Subject

STYLISTICS-1
Topic of assignment

Pragmatic analysis of literature

Discourse: cohesion, textuality, clause relation

Group members

Laraib Mehboob
Alisha Zafar.
Jahanzaib Riasat.
Nimra Sajjid
Hina Sehar
Aiman ishaq
Submitted to
Sir Umer Bajwa

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
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Pragmatics and its relation with stylistics

Pragmatics

"Study of invisible meaning "or how we recognize what is meant even when it's not actually
said / written.

It's study of "language in use".

It examines how context effect meaning.Context help us to understand intended

meaning.There are two types of context.

Physical context

"Location "where words or phrases are encountered.

Example:- "let's go to the Bank "

Bank may be institution or bank of river, understanding which bank is being referred to
depends on physical location where listener encounter these words.

Linguistic context

Set of other words used in sentence .

Example:- Get to the bank to withdraw cash.

Here to withdraw cash is linguistic context which help us understand which bank is being
referred to.

Diexes

It refers to "Pointing via language".

Diexes are used to point toward people,place or time.

Person diexes me ,us ,our (near ) Them,him,she(far)

Spatial diexes Here ,behind me(near) There ,those hills(far)

Temporal diexes Now, today(near) Then , yesterday (far)

Implicature

Implicature refers to the meaning that is implied by a speaker but not explicitly stated.

Example:- The Queen is English and therefore brave.

Here Implicature is that all English people are brave.

Types of implicature
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Conversational Implicature:

A type of implicature which is based on the context of the conversation.

Grice proposed four conversational maxims:

1. Maxim of Quality: Be truthful.

2. Maxim of Quantity: Be as informative as required.

3. Maxim of Relevance: Be relevant.

4. Maxim of Manner: Be clear, orderly, and unambiguous.

When a speaker appears to flout (break) these maxims, listeners infer additional meanings,
creating implicatures.

Example:-

Person A: "How was your trip to Europe?"

Person B: "It was fine."

In this example, Person B is flouting the Maxim of Quantity by not providing enough
information about their trip.Person B's underinforming implies that they don't want to talk
about their trip.

Conventional implicature :

This type of implicature is based on the conventional meaning of words or phrases not on the
context.

Example:-

"Even John managed to pass."

Implicature: It was unexpected or surprising that John passed.

Scalar Implicature:
This type of implicature is based on the scale of values or quantities.
Example:

For example, if someone says "I'm somewhat hungry", the scalar implicature is that they are
not very hungry.

Manner Implicature:

This type of implicature is based on the way something is said, such as tone, pitch, or
volume.
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For example, if someone says "Oh, great" in a sarcastic tone, the manner implicature is that
they are not actually pleased.

Irony Implicature:

This type of implicature is based on the contrast between what is said and what is meant.

Irony implicature arises when a speaker says something that is literally untrue or opposite to
what they mean.

Example:-

Situation: A friend arrives late.

Utterance: "Right on time as always!"

Literal Meaning: The friend is punctual.

Implicature: The friend is habitually late.

Role of Pragmatics in Stylistics:

Pragmatics plays a crucial role in stylistics as it helps analyze how language is used in
context to convey meaning.

Pragmatics considers the social, cultural, and historical context in which language is used.
Pragmatics analyzes implied meaning and reader inference.Pragmatics studies language as
action, exploring how language performs functions (e.g., promises, threats). Pragmatics
examines how readers interpret and respond to texts.

Conclusion: Pragmatics studies how language conveys meaning beyond its literal words. It
examines context, location, and surrounding words to understand intended meaning. Context
plays a crucial role in interpretation. Pragmatics also involves deixis, reference, inference,
anaphora, cataphora, and presupposition. These concepts help us understand how language
conveys meaning. Pragmatics is essential in stylistics, analyzing language in context. It
considers social, cultural, and historical factors. Effective communication relies on
pragmatics. By understanding pragmatics, we can better grasp language's power and
complexity.

