EEE1001:Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Module – 5: Semiconductor Devices

Dr. ARUN S L
Assistant professor,
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, SELECT
VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, 632014
 Introduction

Type of Materials
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
Valence
Electrons

Made up of atoms, usually Insulators are materials Made up of atoms that are
Atomic Structure of Copper metals which have valence whose electrons are held both relatively good
29 Protons, 29 Electrons electrons that can travel firmly to their nucleus. An conductors and relatively
easily when an insulator is a material good insulators depend on
electromotive force (emf having a high resistance the type of conditions
Copper valence electron easily voltage electrical potential) which does not allow applied..
moves from atom to atom. is applied. electric current to flow in it

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2
 Semiconductor

Crystal Lattice Structure

 The unique capability of semiconductor atoms is their ability to

Atomic Structure of Silicon link together to form a physical structure called a crystal
14 Protons, 14 Electrons lattice.
 These links are called covalent bonds.

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 Semiconductor

Semiconductors can be Insulators

 If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an
excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not free for current flow.
 Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as intrinsic.
 Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are tightly bound together with one another, the
electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
 Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
 Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.

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 Semiconductor

Doping

 To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must be added. This
process is called doping.
 The doped semiconductor material is called as extrinsic semiconductor.
 The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is good.

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 Semiconductor

Doping

 An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5 valence electrons.

 Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons to bond with the neighboring silicon
atoms.
 The one electron left over for each arsenic atom becomes
available to conduct current flow.
 Resistance Effects of Doping
 If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be
lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the material
will be low and current will flow freely. If you use only a
few arsenic atoms, there will be fewer free electrons so
the resistance will be high and less current will flow.. By
controlling the doping amount, virtually any resistance
can be achieved.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6
 Semiconductor

Doping

 We can also dope a semiconductor material with an

atom such as boron that has only 3 valence electrons.
 The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form covalent
bonds with its neighboring semiconductor atoms as
before. But one electron is missing from the bond.
 This place where a fourth electron should be is referred
to as a hole.
 The hole assumes a positive charge so it can attract
electrons from some other source.
 Holes become a type of current carrier like the electron
to support current flow.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 7
 Semiconductor

Types of Semiconductor Materials

“N” type semiconductor  The silicon doped with extra electrons

Semiconductor

“P” type semiconductor.  Silicon doped with material missing electrons

that produce locations called holes

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 8
 Semiconductor

Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors

 The DC voltage source has a positive terminal that attracts

the free electrons in the semiconductor and pulls them
away from their atoms leaving the atoms charged
positively.
 Electrons from the negative terminal of the supply enter
the semiconductor material and are attracted by the
positive charge of the atoms missing one of their
electrons.
 Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal.

Majority Carriers - Electrons

Minority Carriers - Holes
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 9
 Semiconductor

Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors

 Electrons from the negative supply terminal are

attracted to the positive holes and fill them.
 The positive terminal of the supply pulls the
electrons from the holes leaving the holes to attract
more electrons.
 Current flows from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal.
 Inside the semiconductor current flow is actually by
the movement of the holes from positive to negative.

Majority Carriers - Holes

Minority Carriers - Electrons
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 10
 PN junction diode

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11
 PN junction diode

 In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by

P-type and the other half is doped by N-type impurity, a PN
junction is formed.
 The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN
junction.
 The N-type has high concentration of free electrons while P-
type has high concentration of holes. Therefore at the
junction there is a tendency for the free electrons to diffuse
over to the P-side and holes to the N-side (process called
diffusion).
 Diode Operating Conditions
 The net opposite charge in each layer prevents further
diffusion into that layer.  No bias

 Thus a barrier is set up near the junction which prevents  Forward bias
further movement of charge carriers. This is called as  Reverse bias
potential barrier (0.3V for germanium and 0.7 for silicon).

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 12
 PN junction diode

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 13
 PN junction diode

Forward Bias

 When positive terminal of battery is connected to the P-

type and negative terminal to the N-type of the PN
junction diode, the bias applied is known as forward bias.
 The applied positive potential repels the holes in the P-
type region so that the holes move towards the junction
and the applied negative potential repels the electrons in
the N-type region and the electrons move towards the
junction (When applied voltage VF is less than internal
barrier V0) and hence the forward current IF is almost
zero.
 Eventually when the applied potential is more than the
internal barrier (V0) potential the barrier will disappear.
 Hence, the holes cross the junction from P-type to N-type
and the electrons cross the junction in the opposite
direction resulting in relatively large current flow in the
external circuit.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 14
 PN junction diode

