftsman.

2. The engineer as a professional:

• Responsibilities and obligations of the professional engineer

• Professional recognition
• Professional organizations
• Professional ethics

3. The engineering approach to problem solving

4. Tools of engineering

• Calculation and analysis

• computers and computer techniques
• experimentation and testing
• communication

5. The economic and social element in engineering

• Engineering economics
• Engineering management
• the social dimension

6. Industrial Visits

7. Public lectures by practicing engineers.

8. Case studies.

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2. Engineering
2.1 History of Engineering
Engineering in the early civilizations can be traced back to Mesopotamia, currently called
Iraq. They were responsible for the first wheeled cart, canals, temples, bridges, city walls
e.t.c. They also had significant irrigation, dams and flood control works.
The Egyptians were also experts in planning and construction. Notice the pyramids. They
also had extensive dykes, canals and drainage systems.
The Romans contributed greatly to engineering. They had cheap labor and abundant raw
materials. They built arenas, temples, town halls, baths. They relied on experience than
mathematics and science.
The fall of the Roman empire brought about the Middle ages. The most interesting structures
of the middle ages were the Gothic cathedrals. Most daring light, skeleton stone structures.
The title engineer first became used in the middle ages to mean ’to create’.
During the late middle ages, significant advances were made in transportation and communi-
cation, fostering scientific discovery and accelerating the spread of Knowledge. Some scientist
of the middle ages, Leornardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
During the 150 years leading to the twentieth century, more progress was realized in mining,
manufacturing and transportation. In America, by 1908, five prominent engineering societies
were formed. For mechanical engineers, American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
was formed.
Engineering inventions of the twentieth century include:

• The Wright brothers(Aeroplane)- for rapidly moving people and goods around the world

• Henry Ford (automobile)- for leisure and commercial transportation

• Advances in treatment of water and sewage,

• Remarkable progress in construction of bridges(Panama Canal) and buildings(Empire

State Building),

• Water resources (Hoover Dam),

• Generation of electrical energy by nuclear means,

• Advent of inexpensive ICs mass produced on silicon chips

• Electrification - to supply our homes and businesses with electricity

• Electronics - to provide electronic control of machines and consumer products

• Radio and Television - for entertainment and commercial uses

• Agricultural Mechanization - to increase the efficiency of food production

• Computers - a revolution in the way people work and communicate

• Telephone - for rapid personal and commercial communication

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 • Air Conditioning and Refrigeration - to increase the quality of life

• Highways - to speed transportation of people and goods across the land

• Spacecraft - to begin our exploration of limitless space

• Internet - a cultural evolution of the way people interact

• Imaging - to improve healthcare

• Household Appliances - to allow women to enter the workplace

• Health Technologies - to improve the quality of life

• Petroleum and Petrochemical Technologies - to power transportation systems

• Laser and Fiber Optics - to improve measurement and communication systems

• High-performance Materials - to create safer, lighter, better products

Further problem for engineers for the future include:

• Alternative source of energy to replace supplies of coal and petroleum

• Maintenance of deteriorating public works infrastructure

• Development of microcomputer technology

• Technology to increase agricultural productivity to cope with growing population and

hunger

• Structures resistant to earthquakes and storms

• Better ways of disposal of hazardous wastes

• Exploration of interplanetary space and discovery of applications of space research to

military and peaceful uses

• Make solar energy economical

• Provide energy from fusion

• Develop carbon sequestration methods

• Manage the nitrogen cycle

• Provide access to clean water

• Restore and improve urban infrastructure

• Advance health informatics

• Engineer better medicines

• Reverse-engineer the brain

• Prevent nuclear terror

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 • Secure cyberspace

• Enhance virtual reality

• Advance personalized learning

• Engineer the tools of scientific discovery

2.2 Definition of Engineering

Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific,
mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge to design and build structures, ma-
chines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives
of people.
The American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development has defined ”engineering” as:

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, ma-

chines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in
combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design;
or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an
intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.

Functions of Engineering

1. Research -seek new knowledge or better understanding of the significance and relation-
ship of facts already known

2. Development - making discoveries and the results of research available in the form of
useful products.

3. Design - Converting concepts and information into detailed plans and specifications
from which a finished product or facility can be manufactured

4. Production - industrial process by which products can be manufactured from raw ma-
terials.

5. Construction - process of translating designs and materials to structures and facilities

such as highways

6. Operations - application of engineering principles or the performance of practical work.

In manufacturing, procuring supplies, maintaining plant, directing personnel.

7. Sales - trained engineers recommend machines, tools, parts, services to best serve cus-
tomers needs

8. Management - Solution of problems of policy, finance, organization, PR and sales.

Selection and supervision of personnel, coordination of RD, production and all other
departments.

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2.3 Career paths in engineering
1. The corporate ladder

2. Independent entrepreneur

3. The military

4. The government

5. Engineering and social service abroad – Engineers without borders.

6. The professor – engineer

2.4 Relationships with other disciplines

2.4.1 Science

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one ap-
plies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena.
Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.
Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations
for practical action based on those interpretations[citation needed]. Scientists may also have to
complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.
Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves ex-
ploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.
Engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often
deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the
problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. Examples are the use of
numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over
an aircraft. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are
foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.

2.4.2 Medicine and biology

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an
important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims
to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the
use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the body’s functions through the use of artificial
organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices
such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers. The fields of Bionics and medical
Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth
studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with
technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic,

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and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering
and medicine.
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward
before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore
experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological
machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods. The heart for
example functions much like a pump, the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers, the
brain produces electrical signals etc. These similarities as well as the increasing importance
and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the field of
biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting analytical tools
traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to
the description of biological systems.

2.4.3 Art

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with
emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.
There are connections between engineering and art; they are direct in some fields, for exam-
ple, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these
disciplines may sometimes be included in a University’s Faculty of Engineering); and indirect
in others.
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA’s
aerospace design. Robert Maillart’s bridge design is perceived by some to have been de-
liberately artistic. At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a
grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and
engineering.

2.5 Fields of engineering

Engineers can be classified into at least a dozen types, and many subtypes, according to the
kind of work they doadministration, construction, consulting, design, development, teaching,
planning (also called applications), production, research, sales, service, and test engineers.
Because engineering deals with the world around us, the number of engineering disciplines is
very large. Some of the major engineering disciplines are as follows:

• Bioengineers deal with the engineering analysis of living systems.

• Chemical engineers deal with complex systems and processes including, for example,
the way atoms and molecules link up and how those connections shape the properties
of materials.

• Civil engineers design and analyze large-scale structures such as buildings, bridges,
water treatment systems, and so forth.

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 • Computer and electronic engineers design embedded computers and electronic systems
that are essential for the operation of modern technology.

• Control system engineers design and analyze systems that sense changes in the envi-
ronment and provide responses to ensure that processes are kept within predetermined
tolerances.

• Electrochemical engineers, essentially a sub-branch of chemical engineering, mechanical

engineering and electrical engineering, work in fields that combine chemistry and elec-
tricity such as refining of metals, batteries and fuel cells, sensors, etching, separations,
and corrosion.

• Electrical engineers design and analyze systems that apply electrical energy.

• Manufacturing engineers design manufacturing processes to make products better, faster,

and cheaper.

• Materials engineers design and apply materials to enhance the performance of engi-
neered systems.

• Mechanical engineers work in one of the most diverse of the engineering disciplines, and
design and analyze many kinds of predominantly mechanical systems.

• Mechatronic engineers work in the design and automated control of manufacturing

systems.

Engineering is not a spectator sport. It is a hands-on and minds-on activity.

2.6 The Engineering Team

1. The engineer:

• Conceptual design
• Research
• Project planning
• Product innovation
• System development
• Supervision of technologists, technicians, craftsmen

2. The technologist: works the part of the engineering spectrum that lies between the
engineer and the technician in the following:

• Routine product development

• Construction supervision
• Technical sales
• Hardware design and development
• Coordination of work force, materials and equipment
• Supervision of technicians and craftsmen

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 • operational functions.

An engineering technologist, is a specialist devoted to the implementation of existing

technology within a field of engineering. Technologists often work with engineers in
a wide variety of projects by applying basic engineering principles and technical skills.
The work of technologists is usually focused on the portion of the technological spectrum
closest to product improvement, manufacturing, construction, and engineering. Entry-
level positions such as product design, testing, development, systems development, field
engineering, technical operations, and quality control are all common positions for en-
gineering technology graduates.

3. Technician:- normally trained in a two-year program in engineering technology leading

to an associate degree.

• Drafting
• Estimating
• Field inspections
• Data collection
• Surveying
• Technical Writing

4. Craftsman: - skilled workers who produce the materials and products specified by the
design.

• Use hand and power tools to service, maintain, operate machines or products useful
to the engineering team.

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2.7 Common Traits of Good Engineers
There are some personality traits and work habits that typify most successful engineers.