Speech acts

Introduction

Jane L.Austin a British philosopher first introduced speech act theory in

his 1959 book How to do things with words.

Speech act theory is defined as language is not only used to inform or describe things ,it is
used to do things ,to perform acts.
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Types of speech act

Direct speech act: Direct relationship between sentence and its function.Its illustrate the
intended meaning the speaker has behind making those utterances.

Example: Where are you going?

Indirect speech act: Indirect relationship between sentence and its function. Intended
something that is quite different from the literal meaning of what we say.
Example: It is cold outside (Indirectly suggesting that someone should close the door or close
the window.)

Austin proposed that communicating a speech act consists of three elements: Locutionary act,
Illocutionary act,and perlocutionary act.

1:Locutionary Act: The act of saying something that makes sense in the language , that is,
follow the rules of pronunciation and grammar.

Example : Baby is crying

2: Illocutionary Act:The action intended by the speaker is called anillocutionary act.

Illocutionary acts are the real action performed by the utterance.

Example:I will see you later(3 different assumptions)

. A prediction

. A warning

. A promise

3: Perlocutionary Act: The perlocutionary act is any speech act that amounts to persuading,
scaring,or otherwise getting someone to do or realise something.

The effect that an utterance has on the thoughts, feelings and attitude of the listeners.

Example: I am not feeling well. Can I take your class tomorrow?

Yes sir (perlocutionary act)

Classification of Illocutionary act by Jane L. Austin

Focusing on the illocutionary act, J.L. Austin was ready to classify speech acts. He did this by
using performative verbs that make the illocutionary act explicit (e.g., ‘I declare’, ‘I
promise’). He ended up with six types: verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives,
and expositives
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1. Verdictive: Speech acts that express a judgement, evaluation, or assessment. Often tied to
delivering an opinion or conclusion based on evidence.

Example:This design is outstanding

2. Exercitive: Speech acts that exercise power, authority, or influence. To give commands,
grant permissions, or make decisions.

Example: I order you to leave the room.

3. Commissives: Speech acts that commit the speaker to a future action. To indicate a
commitment or intention.
Example: I will join you for the meeting

4. Behabitives: Speech acts that express social attitudes or emotions. To express feelings,
attitudes, or social conventions

Example: I apologize for being late.

5. Expositives: Speech acts that explain, clarify, or express reasoning. To convey

explanations or reasoning, often in discussions or arguments.

Classification of illocutionary act by J. Searle:

Searle classified the purpose of different speech act under the following

categories:

Expressive , Declarative, Assertive , Comissive, directive.

Assertive: A type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of
proposition. Some examples of assertive act are suggesting, putting forward, swearing,
boasting and concluding.

Example: No one makes better pancakes than I do.

Directive : A type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee
perform an action. Some examples of directive act are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting,
advising and begging.

Example: Please close the door.

Commissive: A type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker of doing something in
the future. Examples of commisive act are promising, planning, vowing and betting.

Example: From now on, I will participate in my group activity.

Expressive: A type of illocutionary actin which speaker expresses his feelings or emotional
reactions. Some examples of expressive act are thanking, apologising, welcoming and
deploring.

Example: I am sorry for not helping out in our group projects.

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Declarative: A type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external situation.
Simply put, declarations bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to.
Some examples of declaration are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentence.

Example: you are fired!

Conclusion: Speech Act Theory, introduced by J.L. Austin, shows that words can do more
than just share information. Our words can perform actions, express feelings, and change
situations. Austin's theory helps us understand communication better. There are five main
types of speech acts: expressing beliefs, giving directions, making promises, sharing
emotions, and declaring changes. Understanding these acts helps us communicate effectively
and intentionally. Language has the power to shape relationships and influence actions.
Effective communication starts with understanding the impact of our words. By using
language wisely, we can connect better and achieve more. Words have power, and
understanding Speech Act Theory helps us use them well

Clause relation

Clause:

Clause is a group of related words that contains subject and predicate

Subject : The person, thing, or idea the sentence is about.

