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Book of Proof
Third Edition

Richard Hammack
Richard Hammack (publisher)
Department of Mathematics & Applied Mathematics
P.O. Box 842014
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia, 23284

Book of Proof

Edition 3

© 2018 by Richard Hammack

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivative

4.0 International License

Typeset in 11pt TEX Gyre Schola using PDFLATEX

Cover by R. Hammack. The cover diagrams are based on a geometric construction that
renders a correct perspective view of an object (here an octagonal column) from its floor
plan. The method was invented by Piero della Francesca 1415–1492, a Renaissance painter
and mathematician. Piero was a great expositor. His writings explained why his methods
worked, not just how to apply them.
To my students
 Contents

Preface vii

Introduction viii

I Fundamentals
1. Sets 3
1.1. Introduction to Sets 3
1.2. The Cartesian Product 8
1.3. Subsets 12
1.4. Power Sets 15
1.5. Union, Intersection, Difference 18
1.6. Complement 20
1.7. Venn Diagrams 22
1.8. Indexed Sets 25
1.9. Sets That Are Number Systems 30
1.10. Russell’s Paradox 32

2. Logic 34
2.1. Statements 35
2.2. And, Or, Not 39
2.3. Conditional Statements 42
2.4. Biconditional Statements 46
2.5. Truth Tables for Statements 48
2.6. Logical Equivalence 50
2.7. Quantifiers 53
2.8. More on Conditional Statements 56
2.9. Translating English to Symbolic Logic 57
2.10. Negating Statements 59
2.11. Logical Inference 63
2.12. An Important Note 64

3. Counting 65
3.1. Lists 65
3.2. The Multiplication Principle 67
3.3. The Addition and Subtraction Principles 74
3.4. Factorials and Permutations 78
3.5. Counting Subsets 85
3.6. Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Theorem 90
3.7. The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle 93
3.8. Counting Multisets 96
3.9. The Division and Pigeonhole Principles 104
3.10. Combinatorial Proof 108
 v

II How to Prove Conditional Statements

4. Direct Proof 113
4.1. Theorems 113
4.2. Definitions 115
4.3. Direct Proof 118
4.4. Using Cases 124
4.5. Treating Similar Cases 125

5. Contrapositive Proof 128

5.1. Contrapositive Proof 128
5.2. Congruence of Integers 131
5.3. Mathematical Writing 133

6. Proof by Contradiction 137

6.1. Proving Statements with Contradiction 138
6.2. Proving Conditional Statements by Contradiction 141
6.3. Combining Techniques 142
6.4. Some Words of Advice 143

III More on Proof

7. Proving Non-Conditional Statements 147
7.1. If-and-Only-If Proof 147
7.2. Equivalent Statements 149
7.3. Existence Proofs; Existence and Uniqueness Proofs 150
7.4. Constructive Versus Non-Constructive Proofs 154

8. Proofs Involving Sets 157

8.1. How to Prove a ∈ A 157
8.2. How to Prove A ⊆ B 159
8.3. How to Prove A = B 162
8.4. Examples: Perfect Numbers 165

9. Disproof 172
9.1. Counterexamples 174
9.2. Disproving Existence Statements 176
9.3. Disproof by Contradiction 178

10. Mathematical Induction 180

10.1. Proof by Induction 182
10.2. Proof by Strong Induction 187
10.3. Proof by Smallest Counterexample 191
10.4. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 192
10.5. Fibonacci Numbers 193
vi

IV Relations, Functions and Cardinality

11. Relations 201
11.1. Relations 201
11.2. Properties of Relations 205
11.3. Equivalence Relations 210
11.4. Equivalence Classes and Partitions 215
11.5. The Integers Modulo n 218
11.6. Relations Between Sets 221

12. Functions 223

12.1. Functions 223
12.2. Injective and Surjective Functions 228
12.3. The Pigeonhole Principle Revisited 233
12.4. Composition 235
12.5. Inverse Functions 238
12.6. Image and Preimage 242

13. Proofs in Calculus 244

13.1. The Triangle Inequality 245
13.2. Definition of a Limit 246
13.3. Limits That Do Not Exist 249
13.4. Limits Laws 251
13.5. Continuity and Derivatives 256
13.6. Limits at Infinity 258
13.7. Sequences 261
13.8. Series 265

14. Cardinality of Sets 269

14.1. Sets with Equal Cardinalities 269
14.2. Countable and Uncountable Sets 275
14.3. Comparing Cardinalities 280
14.4. The Cantor-Bernstein-Schröder Theorem 284

Conclusion 291

Solutions 292
 Preface to the Third Edition

y goal in writing this book has been to create a very inexpensive

M high-quality textbook. The book can be downloaded from my web
page in PDF format for free, and the print version costs considerably less
than comparable traditional textbooks.
In this third edition, Chapter 3 (on counting) has been expanded, and a
new chapter on calculus proofs has been added. New examples and exercises
have been added throughout. My decisions regarding revisions have been
guided by both the Amazon reviews and emails from readers, and I am
grateful for all comments.
I have taken pains to ensure that the third edition is compatible with the
second. Exercises have not been reordered, although some have beed edited
for clarity and some new ones have been appended. (The one exception
is that Chapter 3’s reorganization shifted some exercises.) The chapter
sequencing is identical between editions, with one exception: The final
chapter on cardinality has become Chapter 14 in order to make way for the
new Chapter 13 on calculus proofs. There has been a slight renumbering of
the sections within chapters 10 and 11, but the numbering of the exercises
within the sections is unchanged.
This core of this book is an expansion and refinement of lecture notes I
developed while teaching proofs courses over the past 18 years at Virginia
Commonwealth University (a large state university) and Randolph-Macon
College (a small liberal arts college). I found the needs of these two audiences
to be nearly identical, and I wrote this book for them. But I am mindful of a
larger audience. I believe this book is suitable for almost any undergraduate
mathematics program.

Richard Hammack Lawrenceville, Virginia

February 14, 2018
 Introduction

his is a book about how to prove theorems.