Reverse Bias

 When the negative terminal of the battery is connected

to the P-type and positive terminal is connected to N-
type of the PN junction, the bias applied is known as
reverse bias.
 Under this condition, holes form the majority carriers of
P-side move towards the negative terminal of the battery
and electrons which form the majority carriers of the N-
side are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery.
 Hence the width of the depletion region which is
depleted of mobile carriers increases.
 Thus the electric filed produced by applied reverse bias is in the same direction of electric field and hence the
barrier is increased.
 Therefore, theoretically no current should flow in the external circuit.
 But in practice very small reverse current in the order of microamperes flows under bias. This current is called
as reverse saturation current.
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 15
 PN junction diode

Reverse Bias

 The magnitude of reverse saturation current mainly depends upon junction temperature because the
major source of minority carriers is thermally broken covalent bonds.

 For large reverse bias is applied,

 The free electrons from the N-type moving towards the positive terminal of the battery acquire
sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge valence electrons from semiconductor atom
in the crystal.

 Thus large number of free electrons are formed which is commonly called as avalanche of free
electrons. This leads to the breakdown of junction leading to very large reverse current. The reverse
voltage at which the junction breakdown is known as breakdown voltage.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 16
 PN junction diode

V I Characteristics

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 17
 PN junction diode

Applications

 Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which is in only one direction, a process known as
rectification.

 In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC

Half wave rectifier wave is passed, while the other half is blocked.
 Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is
very inefficient if used for power transfer.
Rectifier

 A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of

constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.
Full wave rectifier
 Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform
to DC (direct current), and is more efficient.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 18
 PN junction diode
Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 19
 Zener diode
 When reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in a
PN diode, the current through the junction and power
dissipated at the junction will be high.
 Such an operation is destructive and the diode gets
damaged.
 However, diodes can be designed with adequate power
dissipation capability to operate in the breakdown
region.
 One such diode is Zener diode which is heavily doped
than the ordinary diode.

 A Zener diode is a silicon PN junction semiconductor device which is operated in its reverse breakdown
region.
 Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of 1.8 to 200 V with power ratings from 1/4 to 50 W.
 Because of its higher temperature and current capability, silicon is usually preferred in the manufacture of
Zener diodes.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 20
 Zener diode

V I Characteristics

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 21
 Zener diode

 The forward bias condition is same as the ordinary PN diode, but Under reverse bias condition,
breakdown of the junction occurs and the breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping.
 If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently breakdown occurs at lower
reverse voltage, besides the breakdown voltage being sharp.
 Thus the breakdown voltage can be selected with the amount of doping. When the reverse bias field
across the junction is sufficiently high, it may exert a strong force on bound electrons to tear them out
from a covalent bond.
 Thus a large number of electron – hole pairs will be generated through a direct rupture of the covalent
bond thereby resulting in large reverse current at the breakdown voltage.
 Though Zener breakdown occurs for lower breakdown voltage and avalanche breakdown occurs for
higher breakdown voltage, such diodes are normally called Zener diode

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 22
 Zener diode
Zener Diode Voltage regulation
Applications

From the zener diode characteristics, under the reverse

bias condition, the voltage across the diode remains almost
constant although the current through the diode increases. Thus
the voltage across the zener diode serves as a reference
voltage. Hence the diode can be used as a voltage regulator.

 The arrangement shown is useful when it is required to

provide a constant voltage across a load resistance RL
where as the input voltage may be varying over a range.
 As shown, the zener diode is reverse biased and as long as
the input voltage does not fall below Vz, the voltage across
the diode will be constant and hence the load voltage will
also be constant.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 23
 Zener diode

Applications

 Rectifier Circuits
 Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
 Battery Charging Circuits
 Simple Diode Circuits
 Protective Circuits against
 Overcurrent
 Polarity Reversal
 Currents caused by an inductive kick in a relay circuit
 Zener Circuits
 Overvoltage Protection
 Setting Reference Voltages

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 24
EEE1001:Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Module – 5: Semiconductor Devices

Dr. ARUN S L
Assistant professor,
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, SELECT
VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, 632014
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron and hole charge carriers.
In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as filed-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier for
their operation.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal
semiconductor device in which the operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the
name Bipolar.
 BJT is used as a linear amplifier to boost an electrical signal and as
an electronic switch.
 BJT is formed by adding a second p or n region to a pn junction
diode.
 With two n regions and one p region, two junctions are formed and
it is known as an NPN-transistor.
 With two p regions and one n region, it is called as PNP-transistor.
 The three terminals are named as Collector (C), Emitter (E) and
Base (B).
 A bipolar transistor has two junctions, collector base junction(CBJ)
and base-emitter junction(BEJ)

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 3
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Properties of Emitter Base and Collector

 Emitter--- It is heavily doped than any of the other

regions because its main function is to supply majority
charge carries (either electrons or holes) to the base.
 Base--- It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is
very thin as compared to either the emitter or collector
and is very lightly doped.
 Collector--- Its main function (as indicated by its name)
is to collect majority charge carriers coming from the
emitter and passing through the base.