Predicate : The part of the sentence that tells us what the subject is doing or what is
happening to it (this includes the verb and sometimes additional details).
This explanation tells us about independent clauses and how to join them when writing
sentences. Here’s a simpler breakdown:

Types of clause;.

Independent Clause:

An independent clause is a group of words that has a subject, a verb, and expresses a
complete thought. It can stand alone as a full sentence.

Example:

John likes hot dogs.

Subject: “John”
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Verb: “likes”

Complete thought: “John likes hot dogs.”

How to Join Independent Clauses?

You can combine two independent clauses to show their connection. There are three ways to
do this:

1. Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction

Coordinating conjunctions are words like for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (remembered as
FANBOYS).

Example:

I was tired, so I went to sleep.

Two independent clauses: “I was tired” and “I went to sleep.”

Coordinating conjunction: “so.”

2. Using a semicolon

A semicolon connects two closely related sentences without using a conjunction.

Example:

I was tired; I went to sleep

The semicolon shows that the two ideas are strongly related.

3. Using a semicolon, a transition word, and a comma

A transition word (like however, therefore, or meanwhile) explains the relationship between
the clauses.

Example:

I was tired; however, I could not fall asleep.

Transition word: “however.”

The semicolon separates the two sentences, and the comma follows the transition word.

How these three elements help in writing?

Avoid Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence happens when two independent clauses are combined without proper
punctuation or connecting words.

Example of a run-on sentence:

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“I was tired I went to bed.”

This is confusing because it lacks punctuation or a conjunction.

To fix it:

Add a comma and a conjunction

“I was tired, so I went to bed.”

Or use a semicolon:

“I was tired; I went to bed.”

Dependent Clause:
A dependent clause is a group of words that:

1. Has a subject and a verb, but

2. Does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence.

It depends on an independent clause to make sense.

Example:

“Because I hate scary movies”

Subject: “I”

Verb: “hate”

Incomplete thought: It leaves the question, “What happens because you hate scary movies?”

Subordinate Conjunctions

Dependent clauses usually start with a subordinate conjunction. These are words that connect
the dependent clause to an independent clause and show relationships like cause, time, place,
or condition.

Common subordinate conjunctions include:

Cause: because, since, as

Time: when, after, before, while

Condition: if, unless, though, although

Place: where, wherever

How to Join a Dependent Clause with an Independent Clause

Since dependent clauses cannot stand alone, you must connect them to an independent clause
to complete their meaning.
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Why Use Dependent Clauses?

Dependent clauses are useful because they:

1. Add details and depth to your writing.

2. Show relationships between ideas, like cause and effect or time.

It’s important to recognize dependent clauses to avoid sentence fragments, which are
incomplete thoughts that can’t stand alone. Dependent clauses usually begin with subordinate
conjunctions like “because,” “although,” or “if.” For example, “Because I was tired” is a
fragment because it can’t stand alone. To fix it, you can join it with an independent clause:
“Because I was tired, I went to bed early.” This makes a complete thought.

Types of dependent clauses:

1.Adverbial Clauses:

Adverbial clauses function as adverbs, modifying the main verb in a sentence by providing
information about time, reason, condition, contrast, or manner. They are often introduced by
subordinating conjunctions (because, if, although, when, etc.).

“I will call you when I get home.”

The adverbial clause “when I get home” answers the question when (time). It tells us when
the action of calling will happen. The clause is introduced by the subordinating conjunction
“when.”

2.Relative clause

A relative clause, also called an adjective clause, describes a noun and cannot stand alone as
it’s not a complete thought. You can spot a relative clause by three key features: it has a
subject and verb, begins with a relative pronoun (like “who,” “whom,” “whose,” “that,” or
“which”) or a relative adverb (like “when,” “where,” or “why”), and acts as an adjective
answering questions like “Which one?” or “What kind?”