T Until this point in your education, mathematics has probably been
presented as a primarily computational discipline. You have learned to
solve equations, compute derivatives and integrals, multiply matrices and
find determinants; and you have seen how these things can answer practical
questions about the real world. In this setting your primary goal in using
mathematics has been to compute answers.
But there is another side of mathematics that is more theoretical than
computational. Here the primary goal is to understand mathematical
structures, to prove mathematical statements, and even to invent or discover
new mathematical theorems and theories. The mathematical techniques
and procedures that you have learned and used up until now are founded
on this theoretical side of mathematics. For example, in computing the area
under a curve, you use the fundamental theorem of calculus. It is because
this theorem is true that your answer is correct. However, in learning
calculus you were probably far more concerned with how that theorem could
be applied than in understanding why it is true. But how do we know it is
true? How can we convince ourselves or others of its validity? Questions of
this nature belong to the theoretical realm of mathematics. This book is an
introduction to that realm.
This book will initiate you into an esoteric world. You will learn and
apply the methods of thought that mathematicians use to verify theorems,
explore mathematical truth and create new mathematical theories. This
will prepare you for advanced mathematics courses, for you will be better
able to understand proofs, write your own proofs and think critically and
inquisitively about mathematics.
The book is organized into four parts, as outlined below.
 ix

PART I Fundamentals
• Chapter 1: Sets
• Chapter 2: Logic
• Chapter 3: Counting
Chapters 1 and 2 lay out the language and conventions used in all advanced
mathematics. Sets are fundamental because every mathematical structure,
object, or entity can be described as a set. Logic is fundamental because it
allows us to understand the meanings of statements, to deduce facts about
mathematical structures and to uncover further structures. All subsequent
chapters build on these first two chapters. Chapter 3 is included partly
because its topics are central to many branches of mathematics, but also
because it is a source of many examples and exercises that occur throughout
the book. (However, the course instructor may choose to omit Chapter 3.)

PART II Proving Conditional Statements

• Chapter 4: Direct Proof
• Chapter 5: Contrapositive Proof
• Chapter 6: Proof by Contradiction
Chapters 4 through 6 are concerned with three main techniques used for
proving theorems that have the “conditional” form “If P , then Q.”

PART III More on Proof

• Chapter 7: Proving Non-Conditional Statements
• Chapter 8: Proofs Involving Sets
• Chapter 9: Disproof
• Chapter 10: Mathematical Induction
These chapters deal with useful variations, embellishments and conse-
quences of the proof techniques introduced in Chapters 4 through 6.

PART IV Relations, Functions and Cardinality

• Chapter 11: Relations
• Chapter 12: Functions
• Chapter 13: Proofs in Calculus
• Chapter 14: Cardinality of Sets
These final chapters are mainly concerned with the idea of functions, which
are central to all of mathematics. Upon mastering this material you will be
ready for advanced mathematics courses such as abstract algebra, analysis,
topology, combinatorics and theory of computation.

Free PDF version

x Introduction

The chapters are organized as in the following dependency tree. The

left-hand column forms the core of the book; each chapter in this column
uses material from all chapters above it. Chapters 3 and 13 may be omitted
without loss of continuity. But the material in Chapter 3 is a great source
of exercises, and the reader who omits it should ignore the later exercises
that draw from it. Chapter 10, on induction, can also be omitted with no
break in continuity. However, induction is a topic that most proof courses
will include.

Chapter 1 Dependency Tree

Sets

Chapter 2
Logic Chapter 3
Counting

Chapter 4
Direct Proof
§3.5 and §3.6 used in some exercises.
Ignore them if Chapter 3 is omitted.

Chapter 5
Contrapositive Proof

Chapter 6
Proof by Contradiction

Chapter 7
Non-Conditional Proof

Chapter 8
Proofs Involving Sets

Chapter 9
Disproof Chapter 10
Mathematical Induction
two exercises
§10.1 used in

Chapter 11
Relations

Chapter 12
Functions Chapter 13
Proofs in Calculus

Chapter 14
Cardinality of Sets

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

 xi

To the instructor. The book is designed for a three or four credit course.
A course emphasizing discrete mathematics could cover chapters 1–12. A
course that is more of a preparation for analysis could cover all but Chapter 3.
The following timetable (for a fourteen-week semester) is a hybrid of these
two options. Sections marked with ∗ may require only the briefest mention
in class, or may be best left for the students to digest on their own.

Week Monday Wednesday Friday

1 Section 1.1 Section 1.2 Sections 1.3, 1.4
2 Sections 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 Section 1.8 Sections 1.9∗ , 2.1
3 Section 2.2 Sections 2.3, 2.4 Sections 2.5, 2.6
4 Section 2.7 Sections 2.8∗ , 2.9 Sections 2.10, 2.11∗ , 2.12∗
5 Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 Section 3.4, 3.5 Sections 3.5, 3.6
6 EXAM Sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 Sections 4.3, 4.4, 4.5∗
7 Sections 5.1, 5.2, 5.3∗ Section 6.1 Sections 6.2 6.3∗
8 Sections 7.1, 7.2∗ , 7.3 Sections 8.1, 8.2 Section 8.3
9 Section 8.4 Sections 9.1, 9.2, 9.3∗ Section 10.1
10 Sections 10.1, 10.4∗ Sections 10.2, 10.3 EXAM
11 Sections 11.1, 11.2 Sections 11.3, 11.4 Sections 11.5, 11.6
12 Section 12.1 Section 12.2 Section 12.2
13 Sections 12.3, 12.4∗ Section 12.5 Sections 12.5, 12.6∗
14 Section 14.1 Section 14.2 Sections 14.3, 14.4∗

The entire book could be covered in a 4-credit course, or in a 3-credit

course pitched to a more mature audience.

Acknowledgments. I thank my students in VCU’s MATH 300 courses

for offering feedback as they read the first edition of this book. Thanks
especially to Cory Colbert and Lauren Pace for rooting out typographical
mistakes and inconsistencies. I am especially indebted to Cory for reading
early drafts of each chapter and catching numerous mistakes before I posted
the final draft on my web page. Cory also created the index, suggested some
interesting exercises, and wrote some solutions. Thanks to Moa Apagodu,
Sean Cox, Brent Cody and Andy Lewis for suggesting many improvements
while teaching from the book. I am indebted to Lon Mitchell, whose expertise
with typesetting and on-demand publishing made the print version of this
book a reality.
And thanks to countless readers all over the world who contacted me
concerning errors and omissions. Because of you, this is a better book.