• Engineers are problem solvers

• Have a firm grasp of fundamental principles of engineering, which they can use to solve
many different problems.
• Are analytical, detail–oriented and creative.
• Have a desire to be long–life learners, keep abreast of innovations and new technologies.
• Should have core knowledge that can be applied in many areas. E.g. A good mechanical
engineer with well-rounded knowledge base can work as an automotive or aerospace
engineer.
• Should have time–management skills to work productively and efficiently
• should have good people skills in order to interact and communicate effectively with
various people in the organization.
• required to write reports which may be in form of technical drawings or executive
summaries.
• can use computers to model and analyze various practical problems.
• actively participate in local and national discipline–specific organizations by attending
seminars, workshops and meetings. Some even make presentations at formal meetings.
• Generally work in a team environment where they consult each other in order to solve
complex problems. Tasks are divided into smaller, manageable problems among them-
selves. Engineers must therefore be team players.

2.8 Functions of Engineering

The branches indicate what the engineer works with; the functions describe what he does. In
order of decreasing emphasis on science, the major functions of all engineering branches are
the following:

Research: The research engineer seeks new principles and processes by employing mathe-
matical and scientific concepts, experimental techniques, and inductive reasoning.
Development: The development engineer applies the results of research to useful purposes.
Ingenious and creative application of new knowledge may result in a working model
of a new electronics circuit, a chemical process, an industrial machine, or a gadget of
optronics.
Design: In designing a structure or a product, the engineer selects methods, specifies mate-
rials, and determines shapes to satisfy technical requirements and to meet performance
specification. Construction. The construction engineer is responsible for preparing the
site, determining procedures that will economically and safely yield the desired quality,
directing the placement of materials, and organizing the personnel and equipment.

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Production: Plant layout and equipment selection, with consideration of human and eco-
nomic factors, is the responsibility of the production engineer. He chooses processes
and tools, integrates the flow of materials and components, and provides for testing and
inspection.

Operation: The operating engineer controls machines, plants, and organizations providing
power, transportation, and communication. He determines procedures and supervises
personnel to obtain reliable and economic operation of complex equipment.

Management and other functions: In some countries (U.S.A.,Japan, etc) and industries,
engineers analyze customer requirements, recommend units to satisfy needs economi-
cally, and resolve related problems. In some industries, too, engineers decide how assets
are to be used.

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3. The Engineer as a Professional
3.1 What is a Professional Engineer?
The practice of professional engineering comprises three tests.
Professional engineering is:

1. any act of planning, designing, composing, evaluating, advising, reporting, directing or

supervising (or the managing of any such act);

2. that requires the application of engineering principles; and

3. concerns the safeguarding of life, health, property, economic interests, the public welfare
or the environment,

If what you do meets all three tests, you are practising professional engineering and must be
licensed by the Engineers Registration Board of Kenya. The Engineers Registration Board
is a statutory body established through an Act of Parliament in 1969. A minor revision was
done in 1992, to accommodate Technician Engineer grade. The Board has been given the
responsibility of regulating the activities and conduct of Practicing Engineers in the Republic
of Kenya in accordance with the functions and powers conferred upon it by the Act. Under
CAP 530 of the Laws of Kenya, it is illegal for an engineer to practice or call himself an
engineer if not registered with the Board. Registration with the Board is thus a license to
practice engineering in Kenya.
Professional engineers are licensed to be accountable to the public for their work. Their duty
is to safeguard life, health, property, economic interests, the public welfare or the environment
where engineering is concerned. Professional engineers subscribe to a strict code of ethics and
practice standards. The practice of the profession in Kenya is regulated by the Engineers
Registration Board of Kenya(ERB).

3.2 Responsibilities and Obligations of the Professional Engi-

neer
Five obligations of engineers are:

1. Protection of life and safeguarding people

Members shall recognise the need to protect life and to safeguard people, and in their
engineering activities shall act to address this need.

2. Professionalism, integrity and competence

Members shall undertake their engineering activities with professionalism and integrity
and shall work within their levels of competence.

3. Commitment to community well-being

Members shall recognise the responsibility of the profession to actively contribute to the
well-being of society and, when involved in any engineering activity, shall endeavour to
identify, inform and consult affected parties.

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 4. Sustainable management and care for the environment
Members shall recognise and respect the need for sustainable management of the planets
resources and endeavour to minimise adverse environmental impacts of their engineering
activities for both present and future generations.

5. Sustaining engineering knowledge

Members shall seek to contribute to the development of their own and the engineering
professions knowledge, skill and expertise for the benefit of society.

3.2.1 Functions of Engineers Registration Board of Kenya

The first general responsibility for the Board is to regulate the activities and conduct of
registered engineers in accordance with the functions and powers conferred upon it by the
Act which are;

1. Publication of register and list of Registered Engineers in the Gazette.

2. Register engineers in different classifications, and disciplines.

3. Issue annual licenses to registered persons on payment of prescribed fees.

4. Remove, suspend and/or correct the name of a person from the register.

5. Restore removed names into Register.

6. Administer oaths during an enquiry.

7. Summon persons to attend and give evidence during an inquiry.

8. Order the production of documents during an inquiry.

9. Appoint and dissolve sub-committees and the co-option of persons thereto.

10. Refuse to consider the application of any person who fails to furnish further information
or evidence of eligibility for registration required by the Board.

3.3 Professional Ethics

The application of ethical principles requires judgement. No code can cover all situations. In
difficult cases, the test used by the Complaints Research Officer is to ask what would have
been done by the reasonable engineer, working competently and diligently.

3.3.1 Competence

Competence is the overarching obligation of the professional with respect to the client. This
includes:

• Possessing sound knowledge applied with skill, diligence and care.

• Working within your level of competence and specialisation. The engineer who under-
takes work for which he or she is not qualified or sufficiently experienced deceives the
client and risks harm to others and to their own reputation.

11
 • Accepting personal responsibility for work done. This includes work done by you or
those under your supervision and requires taking steps to ensure that anyone working
under your authority is both competent to carry out the assigned tasks and accepts a
like personal responsibility.

• Ensuring that you do not misrepresent your areas or levels of experience or competence.

3.3.2 Public and workplace safety

The codes emphasise the engineers role in designing and implementing safe technologies for
the public and creating safe workplaces for staff. This includes:

• Public safety - giving priority to the safety and well-being of the community and having
regard to this principle in assessing obligations to clients, employers and colleagues.
This requires you to advocate to clients and employers, and devote adequate resources
to ensure safety in use.

• Risk management - ensuring that reasonable steps are taken to minimise the risk of
loss of life, injury or suffering which may result from your engineering activities, either
directly or indirectly.

• Workplace and construction site - minimising potential dangers involved in the con-
struction and manufacture of engineered products and processes. It is the engineers
responsibility to draw the attention of those affected to the level and significance of risk
associated with the work. (Occupational Safety Act of Kenya)

3.3.3 Community well-being

The engineer should endeavour to be fully informed about relevant public policies, community
needs and perceptions which affect their work. This may require an engineer, as a citizen
who is also a specialist, to use his or her engineering knowledge and experience to contribute
helpfully to public debate and to community activities.
The codes guidelines also exhort the engineer to treat clients, peers, employers, staff and the
public with humanity, respect, and sensitivity. Anticipating possible conflicts and attending
to conflict resolution is a professional skill and duty.

3.3.4 Communication

Communication is important to an engineers overall competence as a professional. Many

complaints could have been avoided with careful attention to communication.
Important skills include:

• listening

• giving clear and concise advice

• being assertive with respect to clarification or interpretation of instructions

12
Good communication procedures include:

• recording all important conversations with clients

• having documentation procedures and internal audit systems for staff
• maintaining up-to-date files confirming verbal agreements in writing
• clarifying fees
• following a recognised professional practice

3.3.5 Conflict of interest

Conflicts of interest arise when the interests of a professional conflict with those of a client or
when the interests of one client clash with those of another. It is important that an engineer
has no motive for compromising the performance of his or her duty to the client.
The codes restrict the conditions under which a professional may act where a conflict exists.
They require an engineer to disclose any financial or other interest that may, or may be seen
to, impair their professional judgement on any engineering activities they are to carry out for
that employer or client.
Good practice in any case of conflict requires an engineer to first identify and then assess any
actual or potential conflict. Suggested guidelines include:

• in a dispute between two clients, where possible decide which party you are acting for
and notify the other
• do not act for either if doing so will harm the other assess whether it is better to
withdraw
• suggest alternative professionals who can supply independent advice

Financial inducements are a source of such conflicts. The codes require that you do not
promise to give to or accept from any third party anything of substantial value by way of
inducement.

3.3.6 Confidentiality

An engineers pursuit of their professional role is likely to be frustrated if clients are reluctant
to be forthcoming with important, yet sensitive, information. The obligation to maintain
confidence creates the conditions for the required level of openness.
An engineer must take care not to disclose confidential information relating to the work or
knowledge of their employer or client (or former employer or client) without their agreement.
An engineer must also refrain from using that information for another purpose that is to his
or her personal benefit. An engineer may, however, disclose confidential information after
gaining permission from the client as indicated by the codes. It is recommended that this
permission be obtained in writing. There are two important exceptions. The confidentiality
clause does not apply if withholding the confidential information will put the public
at risk , or if the information is asked for in a court of law.