For example, “When Bob reads and writes” is a relative clause, with “when” as the relative
pronoun, “Bob” as the subject, and “reads and writes” as the verbs. Another example is “who
loves a night out,” where “who” is the subject and “loves” is the verb. However, these are
incomplete thoughts, so they must be joined with an independent clause. Correct sentences
would be: “When Bob reads and writes, he is happy” or “Mary is a girl who loves a night
out.”

3.Noun Clauses:
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Noun clauses function as nouns within a sentence. They can act as the subject, object, or
complement in a sentence and are often introduced by words like that, what, who, whom,
why, etc.

“I don’t understand why she left so suddenly.”

The noun clause “why she left so suddenly” acts as the object of the verb “understand.” It
explains what the speaker doesn’t understand. The clause is introduced by the word “why,”
which indicates the reason behind her departure.

Relations Between Independent and Dependent Clauses

1.Embedding

Occurs when a dependent clause is placed within an independent clause, often as a noun
clause or a relative clause that provides additional information without changing the main
structure of the sentence

The book that she lent me was exciting.”

The relative clause “that she lent me” provides more information about the noun “book.” It is
embedded within the independent clause without changing its main structure.

Note:

When we say that embedding a dependent clause within an independent clause doesn’t
change the “main structure” of the sentence, we mean that the sentence still has a clear
independent clause with a complete thought. The dependent clause is added for extra
information but doesn’t change the core meaning or flow of the sentence.

For example:
“The book that she lent me was exciting.” The independent clause is “The book was
exciting,” which can stand alone as a complete sentence. The relative clause “that she lent
me” is embedded within the independent clause to provide more details about the book. This
extra information doesn’t change the basic structure of the main sentence, which still centers
around “The book was exciting.”

2.Subordination.

Subordination is when a dependent clause is connected to an independent clause, often using

a subordinating conjunction (because, although, if, when, since, etc.) to show a relationship
of cause, condition, time, etc.
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I Stayed home because I was feeling sick.”

The dependent clause “because I was feeling sick” explains the reason for staying home. It is
connected to the independent clause using the subordinating conjunction “because.”

Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences

1.Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause,
linked by subordinating conjunctions to add depth and details.

I decided to stay home because it was raining.”

The independent clause is “I decided to stay home,” and the dependent clause is “because it
was raining,” providing the reason.

2.Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses, combining elements of both compound and complex sentences.

“She finished her work, and she went out for a walk after she ate lunch.”

This sentence has two independent clauses: “She finished her work” and “she went out for a
walk.” The dependent clause “after she ate lunch” adds more detail about when she went for a
walk.

Relation with stylistics

Clause relationships play a crucial role in stylistics because they shape the tone, rhythm,
emphasis, and complexity of language. By manipulating the structure and connection
between clauses, writers can influence how a text feels, flows, and engages the reader.

1.Tone and Emphasis:

2.Pacing and Rhythm:

3.Focus and Clarity:

4.Stylistic Variability and Cohesion:

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Overall, the relationship between clauses gives writers a powerful tool to control pacing,
tone, clarity, and complexity, enhancing both the expressiveness and clarity of the text. By
varying these structures, writers can maintain the reader’s interest and create a more
Immersive experience.

Discourse analysis

Discourse analysis:

Discourse analysis is a research methodology used to study language, communication, and

social interactions. It examines how language is used to construct meaning, shape social
relationships, and influence societal norms.

Key Concepts:
1.Discourse: A system of language, symbols, and practices that shape social reality.

2. Text: Written or spoken language, including conversations, documents, and media.

3. Context: Social, cultural, historical, and institutional factors influencing discourse.

4. Power dynamics: How language reflects and reinforces social hierarchies and
relationships.

Types of Discourse Analysis:

1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): Examines how language reinforces social inequality
and power imbalances.

2. Conversation Analysis (CA): Studies social interactions, turn-taking, and conversation

structures.

