INTRODUCTION

TO

GEODESY

AND

MAP PROJECTIONS

LECTURE NOTES

PREPARED BY
ANDREW WEEKES
LAND SURVEYOR
TUTOR BCC

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 Introduction to Geodesy
Geodesy
 Geodesy relates to the science of measurement of the
earth to determine its size and shape to allow for its
mapping.
 With geodesy must consider the curvature of the
earth unlike plane surveying.
Size of the Earth ( pg 3 of Physical Geography in Diagrams
by R. B. Bunnett 1965) (see Figure 1A “Size of the Earth”)

 As far back as about 200 B.C. Eratosthenes, an

Egyptian, measured the circumference of the earth at
approximately 25000 miles.
 He observed the altitude of the midday sun at
Alexandria, Egypt using a Sun Dial (or Skaphe) and
found that it was 83.5. From previous observations
at the same time and on that particular day (the
summer solstice) the altitude of the sun at Syene,
Egypt was 90. Syene (now Aswan) is 450 miles
south of Alexandria. [see Figure 1]

 The 6.5 difference in the angle of the sun rays

striking the earth from directly overhead equates to
the angle subtended at the earth’s centre between the
two locations.
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 Introduction to Geodesy

 If 6.5 subtends an arc on the earth surface of 450,

then 360 subtends a distance of 24 923.1
(approximately 25 000) miles.
 The equatorial radius of the earth is 6378 km giving
a circumference of (2*phi*r) = 40074.2 km = 24
900.9 miles.

Vertical

Sun dial
Sun rays
a
Alexandria

a
A Syene

Figure 1

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 Introduction to Geodesy

Figure 1A – Size of the Earth

Source: Physical Geography in Diagrams

Shape of the Earth (see pgs 8-10 of Elements of Physical

Geology by Doris Holmes)

 The first voyage around the world began at Seville,

Spain by Megellan in 1519 and was completed at
Seville by Del Cano in 1522, establishing beyond
dispute that the earth was a globe.
 Photographs of earth from space confirm that the
earth has curvature.
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 Introduction to Geodesy
 The reason for the spherical shape of the earth
became clear when Newton discovered the law of
gravity. All particles of the earth are pulled towards
the centre of gravity and the spherical shape is the
natural response to maintain equilibrium and hence
every part of the surface equidistant from the centre.
 The earth however is not exactly a spheroid because
of its daily rotation. Newton around 1687 showed
that its shape is not only governed by inward
gravitation but outward centrifugal force which
reaches a maximum at the equator and a minimum
at the poles. This would result in a bulge at the
equator and flatting at the poles.
 Newton’s inference was confirmed by survey
measurements made by the French Academy of
Paris, “Académie Royales des Sciences”, in 1735
with a surveying expedition to the Andes in now
Ecuador to measure the meridian at latitude 01 31’
S and in 1736 with another expedition to Lapland to
measure the meridian at latitude 66 20’ N. The arc
measurement results showed that Newton was right.

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 Introduction to Geodesy
 What is even more significant is that before the
French Academy survey expeditions returned,
Clairaut, a French mathematician calculated what
the shape of the earth would be, assuming the earth
to be a fluid and subject only to the effects of its
own rotation and gravitational attraction.
 The Ellipsoid of Rotation internationally adopted for
surveying purposes as most closely representing the
shape of the earth corresponds almost exactly to that
calculated by Clairaut.
 The earth continuously tends towards a state of
gravitational equilibrium. If there was no rotation
and no differences in the density of the rocks, the
earth would be a sphere. It is the rotation that
creates the spheroid.
 In summary: - if the surface of the earth was
everywhere at sea level, its shape would closely
approximate to that of an Ellipsoid of Rotation (an
Oblate Spheroid) with a polar diameter of 12 713.8
km, nearly 43.4 km shorter than the equatorial
diameter.

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 Introduction to Geodesy
Why do we need Geodesy
Surveyors make observations on an irregular shaped
earth. All the observations made and subsequent
computations done must relate to a surface that can be
defined in mathematical terms.
Every observation is based on a point or plane of
reference and every computation must have a precision
or accuracy relative to some reference.
A mathematically defined reference allows for
checks, consistency in work, and ability to relate
different data sets.
Purpose of Geodesy
1. To define the earth by mathematical figure(s) –
reference surfaces.
2. To establish geodetic control required for
consistency in standard of work and to localize
errors.
3. For mapping of large land masses and oceans of the
earth.