13
3.3.7 Sustainable management and environmental stewardship

Sustainable management is often defined as management of resources, production and emis-

sions to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own reasonably foreseeable needs. Engineers are required to recognise and re-
spect the need for sustainable management of the planets resources and endeavour to minimise
adverse environmental impacts of their engineering activities. This includes:

• using resources efficiently

• minimising the generation of waste and encouraging environmentally sound re-use,

• recycling and disposal

• recognising the adverse impacts of your engineering activities on the environment and
seeking to avoid or mitigate them

3.4 The engineer’s problem solving approach

1. Define the Problem: If given a problem, re-define it in your own terms – beware!
Problem statements provided by clients will:

• have client’s bias in the statement

• typically suggest an approach and/or solution which is sub-optimal (implied solu-
tion)
• lack a complete understanding of the state of the art.

Learn all you can about the problem. Use literature, patent and market searching
techniques and the telephone; you might be surprised how much free insight you can
obtain.

2. Generate Specifications: Initially these may be quite general and focused on the
problem and not specific to a solution. Typical specs are: size, weight, speed, cost, and
accuracy; BUT, specs must also include: environmental and social impacts, reliability,
maintainability, producibility, safety, noise, etc. Once a specific solution has been
chosen for analysis, specification specific to that solution are necessary.

3. Generate Alternatives: The use of brainstorming techniques is suggested as a

mechanism for producing large numbers of clever, creative solution paths which are
non-intuitive and therefore potentially novel. Expect to make several approaches to the
problem before you find one that works. For large or intractable problems, try seg-
mentation techniques to break the large problem into smaller, easier ones to handle.
*Brainstorming requirements: should be unstructured, loud, collaborative, funny, out-
rageous and uncontrolled. There must be NO criticism of any idea; nothing is too crazy.
There should be no analysis of any kind at this time. One group member should act as
secretary to take down all ideas.

4. Analysis of Alternatives: You will have generated a large number of potential so-
lutions to the problem (alternatives) so try to group them by type. Within a type,
look for the critical factor which will determine whether or not it has potential. More

14
 research into the state of the art is generally useful at this stage. A first-cut analysis is
also worthwhile and should be the fast, back of the envelope type – possibly a simple
experiment is quicker for some ideas.

5. Selection of Alternatives: You should choose one to five of the most promising
alternatives from the analysis just carried out and research them thoroughly using all
of the resources of the library as well as personal and telephone contacts. As you learn
more about the potential for your alternative, make a list of the specifications required
for success. These specifications are a subset of those developed in Step 2 and are
specific to the alternative.

6. Iterate Steps 2 through 5: Always keep in mind ”the problem.” Make yourself a good
paper trail so that if an alternative doesn’t pan out, you will know exactly what to do
next.

Figure 3.1 illustrates the steps in problem solving. In the search for solutions to problems,

Figure 3.1: The engineer’s problem solving approach.

especially new problems, the engineer is in conflict with a rather complex environment and
often in competition with predecessors who tried and failed and with contemporary rivals
who are trying to solve the same problem. The success depends on ability to create a new
idea, a new device, a new process, or a new material.

3.5 Other professional Societies

3.5.1 Institute of Engineers of Kenya

The Institution of Engineers of Kenya (IEK) is the learned society of the engineering profession
with its core functions derived from the mandate that the Institution must undertake to fulfill
the role entrusted to it by members. The core functions of the IEK are to:-

15
 1. provide continuing education to members,

2. promote training of engineers,

3. advocate for better terms for engineers,

4. advocate for better positioning of the engineer in society and

5. ensure institutions sustainability.

IEK has the following strategic objectives:

1. Promote Training and Development of Engineers

IEK will motivate engineering students in the Universities, visit universities to give talks,
and prepare promotional materials. There already exists an award system for best en-
gineering students which will be expanded to other universities offering engineering
education. IEK will lobby organizations to give attachments to students. Under this
objective, IEK will seek recognition as a trainer in order to facilitate claim of training
fees, organize more courses for engineers, implement CPDs and move towards establish-
ing training facilities for engineers. IEK will liaise with relevant institutions to ensure
that degree programmes offered meet academic requirements for engineers registration
and admission to its membership. IEK will also build linkages with relevant institutions
with the objective to achieve more recognition globally.

2. Promote Professional Engineering Practice, Standards and Ethics

IEK will liaise with other institutions to develop engineering best practices and will
work with ERB to enforce adherence to the Engineers Act.

3. Strengthen institutional capacity of IEK

IEK aims to hire and train staff, purchase premise, operationalise business wing of the
institution, collect outstanding debts by engaging services of a debt collector, establish
trust fund, finalize review of IEK Constitution and work closely with ERB to finalize
review the Engineers Act. IEK will strengthen branches to hold local training seminars
and workshops and to become self sufficient. IEK will also review and improve website
to make it more interactive.

4. Promote the Status, Rights and Welfare of Engineers

IEK aims to promote better prospects for engineers, ensure that engineers enjoy high
profile in the society, lobby for IEK to be represented in the Govt. institutions and pro-
mote close working relationship with the industry. IEK will finalize and operationalise
Welfare body for engineers.

5. Build Local capacity in the Engineering Industry

IEK will establish an electronic employment notice board for engineers, encourage local
participation in all engineering projects and discourage employment of foreign engineers
except where local expertise is lacking

6. Enhance the image and reputation of the Institution

IEK will engage in corporate social responsibility matters, enhance awareness of IEK
in the society, take active role in umbrella societies nationally and internationally and
enhance media relations.

16
 7. Promote culture of creativity, innovation and application of research findings
IEK will promote creativity, innovation and research by publicizing such results through
conferences and making awards to the students with best projects.

Activities undertaken by IEK include:

1. Holds meetings that have bearing upon engineering or the application thereof or upon
subjects related thereto.

2. Prints, publishes, lends, preserves or distributes proceedings or reports, papers, com-

munications, works or treatises on engineering or its applications subjects connected
therewith.

3. Co-operates with universities, other educational institutions, and public/private educa-

tional authorities for the furtherance of education and training in engineering science
and practice and maintaining contacts with the engineering industry.

4. Does all other things which its Council may think proper, including advising the gov-
ernment, public bodies and other organizations or individuals on matters concerning
engineering and maintains close relationship with the Engineers Registration Board.

5. Does all other things incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above objects or
any of them.

The Institution organises various activities for members including visits to industry and engi-
neering projects. It undertakes from time to time, training courses on various topics geared
towards advancement of engineers. It organises cocktail lectures from distinguished personal-
ities and professionals; it prepares reports/statements on topical issues, which have bearing
to the engineering profession and the society. It holds conferences annually based on various
themes and holds Annual Dinner Dances for its membership.
Annual events i.e, the annual general meetings, the engineers conference and the annual
dinner dance are held in the period April/May each year and it is at the annual dinner dance
that the new Council is ushered in.
The Institution has close collaboration with the Engineers Registration Board, government
ministries, parastatals and universities and collaborates with Institutions and organizations
with similar objectives in Kenya and abroad.
The Institution networks with the following institutions:- Commonwealth Engineers’ Council
(CEC), Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),
Federation of African Engineering Organizations (FAOE), World Federation of Engineering
Organization (WFEO), Africa Engineers Forum, The South African Institution of Civil Engi-
neers (SAICE), Institution of Engineers of Tanzania (IET), Uganda Institution Professional
Engineers (UIPE) and Federation of the Engineering Institutions of East Africa (FEIEA).

17
4. Tools of engineering
4.1 Engineering Analysis
This chapter introduces other core elements of engineering analysis: variables, dimensions,
units, and significant figures, as well as a fail-safe method of dealing with units and dimen-
sions.
The essential idea is that arriving at the right numerical value in performing an analysis
or solving a problem is only one step in the engineers task. The result of an engineering
calculation must:

• involve the appropriate variables;

• be expressed in the appropriate units;

• express the numerical value (with the appropriate number of digits; or significant fig-
ures);

• be accompanied by an explicit method so that others can understand and evaluate the
merits and defects of your analysis or solution.

4.1.1 Variables

A variable is defined as a precisely defined quantity describing an aspect of nature.

The difference between an engineering calculation and a pure mathematical calcula-
tion is that the latter usually focuses on the final numerical answer as the end product of an
analysis. In addition to variables based on measurements and expressed as numbers, a second
key element of engineering analysis is required; units.

4.1.2 Units

In engineering, a calculated quantity always has two parts: the numerical value and its
associated units, if any. It must have the correct numerical value, and it must have
the correct units.
Units are a way of quantifying the underlying concept of dimensions. Dimensions are the
fundamental quantities we perceive such as mass, length, and time. Units provide us with a
numerical scale whereby we can carry out a measurement of a quantity in some dimension.
On the other hand, units are established quite arbitrarily and are codified by civil law or
cultural custom. e.g. How the dimension of length ends up being measured in units of feet
or meters has nothing to do with any physical law. It is solely dependent on the creativity
and ingenuity of people.
Various systems of units include:

• The Imperial System of units, is characterized by having varying and cumbersome

multiplication factors relating fundamental units to subdivisions such as 1760 (miles to
yards), 3 (yards to feet) and 12 (feet to inches).