In most transistors, collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region because it has to dissipate
much greater power. Because of this difference, there is no possibility of inverting the transistor i.e. making its
collector the emitter and its emitter the collector.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 4
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The arrow-head is always on the emitter (not at the

collector) and in each case, its direction indicates the
conventional direction of current flow.

 For a PNP transistor, arrowhead points from emitter to

base meaning that emitter is positive with respect to base
(and also with respect to collector).

 For NPN transistor, it points from base to emitter meaning

that base (and collector as well)* is positive with respect to
the emitter

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 5
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Transistor Biasing

For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of correct polarity across its two
junctions (CBJ and EBJ).

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 Emitter-base junction is always forward biased and
Transistor Biasing
 Collector-base junction is always reverse-biased

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 7
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Transistor Currents

 The three primary currents which flow in a properly-biased transistor are 𝑰𝑬, 𝑰𝑩, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑪

 It means that a small part (about 1—2%) of emitter current goes to supply base current and
the remaining major part (98—99%) goes to supply collector current. (PNP)

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 8
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Operation of NPN
transistor

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 9
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Operation of NPN
transistor

 The forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of an NPN transistor causes a lot of electrons from the
emitter region to crossover to the base region.
 As the base is lightly doped with P-type impurity, the number of holes in the base region is very small and
hence the number of electrons that combine with holes in the P-type base region is also very small. Hence a
few electron combine with holes to constitute a base current 𝐼𝐵 .
 The remaining electrons (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute a collector current 𝐼𝐶.
 Thus the base and collector current summed up gives the emitter current, i.e. 𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 10
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Operation of PNP
transistor

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Operation of PNP
transistor

 The forward bias applied to the emitter-base junction of a PNP transistor causes a lot of holes from the
emitter region to crossover to the base region as the base is lightly doped with N-types impurity.
 The number of electrons in the base region is very small and hence the number of holes combined with
electrons in the N-type base region is also very small. Hence a few holes combined with electrons to
constitute a base current 𝐼𝐵 .
 The remaining holes (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute a collector current 𝐼𝐸.
 Thus the collector and base current when summed up gives the emitter current, i.e. 𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪.
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 12
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Transistor Circuit Common-base (CB)

Configurations

 Basically, there are three types of circuit connections

(called configurations) for operating a transistor.
 Common-base (CB),
 Common-emitter (CE),
 Common-collector (CC).
 The term ‘common’ is used to denote the electrode
that is common to the input and output circuits.
 Because the common electrode is generally
grounded, these modes of operation are frequently
referred to as grounded-base, grounded emitter and
grounded-collector configurations.
 Since a transistor is a 3-terminal (and not a 4-terminal)
device, one of its terminals has to be common to the
input and output circuits.
Common-emitter (CE) Common-collector (CC).
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 13
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

CE Configuration

Voltage gain, current gain and power gain of a common emitter configuration is high when compared to other
transistor configurations.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 14
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 It shows how 𝑰𝑩 varies with changes in 𝑽𝑩𝑬 when 𝑽𝑪𝑬 is held constant
CE Configuration
at a particular value.
 Steps:
Input Characteristic  Voltage 𝑽𝑪𝑬 is maintained constant at a convenient value and then 𝑽𝑩𝑬 is
increased in steps. Corresponding values of 𝑰𝑩 are noted at each step.
 The procedure is then repeated for a different but constant value of 𝑽𝑪𝑬.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 15
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

CE Configuration

Output Characteristic

 It indicates the way in which 𝑰𝑪 varies with

changes in 𝑽𝑪𝑬 when 𝑰𝑩 is held constant.
 Steps:
 first 𝑰𝑩 is set to a convenient value and maintained
constant and then 𝑽𝑪𝑬 is increased from zero in
steps, 𝑰𝑪 being noted at each step.
 Next, 𝑽𝑪𝑬 is reduced to zero and 𝑰𝑩 increased to
another convenient value and the whole procedure
repeated.
 In this way, a family of curves is obtained as
shown.

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 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

CE Configuration

In the active region of a common-emitter amplifier the collector-base junction is

Active Region reverse-biased, while the base-emitter junction is forward-biased. The active region of the
common-emitter configuration can be employed for voltage, current, or power
amplification.

Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current (IB), zero
output collector current (IC) and maximum collector voltage (VCE) which results in a large
Cut-off Region depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor
switched “Fully-OFF”.

Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied,
Saturation resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage
drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current
Region
flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 17
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Gain terms in Transistors

 The current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the currents flowing into the transistor as
the emitter current is given as
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
 The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called alpha (𝛼) of a transistor.
𝑰𝑪
𝜶=
𝑰𝑬
 The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor; higher the value of α, better the
transistor in the sense that collector current more closely equals the emitter current. Its value ranges
from 0.95 to 0.999.
 The load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of the common
emitter transistor configuration is quite large.
 Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less than unity.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 18
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Gain terms in Transistors

 The ratio of the collector current to base current is called beta (β) of the transistor.
𝑰𝑪
𝜷=
𝑰𝑩
 It is possible for β to have as high a value as 500.
 Relation Between α and β

𝑰𝑪 𝟏
𝜷 𝑰𝑬 𝑰𝑩 = 𝑰𝑪 𝟏−
= 𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪 = 𝜶
𝜶 𝑰𝑩 𝜶

𝑰𝑪 𝜶 𝜶
𝜷= = 𝜷=
𝑰𝑩 𝟏 − 𝜶 𝟏−𝜶

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 19
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Transistor Currents Relations

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 20
EEE1001:Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Module – 5: Semiconductor Devices

Dr. ARUN S L
Assistant professor,
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, SELECT
VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, 632014
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor (MOSFET)
 The primary difference between the two types of transistors is the fact that the BJT transistor is a current-
controlled device while MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device.

 The MOSFET is a unipolar device depending solely

on either electron (n-channel) or hole (p-channel)
conduction.
 It is a 4 terminal device namely Drain (D), Source
(S), Substrate (Body), and Gate (G).
 The Drain and Source terminals are connected to
heavily doped regions.
 The gate terminal is connected to the oxide layer.
 The body of the MOSFET is frequently connected to
the source terminal so making it a three terminal
device like BJT.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2
 MOSFET

N and P Channel MOSFET

 The MOSFET works by electronically varying the width of a channel

along which charge carriers flow (electrons or holes).
 The charge carriers enter the channel at source and exit via the
drain.
 The width of the channel is controlled by the voltage on an electrode
is called gate which is located between source and drain.
 It is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal
oxide.

 If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and

drain are heavily doped 'n' regions and the body is a 'p' region.
 If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and
drain are heavily doped 'p' regions and the body is a 'n' region

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 3
 MOSFET

Enhancement MOSFET

P – Type

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 MOSFET

Enhancement MOSFET

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 MOSFET

Enhancement MOSFET
Enhancement p-channel MOSFET
 Enhancement-type MOSFETS are MOSFETs that are normally off.
 When you connect an enhancement-type MOSFET, no current flows
from drain to source when no voltage is applied to its gate.
 This is why it is called a normally off device. There is no current flow
without a gate voltage.
 However, if a voltage is applied to the gate lead of the MOSFET, the
drain source channel becomes less resistive. As the gate-source voltage
increases more and more, the current flowing from drain to source Enhancement n-channel MOSFET
increases more and more, until maximum current is flowing from drain to
source.
 An enhancement-type MOSFET is so named an enhancement device,
because as the voltage to the gate increases, the current increases
more and more, until at maximum level.
 An enhancement-type MOSFET behaves very similar in action to a
bipolar junction transistor.
Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6
 MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 7
 MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET

 Depletion-type MOSFETS are MOSFETs that are normally ON.

 The construction of an enhancement-type MOSFET is quite similar to that of the depletion-type
MOSFET, except for the absence of a channel between the drain and source terminals.
 In a depletion-type MOSFET, current flows from drain to source without any gate voltage applied. This
is why it is called a normally on device.
 There is current flow even without a gate voltage. With a depletion-type MOSFET, maximum current
flows from drain to source when no difference in voltage exists between the gate and source terminals
(VGS=0).
 However, if a voltage is applied to the gate lead of the MOSFET, the drain source channel becomes
more resistive. As the gate-source voltage increases more and more, the current flowing from drain to
source decreases more and more, until all current flow from drain to source ceases.
 A depletion-type MOSFET is so named a depletion device, because as the voltage to the gate
increases, the current depletes more and more, until it ceases to flow at all.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 8
 MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 9
 MOSFET