Free PDF version

 Part I

Fundamentals
 CHAPTER 1

Sets

ll of mathematics can be described with sets. This becomes more and

A more apparent the deeper into mathematics you go. It will be apparent
in most of your upper level courses, and certainly in this course. The theory
of sets is a language that is perfectly suited to describing and explaining all
types of mathematical structures.
1.1 Introduction to Sets
A set is a collection of things. The things are called elements of the set. We
are mainly concerned with sets whose elements are mathematical entities,
such as numbers, points, functions, etc.
A set is often expressed by listing its elements between commas, enclosed
© ª
by braces. For example, the collection 2, 4, 6, 8 is a set which has four
elements, the numbers 2, 4, 6 and 8. Some sets have infinitely many elements.
For example, consider the collection of all integers,
© ª
. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .

Here the dots indicate a pattern of numbers that continues forever in both
the positive and negative directions. A set is called an infinite set if it has
infinitely many elements; otherwise it is called a finite set.
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. Thus
© ª © ª
2, 4, 6, 8 = 4, 2, 8, 6 because even though they are listed in a different order,
© ª © ª
the elements are identical; but 2, 4, 6, 8 6= 2, 4, 6, 7 . Also
© ª © ª
. . . − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . = 0, −1, 1, −2, 2, −3, 3, −4, 4, . . . .

We often let uppercase letters stand for sets. In discussing the set
© ª © ª © ª
2, 4, 6, 8 we might declare A = 2, 4, 6, 8 and then use A to stand for 2, 4, 6, 8 .
To express that 2 is an element of the set A , we write 2 ∈ A, and read this as
“2 is an element of A ,” or “2 is in A ,” or just “2 in A .” We also have 4 ∈ A , 6 ∈ A
and 8 ∈ A , but 5 ∉ A . We read this last expression as “5 is not an element of
A ,” or “5 not in A .” Expressions like 6, 2 ∈ A or 2, 4, 8 ∈ A are used to indicate
that several things are in a set.
4 Sets

Some sets are so significant that we reserve special symbols for them.
The set of natural numbers (i.e., the positive whole numbers) is denoted
by N, that is,
N = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . .
© ª

The set of integers

Z = . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .

© ª

is another fundamental set. The symbol R stands for the set of all real
numbers, a set that is undoubtedly familiar to you from calculus. Other
special sets will be listed later in this section.
© ª
Sets need not have just numbers as elements. The set B = T, F consists
of two letters, perhaps representing the values “true” and “false.” The set
© ª
C = a, e, i, o, u consists of the lowercase vowels in the English alphabet.
© ª
The set D = (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1) has as elements the four corner points
of a square on the x- y coordinate plane. Thus (0, 0) ∈ D , (1, 0) ∈ D , etc.,
but (1, 2) ∉ D (for instance). It is even possible for a set to have other sets
© © ª© ªª
as elements. Consider E = 1, 2, 3 , 2, 4 , which has three elements: the
© ª © ª © ª
number 1, the set 2, 3 and the set 2, 4 . Thus 1 ∈ E and 2, 3 ∈ E and
© ª
2, 4 ∈ E . But note that 2 ∉ E , 3 ∉ E and 4 ∉ E .
Consider the set M = 00 00 , 10 01 , 11 01 of three two-by-two matrices. We
©£ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤ª

have 00 00 ∈ M , but 10 11 ∉ M . Letters can serve as symbols denoting a set’s

£ ¤ £ ¤

elements: If a = 0 0 , b = 10 01 and c = 11 01 , then M = a, b, c .

£0 0¤ £ ¤ £ ¤ © ª

If X is a finite set, its cardinality or size is the number of elements

it has, and this number is denoted as | X |. Thus for the sets above, | A | = 4,
|B| = 2, |C | = 5, |D | = 4, |E | = 3 and | M | = 3.
There is a special set that, although small, plays a big role. The empty
©ª ©ª
set is the set that has no elements. We denote it as ;, so ; = . Whenever
©ª
you see the symbol ;, it stands for . Observe that |;| = 0. The empty set
is the only set whose cardinality is zero.
© ª
Be careful in writing the empty set. Don’t write ; when you mean ;.
© ª
These sets can’t be equal because ; contains nothing while ; contains
one thing, namely the empty set. If this is confusing, think of a set as a
© ª
box with things in it, so, for example, 2, 4, 6, 8 is a “box” containing four
©ª © ª
numbers. The empty set ; = is an empty box. By contrast, ; is a box
with an empty box inside it. Obviously, there’s a difference: An empty box
© ª
is not the same as a box with an empty box inside it. Thus ; 6= ; . (You
¯© ª¯ © ª
might also note |;| = 0 and ¯ ; ¯ = 1 as additional evidence that ; 6= ; .)

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

Introduction to Sets 5

© © ª ©© ªªª
This box analogy can help us think about sets. The set F = ;, ; , ;
may look strange but it is really very simple. Think of it as a box containing
three things: an empty box, a box containing an empty box, and a box
containing a box containing an empty box. Thus |F | = 3. The set G = N, Z
© ª

is a box containing two boxes, the box of natural numbers and the box of
integers. Thus |G | = 2.
A special notation called set-builder notation is used to describe sets
that are too big or complex to list between braces. Consider the infinite set
© ª
of even integers E = . . . , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . . In set-builder notation this
set is written as
E = 2n : n ∈ Z .
© ª

We read the first brace as “the set of all things of form,” and the colon as
“such that.” So the expression E = 2n : n ∈ Z reads as “E equals the set of
© ª

all things of form 2n, such that n is an element of Z.” The idea is that E
consists of all possible values of 2n, where n takes on all values in Z.
In general, a set X written with set-builder notation has the syntax
© ª
X = expression : rule ,

where the elements of X are understood to be all values of “expression” that

are specified by “rule.” For example, above E is the set of all values of the
expression 2n that satisfy the rule n ∈ Z. There can be many ways to express
the same set. For example, E = 2n : n ∈ Z = n : n is an even integer =
© ª © ª

n : n = 2k, k ∈ Z . Another common way of writing it is

© ª

E = n ∈ Z : n is even ,
© ª

read “E is the set of all n in Z such that n is even.” Some writers use a bar
instead of a colon; for example, E = n ∈ Z | n is even . We use the colon.
© ª

Example 1.1 Here are some further illustrations of set-builder notation.