18
 • The metric system is an alternative set of units, which includes, for instance, the unit
of the metre and its centimetre and millimetre subdivisions for measuring length. All
multiples and subdivisions of basic metric units are related to the base by factors of ten
and such units are therefore much easier to use than Imperial units.

4.2 SI Unit System

The international standard of units is the SI system or, officially, the International System of
Units (Le Syste‘me International dUnites), and has been abbreviated to SI in many languages.
It is the standard of modern science and technology and is based on MKS units (meter,
kilogram, second). The fundamental units in the SI system are:

• The meter (m), the fundamental unit of length

• The second (s), the fundamental unit of time

• The kilogram (kg), the fundamental unit of mass

• The degree kelvin (K), the fundamental unit of temperature

• The mole (mol), the fundamental unit of quantity of particles

• The ampere (A), the fundamental unit of electric current

Table 4.1 illustrates a variety of SI units that were all derived from proper names of scientists
who made discoveries in each of the fields in which these units are used.

Table 4.1: Some SI units and their abbreviations

ampere(A) hertz(Hz) pascal(Pa)
◦
celcius ( C) joule (J) siemens(Si)
coulomb (C) kelvin(K) tesla(T)
farad (F) newton(N) volt(V)
gray (Gy) ohm(Ω) watt(W)

Here are some rules regarding unit names:

• All unit names are written without capitalization (unless they appear at the beginning
of a sentence), regardless of whether they were derived from proper names.

• When the unit is to be abbreviated, the abbreviation is capitalized if the unit was derived
from a proper name.

• Unit abbreviations use two letters only when necessary to prevent them from being
confused with other established unit abbreviations (e.g., Wb for the magnetic field unit
weber to distinguish it from the more common W, the watt unit of power), or to express
prefixes (e.g., kW for kilowatt).

• A unit abbreviation is never pluralized, whereas the units name may be pluralized. For
example, kilograms are abbreviated as kg, and not kgs, newtons as N and not Ns, and
the correct abbreviation of seconds is s, not sec. nor secs.

19
 • Unit name abbreviations are never written with a terminal period unless they appear
at the end of a sentence.

• All other units whose names were not derived from the names of historically important
people are both written and abbreviated with lowercase lettersfor example, meter (m),
kilogram (kg), second (s), and so forth.

There are many SI units pertaining to different quantities being measured and their multiples
thereof (Tables 4.2).

Table 4.2: Some Derived SI Units

Quantity Name Symbol Formula Fundamental Units
Frequency hertz Hz 1/s s−1
Force newton N kg.m/s2 m.kg.s−2
Energy joule J N.m m−2 .kg.s−2
Power watt W J/s m2 .kg.s−3
Electric charge coulomb C A.s A.s
Electric potential volt V W/A m2 .kg.s−3 .A−1
Electric resistance ohm Ω V/A m2 .kg.s−3 .A−2
Electric capacitance farad F C/V m−2 .kg −1 .s4 .A2

Table 4.2 has value beyond merely listing these units: It relates the units name to the fun-
damental MKS units-that is, the fact that a frequency is expressed in hertz may not be as
useful as the fact that a hertz is nothing but the name of an inverse second, s−1 .
In Table 4.3, multiples of these quantities are arranged in factors of 1000 for convenience for
very large and very small multiples thereof.

Table 4.3: SI Unit Prefixes

Multiples Prefixes Symbols Submultiples Prefixes Symbols
1018 exa E 10−1 deci d
1015 peta P 10−2 centi c
1012 tera T 10−3 milli m
109 giga G 10−6 micro µ
106 mega M 10−9 nano n
103 kilo k 10−12 pico p
102 hecto h 10−15 femto f
101 deka da 10−18 atto a

4.3 Force, Weight and Mass

Central to any scientific set of units is the definition of force.
For a constant mass system, Newton’s Second Law of Motion is correctly stated as follows:
Force on a mass is proportional to the acceleration it produces.

20
Newton’s Second Law can be written in an equation form:

F ∝ ma (4.1)

where a is the acceleration of mass m. To convert Newtons force law proportionality into an
equality, we need to introduce a constant of proportionality. Suppose there exists a set
of units for which the force F1 accelerates the mass m1 by a1 . Then Newtons Second Law
can be written as:
F1 ∝ m1 a1 (4.2)
If we now eliminate the proportionality by dividing the general force-defining Equation (4.1)
by Equation (4.2): !
F m a F1
= or F = ma (4.3)
F1 m1 a1 m1 a1

Clearly, the proportionality constant, now explicitly the ratio of a specific force to a specific
mass and to a specific acceleration, is very important to the calculations made with this
equation.

4.3.1 Example 1

What is the force in newtons on a body of mass 102 g (0.102 kg) that is accelerated at 9.81
m/s2 ?
Solution:
F = ma = 0.102 ∗ 9.81[kg][m/s2 ] = 1.00[kg.m/s2 ] = 1.00N (4.4)

Acceleration of special interest is caused by Earths gravity: g = 9.81 m/s−2 . The SI force
acting on 1 kg mass due to gravity is 9.81N Acceleration of gravity yields a force called weight,
W, which can be expressed as:
W = mg (4.5)

4.3.2 Example 2

What is the weight in newtons of a mass of 0.102 kg?

W = 0.102kg ∗ 9.81m/s2 = 1.00062kg.m/s2 = 1.00062N (4.6)

21
4.4 Mathematics in Engineering
Math is present in all disciplines of science and engineering. Traditionally, it has been the
needs of the physical sciences including engineering which have driven the development of
many parts of math, particularly analysis.
Mathematical talent and problem-solving ability is needed in engineering, physics, chemistry
and other sciences. In fact, with the application of mathematics in business and the social
sciences, there is barely a field that does not need a good background in math.
An understanding of key mathematical concepts together with a skill to apply them effectively
to solve engineering problems is an essential ability that every engineering student must
acquire.
Many students learn to solve theoretical problems without being able to apply that knowledge
and further, are exposed to pure rather than applied mathematics. As well, the teachers’
perception of mathematics clearly affects the manner in which it is presented and in turn,
affects students’ perceptions and understanding of mathematics.
Divisions of mathematics in engineering

1. Algebra

2. Geometry

3. Trigonometry

4. Calculus

5. Engineering Statistics

6. Graphical Analysis

4.4.1 Mathematical Procedures

Nonlinear equations

Figure 4.1:

22
Differentiation

Figure 4.2:

What is the acceleration at t=10 seconds(Figure 4.2)?

Simultaneous Linear Equations

Find the velocity profile from

Time, t Velocity, v
s m/s
5 106.8
8 177.2
12 279.2

v(t) = at2 + bt + c; 5 ≤ t ≤ 12 (4.7)

Three simultaneous linear equations:

25a + 5b + c = 106.8; 64a + 8b + c = 177.2; 144a + 12b + c = 279.2 (4.8)

Interpolation

What is the velocity of the rocket at t=10 seconds(Figure 4.3)?

23
 Figure 4.3:

Regression

Thermal expansion coefficient data for cast steel(Figure 4.4): Regression is used to curve fit

Figure 4.4:

the data(Figure 4.5).

α = a0 + a1 T + a2 T 2 = 6.0217 ∗ 10−6 + 6.2782 ∗ 10−9 T − 1.2218 ∗ 10−11 T 2 (4.9)

24
 Figure 4.5:

Integration

Figure 4.6:

Figure 4.6:

Ordinary Differential Equations

How long does it take the trunnion to cool down?

dθ
mc = −hA(θ − θa ), θ(0) = θroom (4.10)
dt

Other Advanced Mathematical Procedures:

• Partial Differential Equations

• Optimization

• Fast Fourier Transform

25
4.5 Computer Tools for Creating Representations
Computer based software has the following advantages:

1. Information is easily updated and modified.

2. Engineering products are stored in databases, therefore, all phases of engineering design
and manufacture can reference the information.

3. Design and analysis software helps the designer study the part for material strength,
fatigue and other properties. These software tools include ATUOCAD, ANSYS, FEM-
LAB.

4.5.1 Some Uses of Computers in Engineering

1. Computer Programming: instructing the computer to perform a task. Use of Pro-

gramming Language: means by which you instruct the computer. The most common
programming language is MATLAB: A high-level programming language and a
special-purpose computing system optimized for engineering and scientific computa-
tions (numerical computation, data analysis, and visualization). Other languages are:
C, C++, Java, FORTRAN, e.t.c.

2. Computing solutions to mathematically expressed problems: Solving differential equa-

tions, finding solutions to non–linear equations and optimization problems

3. Signal and image processing

• Managing/processing sensor data and measurements

• Using C programming to do image de–blurring
• Control of tracking systems

4. Graphical tools (CAD): Design and improve mechanical parts, instruments and devices.

5. Space exploration

6. Physics and Astronomy: Validate theories by running computer simulations e.g. CERN:
annually collects 1 PetaByte of data with the Large Hadron Collider 100PB.