3. Narrative Analysis: Analyzes stories, narratives, and their role in shaping identity and
reality.

4. Foucauldial Discourse Analysis: Explores how language constructs knowledge, power, and
subjectivity.

Steps in Discourse Analysis:

1. Data collection: Gather texts, transcripts, or recordings.

2. Transcription: Convert data into written form.

3. Coding: Identify themes, patterns, and linguistic features.
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4. Analysis: Interpret data, considering context and power dynamics.

5. Interpretation: Draw conclusions about discourse and its implications.

Methods and Techniques:

1. Content analysis: Quantitative analysis of language frequency and themes.

2. Thematic analysis: Identifies and interprets recurring themes.

3. Pragmatic analysis: Examines language use in social contexts.

4. Semiotic analysis: Studies symbols, signs, and meaning-making.

5. Rhetorical analysis: Analyzes persuasive language and argumentation.

Applications:

1. Social sciences: Understand social phenomena, power dynamics, and cultural norms.

2. Communication studies: Examine language use in media, politics, and public discourse.

3. Education: Analyze classroom interactions, curriculum, and language policies.

4. Business and organizational studies: Investigate workplace communication and leadership.

5. Healthcare: Study patient-provider interactions, medical discourse, and health

communication.

Challenges and Limitations:

1. Subjectivity: Analyst's interpretation may influence findings.

2. Contextual complexity: Difficulty capturing nuanced contextual factors.

3. Language variability: Accounting for linguistic diversity and dialects.

4. Power dynamics: Recognizing and addressing analyst's own power Position.

Conclusion:

Discourse analysis offers a profound understanding of language, communication, and social

interactions, revealing the intricate web of power dynamics, cultural norms, and social
inequalities embedded within. Through this methodology, researchers can uncover how
language shapes and reflects social reality, influencing individual and collective identity
formation. By examining discourse, we can challenge dominant narratives, promote critical
thinking, and foster effective communication. Moreover, discourse analysis informs social
change by highlighting the need to address linguistic and social injustices.
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Textuality
7 standards of textuality
Text
Text is a sequence of written or printed words, characters, or symbols that conveys information,
ideas, or emotions in a readable form.

Textuality
Textuality refers to the qualities or characteristics that define a text, such as structure, language,
style, and meaning. It encompasses how a text is constructed, interpreted, and understood
within its cultural and social context.
Seven standards of textuality
De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) elaborated on the idea and proposed the seven standards
of textuality which include cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity,
situationality, and intertextuality. They are important elements for understanding a text and
presenting its meaning.
1. Cohesion
Cohesion is a property that concerns how the elements of text are mutually connected in a
sequence. Halliday and Hasan (1976) believe that cohesion is linked to the semantic feature.
They emphasize the importance of strong bonds which is grammatical cohesion such as
• Conjunction: Words that link phrases, clauses, or sentences together to show a
relationship between ideas. "She was tired but continued working." (Here, "but"
connects two contrasting ideas.)
• Substitution: Replacing a word or phrase with another word to avoid repetition.
"I want the blue pen, not the red one." (Here, "one" substitutes for "pen.")
• Ellipsis: Omitting words from a sentence when the meaning can still be understood.
She loves reading; he, writing. (The verb "loves" is omitted after "he" but is understood.)
• References: Using words that refer back to something or someone previously
mentioned in the text, providing cohesion.
"Maria finished her work. She left afterward." (The word "she" refers back to "Maria.")
and lexical cohesion; which include
• Reiteration: Repeating a word or phrase in a text to emphasize or maintain focus on a
topic.
The sunset was beautiful. Everyone admired the sunset. (The word "sunset" is repeated to
reinforce the topic.)
• Synonymy: Using words with similar meanings to avoid repetition and maintain
interest.
"The movie was fantastic. It was truly amazing. ("Fantastic" and "amazing" are synonyms.)
• Antonym: Using words with opposite meanings to highlight contrasts or clarify ideas.
"The water was hot, but the air was cold. ("Hot" and "cold" are antonyms.)
• Hyponymy: Using a specific term that falls under a broader category to create clear
meaning.
The rose is a beautiful flower. (Here, "rose" is a type of "flower.")
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• Collocation: Words that commonly appear together in a language, forming a natural

pairing.
She made a quick decision. ("Quick" commonly pairs with "decision.")