© ª © ª
1. n : n is a prime number = 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, . . .
n ∈ N : n is prime = 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, . . .
© ª © ª
2.
© 2
n : n ∈ Z = 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . .
ª © ª
3.
p ª
x ∈ R : x2 − 2 = 0 = 2, − 2
© ª ©p
4.
x ∈ Z : x2 − 2 = 0 = ;
© ª
5.
x ∈ Z : | x| < 4 = − 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3
© ª © ª
6.
2x : x ∈ Z, | x| < 4 = − 6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6
© ª © ª
7.
x ∈ Z : |2x| < 4 = − 1, 0, 1
© ª © ª
8.

Free PDF version

6 Sets

Items 6–8 above highlight a conflict of notation that we must always

be alert to. The expression | X | means absolute value if X is a number
and cardinality if X is a set. The distinction should always be clear from
context. Consider x ∈ Z : | x| < 4 in Example 1.1 (6) above. Here x ∈ Z, so x
© ª

is a number (not a set), and thus the bars in | x| must mean absolute value,
©© ª© ª © ªª
not cardinality. On the other hand, suppose A = 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7 and
© ª
B = X ∈ A : | X | < 3 . The elements of A are sets (not numbers), so the | X | in
©© ª © ªª
the expression for B must mean cardinality. Therefore B = 1, 2 , 7 .

Describe the set A = 7a + 3b : a, b ∈ Z .

© ª
Example 1.2
Solution: This set contains all numbers of form 7a + 3b, where a and b
are integers. Each such number 7a + 3b is an integer, so A contains only
integers. But which integers? If n is any integer, then n = 7n + 3(−2n), so
n = 7a + 3b where a = 7n and b = −2n. Therefore n ∈ A . We’ve now shown
that A contains only integers, and also that every integer is an element
of A . Consequently A = Z.

We close this section with a summary of special sets. These are sets
that are so common that they are given special names and symbols.
©ª
• The empty set: ; =
The natural numbers: N = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
© ª
•
The integers: Z = . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
© ª
•
n m o
• The rational numbers: Q = x : x = , where m, n ∈ Z and n 6= 0
n
• The real numbers: R
We visualize the set R of real numbers is as an infinitely long number line.

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Notice that Q is the set of all numbers in R that can be expressed as a

p p
fraction of two integers. You may be aware that Q 6= R, as 2 ∉ Q but 2 ∈ R.
(If not, this point will be addressed in Chapter 6.)
In calculus you encountered intervals on the number line. Like R, these
too are infinite sets of numbers. Any two numbers a, b ∈ R with a < b give
rise to various intervals. Graphically, they are represented by a darkened
segment on the number line between a and b. A solid circle at an endpoint
indicates that that number is included in the interval. A hollow circle
indicates a point that is not included in the interval.

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

 Introduction to Sets 7

a b
Closed interval: [a, b] = x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b
© ª
•
a b
(a, b) = x ∈ R : a < x < b
© ª
• Open interval:
a b
Half-open interval: (a, b] = x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b
© ª
•
a b
Half-open interval: [a, b) = x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b
© ª
•
a
Infinite interval: (a, ∞) = x ∈ R : a < x
© ª
•
a
Infinite interval: [a, ∞) = x ∈ R : a ≤ x
© ª
•
b
Infinite interval: (−∞, b) = x ∈ R : x < b
© ª
•
b
Infinite interval: (−∞, b] = x ∈ R : x ≤ b
© ª
•

Each of these intervals is an infinite set containing infinitely many

numbers as elements. For example, though its length is short, the interval
(0.1, 0.2) contains infinitely many numbers, that is, all numbers between
0.1 and 0.2. It is an unfortunate notational accident that (a, b) can denote
both an open interval on the line and a point on the plane. The difference
is usually clear from context. In the next section we will see yet another
meaning of (a, b).

Exercises for Section 1.1

A. Write each of the following sets by listing their elements between braces.
1. 5 x − 1 : x ∈ Z x ∈ R : sin π x = 0
© ª © ª
9.
2. 3 x + 2 : x ∈ Z x ∈ R : cos x = 1
© ª © ª
10.
x ∈ Z : −2 ≤ x < 7 x ∈ Z : | x| < 5
© ª © ª
3. 11.
x ∈ N : −2 < x ≤ 7 x ∈ Z : |2 x | < 5
© ª © ª
4. 12.
x ∈ R : x2 = 3 x ∈ Z : |6 x | < 5
© ª © ª
5. 13.
x ∈ R : x2 = 9 5 x : x ∈ Z, |2 x| ≤ 8
© ª © ª
6. 14.
x ∈ R : x2 + 5 x = −6 5a + 2 b : a, b ∈ Z
© ª © ª
7. 15.
x ∈ R : x3 + 5 x2 = −6 x 6a + 2 b : a, b ∈ Z
© ª © ª
8. 16.

B. Write each of the following sets in set-builder notation.

© ª © ª
17. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 . . . 23. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
© ª © ª
18. 0, 4, 16, 36, 64, 100, . . . 24. − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
. . . , 81 , 41 , 21 , 1, 2, 4, 8, . . .
© ª © ª
19. . . . , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . . 25.
1 1 1
© ª © ª
20. . . . , −8, −3, 2, 7, 12, 17, . . . 26. . . . , 27 , 9 , 3 , 1, 3, 9, 27, . . .
. . . , −π, − π2 , 0, π2 , π, 32π , 2π, 52π , . . .
© ª © ª
21. 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, . . . 27.
. . . , − 32 , − 34 , 0, 43 , 23 , 49 , 3, 15 9
© ª © ª
22. 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, 38, . . . 28. 4 , 2,...