7. Materials: Microstructural simulation of materials, stress analysis, heat transfer, vibra-

tion analysis. e.g. ANSYS, FEMLAB

8. Acoustics: mechanical waves in gas, liquids and solids, vibrations, sound, ultrasound.

26
 Figure 4.7:

4.5.2 Experimentation in Engineering

An example is the Titanic. 1522 died when it sank. There was no software engineering and
tesing done then. Maybe the ship’s design could have been better.
Engineering projects are experiments that involve technology development and humans. Con-
siderations made when choosing an experimentation method are:

1. How much? Expensive!

2. Sophistication level of software, how deployed matters

3. Historical information about software-test is used to know how much is needed now

Role of engineers in experimentation

• Engineers are asked to make things work without all the available scientific knowledge
(including that about humans), safety facts, environment, health, social influences, etc.

• Good design relies on information gathered before and after a product leaves the
factory - especially when the product is tested in its true environment, not fake ones
used to simulate the real environment (e.g., temperature cycling electronic products)

• We redesign using the public to test our products. Special care is obviously needed for
safety, avoiding loss of customers. e.g. Software test for popular software (e.g., word
processing programs, spreadsheets, etc.), computer hardware

Engineer as an experimentalist

1. Experiment control?

27
 • Cannot control what humans may do with a product
• What applications will it be used for?
• Will they subject it to unforseen stresses?

2. Informed consent? (e.g., in medical trials)

• Keystone of engineer - public interaction

• What experiments are acceptable? Keep in mind that there is a large variance on
the types of customers you might have. Can they all read?

3. Knowledge gained? Seek the unexpected!

Responsible Experimentalists

An engineer experimenting should have the following qualities:

1. Conscientiousness: Protect safety knowledge, respect right of consent of public

2. Comprehensive perspective: Awareness of experimental nature of projects, forecasting,

monitoring

3. Moral autonomy: Personally engaged, thoughtful, involvement in project

4. Accountability: Accept responsibility for results of a project (avoid fragmentation, dif-

fusion, time pressures)

Despite the fact that other professionals are involved in experimentation, the engineers are
in a unique position to:

1. Monitor projects

2. Identify risks

3. Develop facts for informed consent

An engineering professional will take on the responsibility!

Role of Laws in Engineering

Laws can produce many benefits:

1. Produce minimal standards of professional conduct

2. Provide motive to comply with standards

3. Provide support and defense for people who wish to act ethically

28
Case study

I was involved in designing and testing network communication software. Some tests were
still being run when clients requested the software. We were unable to finish the tests, and
gave the product to the customer knowing that the system caused lock-ups and loss of data.
We then used the feedback from these clients to debug the software, and repeated the process.
What to do?

Considerations

1. Does the engineer skip the tests required to give the customer what they need?

2. Weigh the cost of breakdown versus the cost of waiting for experimentation to be com-
plete.

Meeting specifications versus Minimalism My problem came with a company involved

in the design and manufacturing of PC power supplies. Some manufacturing organizations,
have focused on 100% minimal compliance and hence substituted parts to achieve their cost
objectives. This resulted in unsafe final consumer products. An industry push for CSA and
UL certification of power supply modules enhanced the minimal level achieved for standard
sub assemblies. Since the FCC and FTC act as police organizations, it is not usually known
that there is a problem until much mayhem occurs. When other companies began selling
”smoking PCs” the industry began to push to use only modules which would meet UL and
CSA standards. The minimalists were forced to up the ante or lose considerable business.
Should an engineering professional be a minimalist? Role of tests?

29
5. Engineers and Communication
5.1 The information seeking process
There are five basic steps in the traditional research process:

1. Identify and define the topic, research question or problem

2. Select the specific keywords or terms that best describe your topic

3. Select the appropriate information resource and perform a search

4. Evaluate the search results and identify the specific books, articles, technical papers,
chapters, pages and so on that will give the most relevant information

5. Locate the materials and synthesize the information to solve a problem

The internet has improved information location but the first four steps are crucial with any
type of search.
Good starting points for location of information are:

1. Databases - libraries, internet. Some databases offer full text documents while others
give you abstracts articles from journals and other sources. In using databases, choose
the correct database. All databases share fundamental searching concepts.

2. Print reference sources - These are peer reviewed and carefully edited. Print resources
are more authoritative and controlled because of cost of publishing. E.g. encyclopedias,
handbooks, dictionaries, textbooks.

3. Web resources - Unreliable due to no peer review or filtration.

5.2 The Engineer as a Writer

Guidelines to writing are:

1. Plan and organize your thoughts before writing – foresee or determine the shape of what
is to come and pursue that shape.

2. Prepare an outline – helps the writer think through the composition and improve its
logic and internal order.

3. Avoid a boring structure – Make the paragraph the unit of composition. It should
have the main theme and be introduced by a topic sentence. Divide composition into
chapters, sections and subsections with appropriate headings and titles. Present complex
data as lists or tables rather than narrative form

4. Strive for brevity and clarity – Short sentences preferred than long sentences, Short
words preferred more than long words. e.g. instead of close proximity, just say near.

30
 5. Adapt your writing style to the intended audience – consider the educational back-
ground, socioeconomic level, age and interests of the readers. e.g. papers in technical
journals may contain chemical formulas, theoretical calculations, description of method-
ology and carefully drawn inferences and conclusions. Articles and reports for general
audience may use plain language and simple illustrations, stressing practical, personal
implications and applications of information being transmitted.

6. Avoid the use of slang and fad words - OK, terrific, tremendous should not be used in
technical writing. Fad words such as prioritize, finalize, bottom line should be avoided.

7. Avoid redundancies – component or parts instead of component parts, unique instead

of most unique.

8. Avoid euphemisms – They clutter good writing and should not be used. E.g. sanitation
engineer should be replaced with garbage collector. Previously owned vehicle should be
replaced with used car.

9. Avoid spelling errors and poor grammar.

5.2.1 Types of Engineering Writing

1. Logs and notebooks – informal records of work by routinely making entries in diary or
log. e.g results of lab experiments, notes of meetings, records of conversations with
colleagues.

2. Memoranda and Business Letters – Internal correspondence is done via memo which are
short and deal with single subject. They include date, addressee(TO), writer(FROM),
topic(SUBJECT) and message.

3. Technical report which should include:

(a) Title Page: The title of the technical report should clearly identify the report.
Should be descriptive and accurate, but not wordy, verbose or too terse.
(b) Abstract: Gives readers an honest evaluation of the report’s content, so they can
quickly judge whether they should spend their valuable time reading the entire
report. This section should give a true, brief description of the report’s content.
The length of an abstract corresponds to the report”s length. So, for example,
if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn”t use more than 150 words in the
Abstract.
(c) Introduction: defines the subject, purpose and scope of the report and plan of
development.
(d) Methodology: defines the steps taken to accomplish the work
(e) Results: outcome of the investigation
(f) Conclusion: Inferences drawn from the factual evidence of the report
(g) Recommendations: recommended course of action based on the conclusion.
(h) Acknowledment: recognize organizations that have made significant contribution to
the project
(i) Bibliography: Books, journal articles, other references used in report preparation.
A list of cited works are usually headed References.

31
 4. Journal Papers: The results of work is published in technical journals. Journal papers
are briefer than technical report but are similar in organization and content.

5. Specifications: to communicate to builders, fabricators and manufacturers information

about materials, dimensions and workmanship for something to be built, installed or
manufactured.

5.2.2 Engineering Drawing as a Means of Communication

Engineering Drawing is a method of communication for engineers. These are:

1. Lines and conventions and lettering

2. Sketching

3. Pictorial representations

4. Orthographic representation

5. Section views

6. Auxiliary views.

5.2.3 ANSI Line Convention and Lettering

Figure 5.1:

32
 1. Visible lines: solid thick lines for visible edges

2. Hidden lines: short evenly spaced thin dashes to depict hidden features of an object

3. Section lines: solid thin lines indicating the cut surface of an object in section view

4. Center lines: alternating short and long thin dashes. Represent axes of assymetrical
parts and paths of motion

5. Solid thin lines used for:

(a) Dimension lines: extent and direction of dimensions

(b) Extension lines: point or line on the drawing to which the dimension applies
(c) Leader: direct notes, dimensions, symbols, item numbers, part numbers to features
on the drawing

6. Cutting plane and viewing plane indicate the location of cutting planes for sectional
views

7. Break lines indicate that only a portion of the object is drawn. Long ruled thin dashes
joined by zigzags may be used for break lines.

8. Phantom lines indicate alternate positions of moving parts, adjacent positions of related
parts and repeated detail. Long thin dashes separated by pairs of short thin dashes.

5.3 The Engineer as a Speaker

5.3.1 Guidelines for effective speaking

Know your Subject Matter: It is very important that you research every nuance of your
subject. Read reports and look up information about the subject with the specific
purpose of writing a presentation script. This is done in order to develop new ideas and
alternative ways of thinking. The ability to present a subject with confidence directly
affects your audience’s impressions and will help keep their attention. This is especially
important when giving a design presentation or proposal since you are in effect selling”
your ideas to the audience. This applies whether the audience is a potential client or
your own board of directors.