 Applications of MOSFET
 MOSFET amplifiers are extensively used in radio frequency applications.
 It acts as a passive element like resistor, capacitor and inductor.
 High switching speed of MOSFETs make it an ideal choice in designing chopper circuits.
 Advantages of MOSFET
 MOSFETs provide greater efficiency while operating at lower voltages.
 Absence of gate current results in high input impedance producing high switching speed.
 They operate at lower power and draws no current.
 Disadvantages of MOSFET
 The thin oxide layer make the MOSFETs vulnerable to permanent damage when evoked by
electrostatic charges.
 Overload voltages makes it unstable.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 10
EEE1001:Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Module – 5: Semiconductor Devices

Dr. ARUN S L
Assistant professor,
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, SELECT
VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, 632014
 Communication Systems

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2
 Communication Systems

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 3
 Communication Systems
Block Diagram of Generalized Communication Systems

 The communication systems have been developed for communicating useful

Information or information from one place to other
input signal  The information can be in the form of sound signal like speech or music or it can
be in the form of pictures.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 4
 Communication Systems
 The information in the form of sound, picture or data signals cannot the transmitted
as it is.
Input Transducer  First it has to be converted into a suitable electrical signal.
 For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information
or massage which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical
signal.
 The function of the transmitter block is to convert the electrical equivalent of the
Transmitter information to a suitable form
 It increases the power level of the signal. The power level should be increased in
order to cover a large range. The transmitter consists of the electronics circuits
such as amplifier, mixer, oscillator, and power amplifier.

 The communication channel is the medium used for the transmission of electronic
Communication signals from one place to the another.
channel or  The communication medium can be conducting wires, cables, optical fibers or free
medium space. Depending upon the type of the communication medium, two types of the
communication system will exist:
 Wire communication or line communication
 Wireless communication or radio communication

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 5
 Communication Systems

 Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added to the transmitted signal
when it is travelling towards receiver.
Noise  Due to noise, the quality of the transmitted information will degrade. Once noise
added, it cannot be separated from the information
 Hence noise is a big problem in the communication systems.

 The reception is exactly the opposite process of transmission. The received signal
Receiver is amplified and demodulated and converted in a suitable form
 The receiver consists of the electronic circuits like mixer, oscillator, detector and
amplifier.

 It converts the electrical signal at the output of the receiver back to the original form
Output
i.e. sound or pictures.
Transducer  The typical example of the output transducers are loud speakers, picture tubes etc.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6
 Communication Systems

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 7
 Communication Systems

Modulation  Modify the message signal into a form that is suitable for transmission over a channel.
 The process of modifying message signal is modulation.
 This modulation process involves changing some parameters of a carrier wave in
accordance with the message signal so the resultant wave will match the communication
channel's bandwidth.
 In order to recover the message signal, the receiver of the communication system will have
to go through the demodulation process, which is the inverse of the modulation process.
 Why modulation:
 High frequency signal required less antenna height
 Change the message signal to match the channel's bandwidth.
 Modulation permits multiplexing.
 Multiplexing means that different message signals can be transmitted in the same
channel at the same time.
 To convert the message signal to be immune to noise and interference.
 This will allow a good transmission to take place without worrying much about noise.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 8
 Communication Systems

Modulation  The modulation process involves encoding the message signal in a carrier wave.
 This carrier wave is just a sinusoidal wave. Sinusoidal wave has three independent
parameters that can be varied with the message signal.
 These three parameters are amplitude, phase, and frequency.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 9
 Communication Systems

Types of Modulation

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Amplitude modulation is the process of varying the amplitude of a carrier wave in proportion to the
amplitude of a baseband signal. The frequency of the carrier remains constant

 Frequency Modulation (FM)

 Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave in proportion to the
amplitude of a baseband signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant

 Phase Modulation (PM)

 Instantaneous phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 10
 Communication Systems

Amplitude Modulation

 AM requires a simple circuit, and is very

easy to generate.
 It is simple to tune, and is used in almost
all short wave broadcasting.
 The area of coverage of AM is greater than
FM.
 However, it is quite inefficient, and is
susceptible to static and other forms of
electrical noise.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11
 Communication Systems

Frequency Modulation

 The main advantage of FM is its audio

quality and immunity to noise.
 Most forms of static and electrical
noise are naturally AM, and an FM
receiver will not respond to AM
signals.
 The main disadvantage of FM is the
larger bandwidth it requires

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 12
 Communication Systems

Phase Modulation

 The total phase angle is varied

 Instantaneous phase of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal
 Amplitude and frequency are constant

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 13
 Communication Systems

Demodulation  Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal

from a modulated carrier wave.
 A demodulator is an electronic circuit that is used to recover the information
content from the modulated carrier wave.
 When the signals reach the destination i.e. at the receiver end, then the
signal strength will be very less. Amplification is necessary.

Dr. Arun S L, Asst. Prof., SELECT, VIT EEE1001-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 14