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 8 Sets

C. Find the following cardinalities.

34. ¯ x ∈ N : | x| < 10 ¯
¯©© ª © © ªª ª¯ ¯© ª¯
29. ¯ 1 , 2, 3, 4 , ; ¯
35. ¯ x ∈ Z : x2 < 10 ¯
¯©© ª ©© ªª © ªª¯ ¯© ª¯
30. ¯ 1, 4 , a, b, 3, 4 , ; ¯
36. ¯ x ∈ N : x2 < 10 ¯
¯©©© ª © © ªª ªª¯ ¯© ª¯
31. ¯ 1 , 2, 3, 4 , ; ¯
37. ¯ x ∈ N : x2 < 0 ¯
¯©©© ª ©© ªª © ªªª¯ ¯© ª¯
32. ¯ 1, 4 , a, b, 3, 4 , ; ¯
33. ¯ x ∈ Z : | x| < 10 ¯ 38. ¯ x ∈ N : 5 x ≤ 20 ¯
¯© ª¯ ¯© ª¯

D. Sketch the following sets of points in the x- y plane.

46. ( x, y) : x, y ∈ R, x2 + y2 ≤ 1
© ª © ª
39. ( x, y) : x ∈ [1, 2], y ∈ [1, 2]
47. ( x, y) : x, y ∈ R, y ≥ x2 − 1
© ª © ª
40. ( x, y) : x ∈ [0, 1], y ∈ [1, 2]
48. ( x, y) : x, y ∈ R, x > 1
© ª © ª
41. ( x, y) : x ∈ [−1, 1], y = 1
49. ( x, x + y) : x ∈ R, y ∈ Z
© ª © ª
42. ( x, y) : x = 2, y ∈ [0, 1]
2
50. ( x, xy ) : x ∈ R, y ∈ N
© ª © ª
43. ( x, y) : | x| = 2, y ∈ [0, 1]
44. ( x, x2 ) : x ∈ R 51. ( x, y) ∈ R2 : ( y − x)( y + x) = 0
© ª © ª

45. ( x, y) : x, y ∈ R, x2 + y2 = 1 52. ( x, y) ∈ R2 : ( y − x2 )( y + x2 ) = 0
© ª © ª

1.2 The Cartesian Product

Given two sets A and B, it is possible to “multiply” them to produce a new
set denoted as A × B. This operation is called the Cartesian product. To
understand it, we must first understand the idea of an ordered pair.

Definition 1.1 An ordered pair is a list (x, y) of two things x and y,

enclosed in parentheses and separated by a comma.

For example, (2, 4) is an ordered pair, as is (4, 2). These ordered pairs are
different because even though they have the same things in them, the order
is different. We write (2, 4) 6= (4, 2). Right away you can see that ordered pairs
can be used to describe points on the plane, as was done in calculus, but
they are not limited to just that. The things in an ordered pair don’t have
to be numbers. You can have ordered pairs of letters, such as (`, m), ordered
¡© ª© ª¢
pairs of sets such as 2, 5 , 3, 2 , even ordered pairs of ordered pairs like
(2, 4), (4, 2) . The following are also ordered pairs: 2, 1, 2, 3 , R, (0, 0) . Any
¡ ¢ ¡ © ª¢ ¡ ¢

list of two things enclosed by parentheses is an ordered pair. Now we are

ready to define the Cartesian product.

Definition 1.2 The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is another

© ª
set, denoted as A × B and defined as A × B = (a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B .

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

The Cartesian Product 9

Thus A × B is a set of ordered pairs of elements from A and B. For

example, if A = k, `, m and B = q, r , then
© ª © ª

A × B = (k, q), (k, r), (`, q), (`, r), (m, q), (m, r) .
© ª

Figure 1.1 shows how to make a schematic diagram of A × B. Line up the

elements of A horizontally and line up the elements of B vertically, as if
A and B form an x- and y-axis. Then fill in the ordered pairs so that each
element (x, y) is in the column headed by x and the row headed by y.

B A×B
r (k, r) (`, r) (m, r)
q (k, q) (`, q) (m, q)

k ` m A

Figure 1.1. A diagram of a Cartesian product

© ª © ª © ª
For another example, 0, 1 × 2, 1 = (0, 2), (0, 1), (1, 2), (1, 1) . If you are a
visual thinker, you may wish to draw a diagram similar to Figure 1.1. The
rectangular array of such diagrams give us the following general fact.

Fact 1.1 If A and B are finite sets, then | A × B| = | A | · |B|.

© ª
Example 1.3 Let A = , , , , , be the set consisting of the six faces
of a dice. The Cartesian product A × A is diagramed below. By Fact 1.1 (or
by simple counting), | A × A | = 6 · 6 = 36. We might think of A × A as the set
of possible outcomes in rolling a dice two times in a row. Each element of
¡ ¢
the product is an ordered pair of form result of 1st roll, result of 2nd roll .
Such constructions are useful in the study of probability.

A A×A
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )

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10 Sets

The set R × R = (x, y) : x, y ∈ R should be very familiar. It can be viewed

© ª

as the set of points on the Cartesian plane, as drawn in Figure 1.2(a). The
set R × N = (x, y) : x ∈ R, y ∈ N can be regarded as all of the points on the
© ª

plane whose second coordinate is a natural number. This is illustrated in

Figure 1.2(b), which shows that R × N looks like infinitely many horizontal
lines at integer heights above the x-axis. The set N×N is the set of all points
on the plane whose coordinates are both natural numbers. It looks like a
grid of dots in the first quadrant, as illustrated in Figure 1.2(c).

y y y

x x x
R×R R×N N×N

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.2. Drawings of some Cartesian products

It is even possible for one factor of a Cartesian product to be a Cartesian

product itself, as in R × (N × Z) = (x, (y, z)) : x ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ N × Z .
© ª

We can also define Cartesian products of three or more sets by moving

beyond ordered pairs. An ordered triple is a list (x, y, z). The Cartesian
product of the three sets R, N and Z is R × N × Z = (x, y, z) : x ∈ R, y ∈ N, z ∈ Z .
© ª

Of course there is no reason to stop with ordered triples. In general,

© ª
A 1 × A 2 × · · · × A n = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : x i ∈ A i for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n .