Know your Audience: A small amount of research into the makeup of your audience will
reap large benefits on presentation day. If you are speaking on behalf of a new construc-
tion project, you would tailor vastly different presentations to an audience of engineers
and a city council. You should also have a couple of other versions for local community
activist groups. (depending on whether they’re for or against the project)

Know Yourself(And Your Limits): Knowing a few of your limits, however, might avert
disaster, or at least embarassment. Your ”limits” are just where you may or may not
tread, depending on the makeup of your audience and your relationship with them. e.g.
Just because the Mormons laughed when Whoopee Goldberg said or did something
doesn’t mean you can pull it off. The Presbyterians might think it amusing while the
Baptists call it blasphemy.

33
Develop a Theme: All presentations, regardless of their complexity, are designed with a
single purpose. Whether that purpose is to sell, educate, or for pure entertainment,
state that purpose to yourself at the beginning of the development process. Keep this
purpose in mind always.

Prepare your Script Make simple notes on 3 x 5 file cards. Other presenters and presen-
tations require a carefully composed, professionally developed script. The exact form
of the script depends on the formality of the presentation, the make up of the audience
and who will be presenting it. Any presentation script, regardless of complexity is like
any other business correspondence. It should consist of the same four basic parts, an
opening, body, summary and closing.

1. Opening: sets the stage for what is to follow. Participants are introduced and the
purpose of the presentation is stated. You should also present a VERY BRIEF
summary or outline of the points to be covered. This helps keep your audience
oriented properly within the framework of your script.
2. Body: The bulk of the subject matter is presented. The body of a long presentation
should be separated into smaller, easily assimilated modules. Each module or sub–
section should make a single point or convey one idea. These sub–sections should
each have their own simple opening, body and summary.
3. Summary: This portion should be very brief and simple. Here is your chance to
reinforce the central theme and purpose of your presentation. Briefly emphasize
the key points and main ideas of your script in this section.
4. Question and answer sessions often follow a final summary and are very productive
if managed properly. You should encourage questions from the audience if time or
format permits, but be prepared to answer them. If you do not know the correct
answer to a question, don’t try to fake it. You should refer the question to someone
who can answer it correctly or make a note to yourself to obtain the answer later.
When you do, contact the person or persons who asked it as soon as possible. This
makes an excellent door opener for follow up calls.
5. Closing: In a well structured closing, points raised during the question and answer
session (if any) are summarized and any handout material that was not required
during the presentation is distributed. Handout material which emphasizes each
key point or idea permits your audience to review the subject and assures that your
words will remain fresh in their minds. Handout material should be distributed
after a presentation as it leads to audience distraction.

Select the Proper Visual Aids: A five minute presentation to a three person audience is
probably best made with handout material alone, or even simple flip charts. Larger
audiences might be effectively reached by using a few simple overhead transparencies
and computer presentations e.g. Powerpoint, Openoffice.

Prepare a Story Board: This is one of the most important design tools used to produce
your graphics. A story board does not have to be complicated or time consuming to
prepare. Its main purpose is to give a general view of the presentation and communicate
the important items to the technicians and artists who are creating and assembling the
images. You can make your story board using file cards and post- it notes, or opt for
a comprehensive color story board, prepared by professional designers. The final story

34
 board should consist of a sketch of each individual image, in sufficient detail to convey
its approximate finished appearance. If more detailed instructions are needed to create
an image than can be clearly conveyed on the story board, individual layout sheets
should be prepared. These sheets should specify colors, formats, fonts and values for
graphs and charts. If specific artwork or photographs must be used in an image, they
should be clearly indicated on the story board or layout sheet for that image.

Produce the Visuals: If the previous steps have been carefully followed, this can be the
easiest part of preparing your presentation. This is the process of producing your
presentation. Today’s computer graphics products permit you to make changes and
alterations that could not be accomplished using any other method of production. While
last minute changes are possible, avoiding them can still help cut the cost of your
presentation by eliminating revision and rush fees.

Rehearse: Your final script and outline or story board permit you to rehearse your presen-
tation even before the visuals are completed. This assures that when your final images
are prepared and ready, you will be as well.

Presentation Day: On the day of the presentation, arrive and set up early. Have spare
projector bulbs and extra copies of the handout material close at hand. Speak clearly
and with authority. A little humor if tastefully added can help break the tension of the
moment. There should be no surprises. Make certain that the audience questions have
been addressed, and of course, thank everyone for attending.

Follow up: Check back with the attendants and participants to assure that your presentation
goals were met. A questionnaire distributed at the end of your presentation can be a
source of critical information for follow up calls or future presentations. Encourage the
attendants to call or write with any questions that they did not get answered during
the presentation.

5.3.2 Presentation Tips for Public Speaking

• Dress appropriately for the occasion.

• Be solemn if your topic is serious.

• Present the desired image to your audience. Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident,
proud, but not arrogant.

• Remain calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel nervous. Speak slowly, enunciate clearly,
and show appropriate emotion and feeling relating to your topic.

• Establish rapport with your audience. Speak to the person farthest away from you to
ensure your voice is loud enough to project to the back of the room. Vary the tone of
your voice and dramatize if necessary. If a microphone is available, adjust and adapt
your voice accordingly.

• Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand
gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down
and reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if
appropriate and necessary. Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience.

35
• Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint well before your presenta-
tion. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or
gaudy colors which are inappropriate for your topic. Do not torture your audience by
putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and reading it out to them.

• Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your
audience effectively. The material you present orally should have the same ingredients
as that which are required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from
INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement) to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accu-
rate and up–to–date information) to CONCLUSION (re–state thesis, summary, and
logical conclusion).

• Know when to STOP talking.

36
6. Engineering Economics
Engineers are tasked more and more to place their project ideas within the larger framework
of the environment within a specific planet, country, or region. Engineers must ask themselves
if a particular project will offer some net benefit to the people who will be affected by the
project, after considering its inherent benefits, plus any negative side-effects (externalities),
plus the cost of consuming natural resources, both in the price that must be paid for them
and the realization that once they are used for that project, they will no longer be available
for any other project(s).
Simply put, engineers must decide if the benefits of a project exceed its costs, and must make
this comparison in a unified framework. The framework within which to make this comparison
is the field of engineering economics, which strives to answer exactly these questions, and
perhaps more. The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) states that
engineering ”is the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences
gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize,
economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind”.1
It should be clear from this discussion that consideration of economic factors is as important
as regard for the physical laws and science that determine what can be accomplished with
engineering.
Engineering economics is the application of economic techniques to the evaluation of design
and engineering alternatives.
The role of engineering economics is to:

• assess the appropriateness of a given project,

• estimate its value,

• justify it from an engineering standpoint.

6.0.3 Physical Environment

Engineers produce products and services depending on physical laws (e.g. Ohm’s law; New-
ton’s law). Physical efficiency takes the form:
system output
P hysical(ef f iciency) = (6.1)
system input(s)

6.0.4 Economic Environment

Much less of a quantitative nature is known about economic environments – this is due to
economics being involved with the actions of people, and the structure of organizations.
Satisfaction of the physical and economic environments is linked through production and con-
struction processes. Engineers need to manipulate systems to achieve a balance in attributes
in both the physical and economic environments, and within the bounds of limited resources.
Following are some examples where engineering economy plays a crucial role:

37
 1. Choosing the best design for a high-efficiency gas furnace,

2. Selecting the most suitable robot for a welding operation on an automotive assembly
line,

3. Making a recommendation about whether jet airplanes for an overnight delivery service
should be purchased or leased,

4. Considering the choice between reusable and disposable bottles for high-demand bev-
erages.

With items 1 and 2 in particular, note that coursework in engineering should provide sufficient
means to determine a good design for a furnace, or a suitable robot for an assembly line, but
it is the economic evaluation that allows the further definition of a best design or the most
suitable robot.

6.1 Economic Efficiency

Is defined as:
system worth
Economic(ef f iciency) = (6.2)
system cost

Economic efficiency can exceed unity, and in fact should, if a project is to be deemed eco-
nomically feasible. The most difficult part of determining economic efficiency is accounting
for all the factors which might be considered benefits or costs of a particular project, and
converting these benefits or costs into a monetary equivalent. Consider for example a trans-
portation construction project which promises to reduce everyone’s travel time to work. How
do we place a value on that travel time savings? This is one of the fundamental questions of
engineering economics.
In the final evaluation of most ventures, economic efficiency takes precedence over physical
efficiency because projects cannot be approved, regardless of their physical efficiency, if there
is no conceived demand for them amongst the public, if they are economically infeasible, or
if they do not constitute the ”wisest” use of those resources which they require.
There are numerous examples of engineering systems that have physical design but little
economic worth (i.e it may simply be too expensive !!). Consider a proposal to purify all of
the water used by a large city by boiling it and collecting it again through condensation. This
type of experiment is done in junior physical science labs every day, but at the scale required
by a large city, is simply too costly.