2. Coherence
Coherence is the logical arrangement of ideas that gives a text meaning as a whole, making it
understandable. Coherence deals with the text in grammatical terms, while coherence deals
with the deep meaning of the text.
In an article discussing climate change, every paragraph contributes to explaining the causes,
effects, and solutions, providing coherence. According to Reinhart, the text should be related
to the context, the sentences should be related to each other, and the sentences should be related
to the topic.
3. Intentionality
According to de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), intentionality seems to be a goal on the
author’s mind. Intentionality refers to the purpose or intention behind the text, showing the
author’s goal in communicating something specific.
It determines whether the text is meant to inform, persuade, entertain, etc.

A political speech aims to persuade the audience to support a policy; intentionality is clear in
the choice of persuasive language.
4. Acceptability
This standard concerns the text receiver’s attitude to evaluate whether the text is acceptable
or unacceptable based on the other six attributes of textuality. It depends on cultural norms,
genre expectations, and audience knowledge.

It may be said that acceptability concerns the text receiver’s attitude that the set of occurrences
should constitute a cohesive and coherent text having some use or relevance for the receiver.
A science textbook uses clear, factual language to be acceptable to students, who expect it to
inform and educate rather than entertain.
5. Informativity
Informativity refers to the degree to which a text provides new, interesting, or useful
information to the reader. Too much complexity may overwhelm, while too little may bore the
audience. It concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the presented text are expected vs.
unexpected or known vs. unknown/certain.
In order for a text to be informative, it depends on giving new knowledge based on the
information that the reader already knows. In informative text, reader can make a connection
between previous knowledge while getting the new ones.

A news article about a recent event provides new facts, making it informative to readers seeking
current information.
6. Situationality
To comprehend the situationality of a text, reader must first understand where it took place and
what role it played in the situation. Each text should be examined by considering the time,
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place and situation in which it was written. Context-dependent; a text may be appropriate in
one situation but not in another.
For example, a man raises a T-shirt and says “XL,” and then a woman gives him an XL one.
This example shows that the woman in this situation understands the short utterance “XL” of
the man by giving him the XL T-shirt, understanding that he wants to ask for a shirt of this
size. They understand the same thing because they are in the same situation.
7. Intertextuality
Intertextuality refers to the connections a text has with other texts, influencing its meaning by
drawing on shared knowledge or references. It can include quotes, allusions, or genre
conventions.
According to Plato, each text is the repetition of another text in the universe. One text must
refer to another text that shares the same characters whether it is spoken or written, formal or
informal.
In Lord of the Flies by William Golding, the character Simon represents a Christ-like figure,
sacrificing himself for others’ sake and seeking truth. This intertextual connection with
Christian symbolism deepens the novel's themes of innocence and sin.
In conclusion, the seven standards of textuality—cohesion, coherence, intentionality,
acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality—form the foundation of
effective communication in any text. Each standard plays a unique role in making a text
meaningful, understandable, and contextually relevant, ensuring it fulfills its purpose for both
the writer and the reader.. By adhering to these standards, writers can create texts that resonate
with audiences, serving as powerful tools for interaction, interpretation, and cultural
connection.

References

Payzibayeva Madinaxon Sobirjon qizi. (2022). DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: SPEECH ACT THEORY AND ITS
TYPES. E Conference Zone, 158–159. Retrieved from
https://www.econferencezone.org/index.php/ecz/article/view/599

Discourse Analysis and Some Devices for Discourse Analysis

Makale Başvuru Tarihi / Received: 09.06.2021 Araştırmacı, Mersin Üniversitesi Makale Kabul Tarihi
/ Accepted: 14.06.2021 [email protected] Makale Türü /Article Type: Araştırma
Makalesi/Research Article
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