Be mindful of parentheses. There is a slight difference between R× (N×Z)

and R × N × Z. The first is a Cartesian product of two sets; its elements are
ordered pairs (x, (y, z)). The second is a Cartesian product of three sets; its
elements are ordered triples (x, y, z). To be sure, in many situations there is
no harm in blurring the distinction between expressions like (x, (y, z)) and
(x, y, z), but for now we regard them as different.
For any set A and positive integer n, the Cartesian power A n is
A n = A × A × · · · × A = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ A .
© ª

In this way, R2 is the familiar Cartesian plane and R3 is three-dimensional

space. You can visualize how, if R2 is the plane, then Z2 = (m, n) : m, n ∈ Z
© ª

is a grid of points on the plane. Likewise, as R3 is 3-dimensional space,

Z3 = (m, n, p) : m, n, p ∈ Z is a grid of points in space.
© ª

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

 The Cartesian Product 11

In other courses you may encounter sets that are very similar to Rn , but
yet have slightly different shades of meaning. Consider, for example, the
set of all two-by-three matrices with entries from R:
©£ uv w¤
: u, v, w, x, y, z ∈ R .
ª
M= x y z

This is not really all that different from the set

R6 = (u, v, w, x, y, z) : u, v, w, x, y, z ∈ R .
© ª

The elements of these sets are merely certain arrangements of six real
numbers. Despite their similarity, we maintain that M 6= R6 , for two-by-
three matrices are not the same things as sequences of six numbers.
© ª
Example 1.4 Represent the two sides of a coin by the set S = h,t . The
possible outcomes of tossing the coin seven times in a row can be described
with the Cartesian power S 7 . A typical element of S 7 looks like
(h,h,t,h,t,t,t),
meaning a head was tossed first, then another head, then a tail, then a head
followed by three tails. Note that S = 27 = 128, so there are 128 possible
¯ 7¯
¯ ¯
outcomes. If this is not clear, then it will be explained fully in Chapter 3.

Exercises for Section 1.2

A. Write out the indicated
©
sets by listing
ª © ª
their elements between braces.
1. Suppose A = 1, 2, 3, 4 and B = a, c .
(a) A × B (c) A × A (e) ; × B (g) A × (B × B)
(b) B × A (d) B×B (f) ( A × B) × B (h) B3
2. Suppose A = π, e, 0 and B = 0, 1 .
© ª © ª

(a) A × B (c) A × A (e) A × ; (g) A × (B × B)

(b) B × A (d) B × B (f) ( A × B) × B (h) A × B × B
x ∈ R : x2 = 2 × a, c, e x ∈ R : x2 = x × x ∈ N : x2 = x
© ª © ª © ª © ª
3. 6.
n ∈ Z : 2 < n < 5 × n ∈ Z : | n| = 5
© ª © ª © ª © ª © ª
4. 7. ; × 0, ; × 0, 1
ª4
x ∈ R : x2 = 2 × x ∈ R : | x| = 2
© ª © ª
5.
©
8. 0, 1
B. Sketch these Cartesian products on the x- y plane R2 (or R3 for the last two).
© ª © ª © ª
9. 1, 2, 3 × − 1, 0, 1 15. 1 × [0, 1]
© ª © ª © ª
10. − 1, 0, 1 × 1, 2, 3 16. [0, 1] × 1
11. [0, 1] × [0, 1] 17. N×Z
12. [−1, 1] × [1, 2] 18. Z×Z
© ª
13. 1, 1.5, 2 × [1, 2] 19. [0, 1] × [0, 1] × [0, 1]
(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y2 ≤ 1 ×[0, 1]
© ª © ª
14. [1, 2] × 1, 1.5, 2 20.

Free PDF version

12 Sets

1.3 Subsets
It can happen that every element of a set A is an element of another set B.
© ª © ª
For example, each element of A = 0, 2, 4 is also an element of B = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 .
When A and B are related this way we say that A is a subset of B.

Definition 1.3 Suppose A and B are sets. If every element of A is also

an element of B, then we say A is a subset of B, and we denote this as
A ⊆ B. We write A 6⊆ B if A is not a subset of B, that is, if it is not true that
every element of A is also an element of B. Thus A 6⊆ B means that there
is at least one element of A that is not an element of B.

Example 1.5 Be sure you understand why each of the following is true.
© ª © ª
1. 2, 3, 7 ⊆ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
© ª © ª
2. 2, 3, 7 6⊆ 2, 4, 5, 6, 7
© ª © ª
3. 2, 3, 7 ⊆ 2, 3, 7
(x, sin(x)) : x ∈ R ⊆ R2
© ª
4.
1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, . . . ⊆ N
© ª
5.
6. N⊆Z⊆Q⊆R
7. R×N ⊆ R×R
8. A ⊆ A for any set A
9. ; ⊆ ;.

This brings us to a significant fact: If B is any set whatsoever, then ; ⊆ B.

To see why this is true, look at the last sentence of Definition 1.3. It says
that ; 6⊆ B would mean that there is at least one element of ; that is not an
element of B. But this cannot be so because ; contains no elements! Thus
it is not the case that ; 6⊆ B, so it must be that ; ⊆ B.

Fact 1.2 The empty set is a subset of all sets, that is, ; ⊆ B for any set B.

Here is another way to look at it. Imagine a subset of B as a thing you

©ª
make by starting with braces , then filling them with selections from B.
© ª ©ª
For example, to make one particular subset of B = a, b, c , start with ,
©ª © ª
select b and c from B and insert them into to form the subset b, c .
© ª
Alternatively, you could have chosen just a to make a , and so on. But one
©ª
option is to simply select nothing from B. This leaves you with the subset .
©ª
Thus ⊆ B. More often we write it as ; ⊆ B.