6.2 Role of Uncertainity in Engineering

When conducting engineering economic analyses, it will be assumed at first, for simplicity,
that benefits, costs, and physical quantities will be known with a high degree of confidence.
This degree of confidence is sometimes called assumed certainty. In virtually all situations,
however, there is some doubt as to the ultimate values of various quantities. Both risk and
uncertainty in decision-making activities are caused by a lack of precise knowledge regarding
future conditions, technological developments, synergies among funded projects, etc. Deci-
sions under risk are decisions in which the analyst models the decision problem in terms of

38
assumed possible future outcomes, or scenarios, whose probabilities of occurrence can be es-
timated. Of course, this type of analysis requires an understanding of the field of probability.
Decisions under uncertainty, by contrast, are decision problems characterized by several un-
known futures for which probabilities of occurrence cannot be estimated. Other less objective
means exist for the analysis of such problems.
For the purposes of this brief tutorial, we cannot delve further into the analytical extensions
required to accommodate risk or uncertainty in the decision process. We must recognize that
these things exist, however, and be careful about reaching strong conclusions based on data
which might be susceptible to these. Because engineering is concerned with actions to be
taken in the future, an important part of the engineering process is improving the certainty
of decisions with respect to satisfying the objectives of engineering applications.

6.3 The engineering process

Engineering activities dealing with elements of the physical environment take place to meet
human needs that arise in an economic setting. The engineering process employed from the
time a particular need is recognized until it is satisfied may be divided into a number of
phases:

1. Determination of Objectives This step involves finding out what people need and
want that can be supplied by engineering. People’s wants may arise from logical con-
siderations, emotional drives, or a combination of the two.

2. Identification of Strategic Factors The factors that stand in the way of attaining ob-
jectives are known as limiting factors. Once the limiting factors have been identified,
they are examined to locate strategic factors – those factors which can be altered to
remove limitations restricting the success of an undertaking. A woman who wants to
empty the water from her swimming pool might be faced with the limiting factor that
she only has a bucket to do the job with, and this would require far greater time and
physical exertion than she has at her disposal. A strategic factor developed in response
to this limitation would be the procurement of some sort of pumping device which could
do the job much more quickly, with almost no physical effort on the part of the woman.

3. Determination of means (engineering proposals) This step involves discovering what

means exist to alter strategic factors in order to overcome limiting factors. In the pre-
vious example, one means was to buy (or rent) a pump. Of course, if the woman had a
garden hose, she might have been able to siphon the water out of the pump. In other
engineering applications, it may be necessary to fabricate the means to solve problems
from scratch.

4. Evaluation of Engineering Proposals It is usually possible to accomplish the same

result with a variety of means. Once these means have been described fully, in the form
of project proposals, economic analysis can be employed to determine which among
them, if any, is the best means for solving the problem at hand.

5. Assistance in Decision Making It is commonplace for the final decision-making re-

sponsibility to fall on the head(s) of someone other than the engineer(s). The person(s)
so charged, however, may not be sufficiently knowledgeable about the technical aspects

39
 of a proposal to determine its relevant worth compared to other means. The engineer
can help to bridge this gap.

The four key steps in planning an economic study are :

1. Creative Step : People with vision and initiative adopt the premise that better op-
portunities exist than are known to them. This leads to research, exploration, and
investigation of potential opportunities.
2. Definition Step : System alternatives are synthesised with economic requirements
and physical requirements, and enumerated with respect to inputs/outputs.
3. Conversion Step : The attributes of system alternatives are converted to a common
measure so that systems can be compared. Future cash flows are assigned to each
alternative, consisting of the time-value of money.
4. Decision Step : Qualitative and quantitative inputs and outputs to/from each system
form the basis for system comparison and decision making. Decisions among system
alternatives should be made on the basis of their differences. For a small number of
real world systems there will be complete knowledge. All facts/information and their
relationships, judgements and predictive behavior become a certainty. For most systems,
however, even after all of the data that can be bought to bear on it has been considered,
some areas of uncertainty are likely to remain. If a decision must be made, these areas
of uncertainty must be bridged by consideration of non-quantitative data/information,
such as common sense, judgement and so forth.
• Decisions among system alternatives should be made on the basis of their differ-
ences.
• For a small number of real world systems there will be complete knowledge. Dll
facts/information and their relationships, judgements and predictive behavior be-
come a certainty.
• For most systems, however, even after all of the data that can be bought to bear on
it has been considered, some areas of uncertainty are likely to remain. If a decision
must be made, these areas of uncertainty must be bridged by consideration of non-
quantitative data/information, such as common sense, judgement and so forth.

Examples:

• Infrastructure expenditure decision

• Replace versus repair decisions
• Selection of inspection method
• Selection of a replacement for an equipment

6.4 FUNDAMENTAL ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Economics deals with the behavior of people, and as such, economic concepts are usually
qualitative in nature, and not universal in application.

40
6.4.1 UTILITY

Utility is the power of a good or service to satisfy human needs.

6.4.2 VALUE

• Designates the worth that a person attaches to an object or service.

• Is a measure or appraisal of utility in some medium of exchange.

• Is not the same as cost or price.

6.4.3 CONSUMER AND PRODUCER GOODS

• Consumer goods : Consumer goods are the goods and services that directly satisfy
human wants. For example, TV, shoes, houses.

• Producer goods : Producer goods are the goods and services that satisfy human
wants indirectly as a part of the production or construction process. For example,
factory equipment, industrial chemicals ands materials.

6.4.4 UTILITY OF GOODS

• Consumer goods: Basic human needs of food, clothing and shelter. In commercial
advertisements, emphasis is given to senses not reasoning. The utility in this case is
considered objectively and/or subjectively.

• Producer goods: The utility stems for their means to get to an end. The utility in
this case is considered objectively.

6.4.5 ECONOMY OF EXCHANGE

• Occurs when utilities are exchanged by two or more people.

• It is possible because consumer utilities are evaluated subjectively.

• Represents mutual benefit in exchange.

• Persuasion in exchange. Salesperson.

6.4.6 ECONOMY OF ORGANIZATION

Through organizations, ends can be attained or attained more economically by:

1. Labor saving

2. Efficiency in manufacturing or capital use

41
6.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COST
A key objective in engineering applications is the satisfaction of human needs, which will
nearly always imply a cost. Economic analyses may be based on a number of cost classifica-
tions:

First (or Initial) Cost : Cost to get activity started such as property improvement, trans-
portation, installation, and initial expenditures.

Operation and Maintenance Cost : They are experienced continually over the usefull
life of the activity.

Fixed Cost : Fixed costs arise from making preparations for the future, and includes costs
associated with ongoing activities throughout the operational life-time of that concern.
Fixed costs are relatively constant; they are decoupled from the system input/output,
for example.

Variable Cost : Variable costs are related to the level of operational activity (e.g. the cost
of fuel for construction equipment will be a function of the number of days of use).

Incremental or Marginal Cost : Incremental (or marginal) cost is the additional expense
that will be incurred from increased output in one or more system units (i.e. production
increase). It is determined from the variable cost.

Sunk Cost : It cannot be recovered or altered by future actions. Usually this cost is not a
part of engineering economic analysis.

Life-Cycle Cost : This is cost for the entire life-cycle of a product, and includes feasibility,
design, construction, operation and disposal costs.

6.6 SUPPLY AND DEMAND

1. Demand curve shows the number of units people are willing to buy and cost per unit
(decreasing curve).

2. Supply curve shows the number of units that vendors will offer for sale and unit price
(increasing curve).

3. The intersection defines the exchange price.

4. Elasticity of demand. Price changes and their effect on demand changes. It depends on
whether the consumer product is a necessity or a luxury.

5. Law of diminishing return. A process can be improved at a rate with a diminishing

return. Example: cost of inspection to reduce cost of repair and lost production.

6.7 INTEREST RATE

Interest is a rental amount charged by financial institutions for the use of money.

42
 1. Called also the rate of capital growth, it is the rate of gain received from an investment.
2. It is expressed on an annual basis.
3. For the lender, it consists, for convenience, of
(a) risk of loss,
(b) administrative expenses, and
(c) profit or pure gain.
4. For the borrower, it is the cost of using a capital for immediately meeting his or her
needs.

6.8 TIME VALUE OF MONEY

The following are reasons why Kshs. 1000 today is worth more than Kshs. 1000 one year
from today:

1. Inflation
2. Risk
3. Cost of money

The cost of money is the most predictable, and, hence, it is the essential component of
economic analysis. Cost of money is represented by:

1. money paid for the use of borrowed money, or

2. return on investment.

Time value of money is defined as the time–dependent value of money stemming both from
changes in the purchasing power of money (inflation or deflation) and from the real earning
potential of alternative investments over time.

6.8.1 Cash–Flow Diagrams

It is difficult to solve a problem if you cannot see it. The easiest way to approach problems
in economic analysis is to draw a picture. The picture should show three things:

1. A time interval divided into an appropriate number of equal periods

2. All cash outflows (deposits, expenditures, etc.) in each period
3. All cash inflows (withdrawals, income, etc.) for each period

Unless otherwise indicated, all such cash flows are considered to occur at the end of their
respective periods.
Figure 6.1 is a cash-flow diagram showing an outflow or disbursement of $1000 at the beginning
of year 1 and an inflow or return of $2000 at the end of year 5.