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

Subsets 13

This idea of “making” a subset can help us list out all the subsets of a
© ª
given set B. As an example, let B = a, b, c . Let’s list all of its subsets. One
way of approaching this is to make a tree-like structure. Begin with the
©ª
subset , which is shown on the left of Figure 1.3. Considering the element
©ª ©ª
a of B, we have a choice: insert it into , or not. The lines from point to
©ª © ª
what we get depending whether or not we insert a, either or a . Now
move on to the element b of B. For each of the sets just formed we can either
insert or not insert b, and the lines on the diagram point to the resulting
©ª © ª © ª © ª
sets , b , a , or a, b . Finally, to each of these sets, we can either insert
c or not insert it, and this gives us, on the far right-hand column, the sets
©ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª
, c , b , b, c , a , a, c , a, b and a, b, c . These are the eight subsets
© ª
of B = a, b, c .

Insert a ? Insert b ? Insert c ?

©ª
©ª No
Yes © ª
©ª
No c
© ª
Yes b
© ª No
No b
Yes © ª
©ª b, c
© ª
a
© ª No
Yes a
Yes © ª
© ª
No a, c
a © ª
Yes a, b
© ª No
a, b
Yes © ª
a, b, c

Figure 1.3. A “tree” for listing subsets

We can see from the way this tree branches that if it happened that
© ª
B = a , then B would have just two subsets, those in the second column of
© ª
the diagram. If it happened that B = a, b , then B would have four subsets,
those in the third column, and so on. At each branching of the tree, the
number of subsets doubles. So in general, if |B| = n, then B has 2n subsets.

Fact 1.3 If a finite set has n elements, then it has 2n subsets.

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14 Sets

For a slightly more complex example, consider listing the subsets of

© © ªª © ª
B = 1, 2, 1, 3 . This B has just three elements: 1, 2 and 1, 3 . At this point
you probably don’t even have to draw a tree to list out B’s subsets. You just
make all the possible selections from B and put them between braces to get
©ª © ª © ª ©© ªª © ª © © ªª © © ªª © © ªª
, 1 , 2 , 1, 3 , 1, 2 , 1, 1, 3 , 2, 1, 3 , 1, 2, 1, 3 .

These are the eight subsets of B. Exercises like this help you identify what
is and isn’t a subset. You know immediately that a set such as 1, 3 is not a
© ª
©ª
subset of B because it can’t be made by inserting elements from B into ,
as the 3 is not an element of B and thus is not a valid selection. Notice that
although 1, 3 6⊆ B, it is true that 1, 3 ∈ B. Also, 1, 3 ⊆ B.
© ª © ª ©© ªª

Example 1.6 Be sure you understand why the following statements are
true. Each illustrates an aspect of set theory that you’ve learned so far.
© © ªª © © ªª
1. 1 ∈ 1, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 is the first element listed in 1, 1
© © ªª
2. 1 6⊆ 1, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because 1 is not a set
© ª © © ªª © ª © © ªª
3. 1 ∈ 1, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 is the second element listed in 1, 1
© ª © © ªª © ª © © ªª
4. 1 ⊆ 1, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . make subset 1 by selecting 1 from 1, 1
©© ªª © © ªª © © ªª © ª ©© ªª
5. 1 ∉ 1, 1 . . . . . . . . . because 1, 1 contains only 1 and 1 , and not 1
©© ªª © © ªª ©© ªª © ª © © ªª
6. 1 ⊆ 1, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . make subset 1 by selecting 1 from 1, 1
7. N ∉ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N is a set (not a number) and N contains only numbers
8. N ⊆ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because X ⊆ X for every set X
9. ; ∉ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because the set N contains only numbers and no sets
10. ; ⊆ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because ; is a subset of every set
11. N ∈ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because N has just one element, the set N
© ª © ª

12. N 6⊆ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because, for instance, 1 ∈ N but 1 ∉ N

© ª © ª

13. ; ∉ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . note that the only element of N is N, and N 6= ;

© ª © ª

14. ; ⊆ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because ; is a subset of every set

© ª

15. ; ∈ ;, N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; is the first element listed in ;, N

© ª © ª

; ⊆ ;, N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because ; is a subset of every set

© ª
16.
N ⊆ ;, N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . make subset N by selecting N from ;, N
© ª © ª © ª © ª
17.
N 6⊆ ;, N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . because N ∉ ;, N
© ª © © ªª © © ªª
18.
N ∈ ;, N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N is the second element listed in ;, N
© ª © © ªª © ª © © ªª
19.
(1, 2), (2, 2), (7, 1) ⊆ N × N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . each of (1, 2), (2, 2), (7, 1) is in N × N
© ª
20.

Though they should help you understand the concept of subset, the
above examples are somewhat artificial. But in general, subsets arise very
naturally. For instance, consider the unit circle C = (x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y2 = 1 .
© ª

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

 Power Sets 15

This is a subset C ⊆ R2 . Likewise the graph of a function y = f (x) is a set

of points G = (x, f (x)) : x ∈ R , and G ⊆ R2 . Surely sets such as C and G
© ª

are more easily understood or visualized when regarded as subsets of R2 .

Mathematics is filled with such instances where it is important to regard
one set as a subset of another.

Exercises for Section 1.3

A. List all the subsets of the following sets.
© ª © ª
1. 1, 2, 3, 4 5. ;
6. R, Q, N
© ª © ª
2. 1, 2, ;
R 7. R, Q, N
©© ªª © © ªª
3.
©© ª© © ªª © ª ª
4. ; 8. 0, 1 , 0, 1, 2 , 0

B. Write out the following sets by listing their elements between braces.
© © ª ª © © ª ª
9. X : X ⊆ 3, 2, a and | X | = 2 11. X : X ⊆ 3, 2, a and | X | = 4
10. X ⊆ N : | X | ≤ 1
© ª © © ª ª
12. X : X ⊆ 3, 2, a and | X | = 1

C. Decide if the following statements are true or false. Explain.

13. R3 ⊆ R3 15. ( x, y) : x − 1 = 0 ⊆ ( x, y) : x2 − x = 0
© ª © ª

14. R2 ⊆ R3 16. ( x, y) : x2 − x = 0 ⊆ ( x, y) : x − 1 = 0
© ª © ª

1.4 Power Sets

Given a set, you can form a new set with the power set operation.

Definition 1.4 If A is a set, the power set of A is another set, denoted

as P (A) and defined to be the set of all subsets of A . In symbols, P (A) =
© ª
X:X⊆A .
© ª
For example, suppose A = 1, 2, 3 . The power set of A is the set of all
subsets of A . We learned how to find these subsets in the previous section,
©ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª
and they are , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1, 2 , 1, 3 , 2, 3 and 1, 2, 3 . Therefore the
power set of A is
n ªo
P (A) = ;, 1 , 2 , 3 , 1, 2 , 1, 3 , 2, 3 , 1, 2, 3
© ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª ©
.

As we saw in the previous section, if a finite set A has n elements, then

it has 2n subsets, and thus its power set has 2n elements.

Fact 1.4 If A is a finite set, then |P (A)| = 2| A | .

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16 Sets

Example 1.7 You should examine the following statements and make
sure you understand how the answers were obtained. In particular, notice
that in each instance the equation |P (A)| = 2| A | is true.
P 0, 1, 3 = ;, 0 , 1 , 3 , 0, 1 , 0, 3 , 1, 3 , 0, 1, 3
¡© ª¢ © © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ª © ªª
1.
P 1, 2 = ;, 1 , 2 , 1, 2
¡© ª¢ © © ª © ª © ªª
2.
P 1 = ;, 1
¡© ª¢ © © ªª
3.
P (;) = ;
© ª
4.
P a = ;, a
¡© ª¢ © © ªª
5.
6. P ; = ;, ;
¡© ª¢ © © ªª

7. P a × P ; = (;, ;), ;, ; , a , ; , a , ;
¡© ª¢ ¡© ª¢ © ¡ © ª¢ ¡© ª ¢ ¡© ª © ª¢ ª

8. P P ; = ;, ; , ; , ;, ;
¡ ¡© ª¢¢ © © ª ©© ªª © © ªª ª

9. P 1, 1, 2 = ;, 1 , 1, 2 , 1, 1, 2
¡© © ªª¢ © © ª ©© ªª © © ªª ª

10. P Z, N = ;, Z , N , Z, N
¡© ª¢ © © ª © ª © ªª

Next are some that are wrong. See if you can determine why they are
wrong and make sure you understand the explanation on the right.
11. P (1) = ;, 1
© © ªª
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meaningless because 1 is not a set
12. P 1, 1, 2 = ;, 1 , 1, 2 , 1, 1, 2
¡© © ªª¢ © © ª © ª© © ªªª © ª © © ªª
. . . . . . wrong because 1, 2 6⊆ 1, 1, 2
13. P 1, 1, 2 = ;, 1 , 1, 2 , ;, 1, 2 . . . wrong because 1 6⊆ 1, 1, 2
¡© © ªª¢ © ©© ªª ©© ªª © © ªªª ©© ªª © © ªª

If A is finite, then it is possible (though maybe not practical) to list out

P (A) between braces as was done in the above example. That is not possible
if A is infinite. For example, consider P (N). If you start listing its elements
you quickly discover that N has infinitely many subsets, and it’s not clear
how (or if) they could be arranged in a list with a definite pattern:

P (N) = ;, 1 , 2 , . . . , 1, 2 , 1, 3 , . . . , 39, 47 ,
© © ª© ª © ª© ª © ª
© ª © ª ª
. . . , 3, 87, 131 , . . . , 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . , . . . ? . . . .

The set P (R2 ) is mind boggling. Think of R2 = (x, y) : x, y ∈ R as the set

© ª

of all points on the Cartesian plane. A subset of R2 (that is, an element of

P (R2 )) is a set of points in the plane. Let’s look at some of these sets. Since
(1, 2), (1, 1) ⊆ R2 , we know that (1, 2), (1, 1) ∈ P (R2 ). We can even draw a
© ª © ª

picture of this subset, as in Figure 1.4(a). For another example, the graph
of the equation y = x2 is the set of points G = (x, x2 ) : x ∈ R and this is a
© ª

subset of R2 , so G ∈ P (R2 ). Figure 1.4(b) is a picture of G . Because this can

be done for any function, the graph of any imaginable function f : R → R is
an element of P (R2 ).

Richard Hammack Book of Proof

 Power Sets 17

y y y

x x x

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.4. Three of the many, many sets in P (R2 )

In fact, any black-and-white image on the plane can be thought of as

a subset of R2 , where the black points belong to the subset and the white
points do not. So the text “INFINITE” in Figure 1.4(c) is a subset of R2 and
therefore an element of P (R2 ). By that token, P (R2 ) contains a copy of the
page you are reading now.
Thus, in addition to containing every imaginable function and every
imaginable black-and-white image, P (R2 ) also contains the full text of every
book that was ever written, those that are yet to be written and those that
will never be written. Inside of P (R2 ) is a detailed biography of your life,
from beginning to end, as well as the biographies of all of your unborn
descendants. It is startling that the five symbols used to write P (R2 ) can
express such an incomprehensibly large set.
Homework: Think about P (P (R2 )).

Exercises for Section 1.4

A. Write the following sets by listing their elements between braces.
1. P 7. P a, b × P 0, 1
¡©© ª © ªª¢ ¡© ª¢ ¡© ª¢
a, b , c
P 1, 2, 3, 4 8. P 1, 2 × 3
¡© ª¢ ¡© ª © ª¢
2.
P ; ,5 9. P a, b × 0
¡©© ª ª¢ ¡© ª © ª¢
3.
P R, Q X ∈P
¡© ª¢ © ¡©ª¢ ª
4. 10. 1, 2, 3 : | X | ≤ 1
P P 2 11. X ⊆ P 1, 2, 3 : | X | ≤ 1
¡ ¡© ª¢¢ © ¡© ª¢ ª
5.
P 1, 2 × P 3 12. X ∈ P 1, 2, 3 : 2 ∈ X
¡© ª¢ ¡© ª¢ © ¡© ª¢ ª
6.

B. Suppose that | A | = m and |B| = n. Find the following cardinalities.

13. |P (P (P ( A )))| 17. ¯ X ∈ P ( A ) : | X | ≤ 1 ¯
¯© ª¯

14. |P (P ( A ))| 18. |P ( A × P (B))|

15. |P ( A × B)| 19. |P (P (P ( A × ;)))|
16. |P ( A ) × P (B)| 20. ¯ X ⊆ P ( A ) : | X | ≤ 1 ¯
¯© ª¯

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