43
 Figure 6.1: Cash–flow diagram.

6.9 EARNING POWER OF MONEY

The earning power of money represents funds borrowed for the prospect of gain. Often these
funds will be exchanges for goods, services, or production tools, which in turn can be employed
to generate and economic gain.

6.10 PURCHASING POWER OF MONEY

The prices of goods and services can go upward or downward, and therefore, the purchasing
power of money can change with time.

1. Price Reductions : Caused by increases in productivity and availability of goods.

2. Price Increases : Caused by government policies, price support schemes, and deficit
financing.

6.10.1 Notation

To simplify the subject of economic analysis, symbols are introduced to represent types of
cash flows. The following symbols will be used here:

P: Present sum of money (Kshs)

F: Future sum of money (Kshs)

N: Number of interest periods

i: Interest rate per period (%)

44
6.11 Interest Calculations
Interest is the money paid for the use of borrowed money or the return on invested capital.

6.11.1 Simple interest

Let F (N ) = Future sum of money after N periods. Then, simple interest can be calulated by:

F (1) = P + (P )(i) = P (1 + i) (6.3)

Example Kshs 100 at 10 percent per year for 5 yr yields:

F (5) = 100[1 + (5)(0.1)]

= 100(1.5)
= Kshs.150 (6.4)

Compound interest

However, interest is almost universally compounded to include interest on the interest.

F (N ) = P (1 + i)N (6.5)

Example: Kshs. 100 at 10 percent per year for 5 yr yields:

F (5) = 100(1 + 0.1)5

= 100(1.1)5
= 100(1.61051)
= Kshs.161.05 (6.6)

This is over 7 percent greater than with simple interest.

Example: In 1966, Makau bought 4 acres of land from the Kiprotich for Kshs. 60. At an
average interest rate of 6 %, what is the present value (2011) of the land?

F = P (1 + i)N
= 60(1 + 0.06)45 (6.7)

This is a reasonable approximation of the present land value of the Makau’s land.
In the formula for finding the future value of a sum of money with compound interest, the
mathematical expression (1 + i)N is referred to as the compound amount factor.

6.11.2 Interest Factors

Interest factors are multiplicative numbers calculated from interest formulas for given interest
rates and periods. They are used to convert cash flows occurring at different times to a
common time.

45
Compound Amount Factor

In the formula for finding the future value of a sum of money with compound interest, the
mathematical expression (1 + i)N is referred to as the compound amount factor.

Present Worth

Present worth is the value found by discounting future cash flows to the present or base time.

Discounting: The inverse of compounding is determining a present amount which will yield
a specified future sum. This process is referred to as discounting.
The equation for discounting is found readily by using the compounding equation to solve for
P in terms of F:
P = F (1 + i)−N (6.8)

Example What present sum will yield Kshs.1000 in 5 yr at 10 percent?

P = 1000(1.1)−5
= 1000(0.62092)
= Kshs.620.92 (6.9)
(6.10)

This result means that Kshs. 620.92 deposited today at 10% compounded annually will yield
Kshs. 1000 in 5 yrs.

Present worth factor: The expression (1 + i)−N is called the present worth factor. The
present worth factor is the reciprocal of the compound amount factor.

Interest Periods Normally, but not always, the interest period is taken as 1 yr. There
may be subperiods of quarters, months, weeks, and so forth.

Nominal versus effective interest: It is generally assumed that interest is compounded

annually. However, interest may be compounded more frequently. When this occurs, there is a
nominal interest or annual percentage rate and an effective interest, which is the figure used in
calculations. For example, a savings bank may offer 5 percent interest compounded quarterly,
which is not the same as 5 percent per year. A nominal rate of 5 percent compounded quarterly
is the same as 1.25 percent every three months or an effective rate of 5.1 percent per year.
The effective interest rate is !M
r
i= 1+ −1 (6.11)
M
where r is the nominal interest rate and M is the number of subperiods per year.

46
Example: Credit cards usually charge interest at a rate of 1.5% per month. This amount
is a nominal rate of 18%. What is the effective rate?
!!12
0.18
i = 1+ 1+
12
i = (1 + 0.015)12 − 1
= 1.1956 − 1
= 19.56% (6.12)
(6.13)

6.12 Comparison of Alternatives

Most decisions are based on economic criteria. Investments are unattractive, unless it seems
likely they will be recovered with interest. Economic decisions can be divided into two classes:

1. Income-expansionthat is, the objective of capitalism

2. Cost-reductionthe basis of profitability

There are four common methods of comparing alternative investments:

1. present worth,

2. annual cost,

3. rate of return, and

4. benefit-cost analysis.

6.12.1 NET CASH FLOW OF INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Payments and disbursements need to be determined. Then a net cash flow can be developed.

6.12.2 PRESENT-WORTH AMOUNT

It is the difference between the equivalent receipts and disbursements at the present.

Assume Ft is a cash flow at time t, the present worth (PW) is

P W (i) = F (t) ∗ [1 + i]−t (6.14)

for any interest −1 < i < inf inity

47
6.12.3 ANNUAL EQUIVALENT AMOUNT

The annual equivalent amount is the annual equivalent receipts minus the annual equivalent
disbursements of a cash flow. It is used for repeated cash flows per year.

AE(i) = P W (i) ∗ (A/P, i, n)

" #
i(1+i)n
= [F (t) ∗ [1 + i]−t ] ∗ (1+i)n −1 (6.15)

Example :

Given the following cash flow:

Year end Receipts Disbursements

0 0.00 -1000.00
1 400.00 0.00
2 900.00 -1000.00
3 400.00 ....
4 900.00 -1000.00
... ....... ....
n-2 900.00 -1000.00
n-1 400.00 0.00
n 900.00 0.00

Therefore,

AE(10) = [−1000 + 400(P/F, 10, 1) + 900(P/F, 10, 2)](A/P, 10, 2) (6.16)

for 10%, or

AE(10) = [−1000 + 400(0.9091) + 900(0.8265)](0.5762)

= 61.93 (6.17)
(6.18)

6.12.4 FUTURE WORTH AMOUNT

It is the difference between the equivalent receipts and disbursements at s ome common point
in the future.
Ft ∗ [1 + i][n−t] (6.19)
for any interest rate −1 < i < inf inity.
PW, AE, and FW differ in the point of time used to compare the equivalent amounts.

6.12.5 INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN

The internal rate of return (IRR) is the interest rate that causes the equi= valent receipts of
a cash flow to be equal to the equivalent disbursements = of the cash flow. Solve for i* such

48
that
0 = P W (i∗) = F (t) ∗ [1 + i∗]− t (6.20)

MEANING OF IRR

It represents the rate of return on the unrecovered balance of an investment (or loan). The
following equation can be developed for loans:

Ut = U( t − 1) ∗ [1 + i∗ ] + Ft (6.21)

where: Uo = Initial amount of loan or first cost of asset (Fo ), Ft = Amount received at the
end of period t and i∗ = IRR.

It should be noted that the basic equation for i∗ requires the solution of the roots of a nonlinear
(polynomial) function. Therefore, more than one root might exist. In case of multiple IRR,
other methods can be used.

6.12.6 PAYBACK PERIOD

Without Interest : The payback period without interest is the length of time required to
recover the first cost of an investment from the cash flow produced by the investment
for an interest rate of zero. It can be computer as the smallest n that produces
t=n
X
= [Ft > 0] (6.22)
t=0

With Interest: The payback period with interest is the length of time required to recover
the first cost of an investment from the cash flow produced by the investment for a given
interest rate. It can be computer as the smallest n that produces
t=n
X
Ft ∗ [1 + i]−t >= 0 (6.23)
t=0

49
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING June 3, 2011
CAT 1 TIME: 45 min

1. Describe, giving examples, the history of engineering. [4 marks]

2. List the members of the engineering team, describing the duties of each. [6
marks]
3. An engineering firm in Naivasha manufactures chemicals. The wastes pro-
duced during the manufacturing process are dumped into Lake Naivasha.
The person in charge of the waste disposal is the chief engineer(production).
(a) Describe the obligations of the engineering field that the chief engineer
has broken. [6 marks]
(b) Describe the engineering body that would hold an enquiry concerning
this issue. [2 marks]
4. List five attributes of a good engineer. [5 marks]
5. Describe four functions of engineering. [6 marks]
6. Materials engineering is a branch of engineering. Describe what a materials
engineer does.
[1 mark]

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING June 3, 2011

CAT 1 TIME: 45 min

1. Describe, giving examples, the history of engineering. [4 marks]

2. List the members of the engineering team, describing the duties of each. [6
marks]
3. An engineering firm in Naivasha manufactures chemicals. The wastes pro-
duced during the manufacturing process are dumped into Lake Naivasha.
The person in charge of the waste disposal is the chief engineer(production).
(a) Describe the obligations of the engineering field that the chief engineer
has broken. [6 marks]
(b) Describe the engineering body that would hold an enquiry concerning
this issue. [2 marks]
4. List five attributes of a good engineer. [5 marks]
5. Describe four functions of engineering. [6 marks]
6. Materials engineering is a branch of engineering. Describe what a materials
engineer does.
[1 mark]