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 Introduction to Geodesy
Geodetic Concepts
1. Figure of the Earth
 The name given to the different objects
representing the shape and size of the earth or
parts thereof.
 E.g. sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid, plane
2. The Geoid (a conceptual term – no physical reality)
 Scientific efforts to determine the true shape of
the earth have revealed that there is a direct
relationship between the direction and
magnitude of gravity and the earth’s form.
 In theory, if all the oceans were utterly calm,
completely free of physical forces such as
currents, tides, etc, only influenced by gravity
and if these calm waters under the influence of
gravity only were allowed to permeate through
frictionless channels across the land masses,
then the resulting surface would be everywhere
perpendicular to the force of gravity.
 In reality, other forces besides gravity affect
water, there is no mechanism for water to spread

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 Introduction to Geodesy
over the land masses under the influence of
gravity only and gravity is not constant over the
surface of the earth. However, it is possible to
determined and comprehend mathematically a
surface of constant gravity potential. Such a
surface is known as an equipotential or
geopotential surface.
 In other words, the potential energy generated
in moving from the earth’s centre to the surface
is constant.
 The surface that best fits the earth’s gravity
field is known as the geoid.
 The geoid is an equipotential surface that
nearly coincides with mean sea level that may
be imagined to extend through the water and
land masses.
 Height at the observer corrected to mean sea
level relates to the geoid.
 Astronomical observations (latitude and
longitude) are made with reference to the geoid.
Astronomical computations are made on the

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 Introduction to Geodesy
Celestial Sphere and carried out using spherical
trigonometry.
3. Datum Surface
 This relates to the mathematical shape (sphere,
ellipsoid) used to best fit the shape of the geoid.
 Due to local anomalous (irregular) gravitational
attraction, the geoid is not a regular surface
capable of practical mathematical definition.
 The mathematical regular surface that best fits
the geoid is an ellipsoid rotated about its minor
axis known as an Oblate Spheroid.
 The term Ellipsoid is commonly used
interchangeably with the term Spheroid.
 The scale change in transferring from the geoid
to ellipsoid is smaller than that of the sphere or
any other figure of the earth.
 The ellipsoid is defined mathematically by:
 The equation of “Ellipsoid of Rotation”
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
where x and y are spheroidal coord. of a point
where a = semi major axis length
where b = semi minor axis length
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 Introduction to Geodesy
 An ellipsoid rotated about its minor axis
produces an Oblate Ellipsoid – best fit to shape
x2 y2 Z 2
of earth or geoid.   1
a2 b2 b2

 An ellipsoid rotated about its major axis

produces a Prolate Ellipsoid.
 The shape and size of the ellipsoid must be
determined. Require > length of semi-major
axis, a
> length of semi-minor axis, b or
> the flatting, f given by f = (a-b)/a
b
a
[expressed as a fraction] or

> the eccentricity, e = a  b   f 2  f 

2 2

2
a

the amount of deviation from circular

shape [expressed as a fraction]
> a = 6378 km approximately for earth
> b = 6356 km approximately for earth
> difference of 22km between major and
minor axes.
> i.e. the sphere used to represent the
earth differs from the spheroid by 22
km.

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 Introduction to Geodesy
 The centre of the ellipsoid must be determined
– X , Y, Z
 The orientation of the ellipsoid in relation to the
earth must be determined.

 Must know the axis of rotation of the earth

–
Is the rate of rotation constant?
–
Is the direction of the axis fixed?
–
Monitoring of polar motion is required.
–
Through IPMS – International Polar
Motion Service
– Through ILS – International Latitude Service
 Consideration must also be given to the fact that
the earth is not a ridged body as other heavenly
bodies have attraction on it. E.g. the moon and
sun leading to the earth tides.
4. Height Datum
 Heights relate to Mean Sea Level (MSL) – the
average position of sea level over a period of
time, usually 19 years.
5. Direction of the Vertical
 Two bodies will attract each other by a force
Gm1m2
known as Gravitational Force (GF). GF 
d2

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 Introduction to Geodesy
 Any body on the surface of the earth will be
attracted to the center of earth gravity by
gravitational force.
 Simultaneously, the centrifugal force cause by
the earth rotation will act against the
gravitational force (pull on it) and displace it to
produce a resultant gravitational force.
 Vertical is in the direction of the resultant
gravity force.
 Gravitational force acts at right angles on an
equipotential surface. Any line at right angles
to the geoid is therefore in the direction of the
vertical.
 The vertical axis of any properly leveled
surveying instrument and the string of any
stable plumb bob are perpendicular to the geoid
and therefore define the local direction of
earth’s gravitational force. (demonstrate in
class with plumb bob)

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 Introduction to Geodesy
6. Deviation of the Vertical
 The difference between the direction of the local
vertical (plumb line – at right angles to geoid)
and the Prime vertical of the celestial sphere or
figure of the earth.
 Magnitude is of the order of 1” in 1000m.
 Thus the astronomical coordinates and geodetic
coordinates of a point will not be the same.
 “Laplace Equations” allow for the
conversion of astronomical azimuth, latitude
and longitude to geodetic equivalents.
Geodesy is divided into:
1. Geometric Geodesy – measurement and mapping
of earth.
2. Physical Geodesy – deals with gravity field of
earth and determination of coordinates.
3. Satellite Geodesy – fixing positions from
observations from satellites.
4. Marine Geodesy – hydrographic aspect –
establishing control on seabed.
5. Selenedosy – measurement and mapping of the
moon
6. Planetary Geodesy – measurement and mapping
of planets
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 Introduction to Map Projections

Map Projections
 Survey data is related to some form of datum and is
presented in the form of plans, maps and charts.
These are flat representations of a portion of the
earth’s surface.
 Map projections allow for the representation of the
curved earth’s surface information onto the plane
surface of a map or chart with the minimum of
distortion.
 The reasons for map projections which transfer the
ellipsoidal computations to the plane are:
1. the map user – it is easier for an individual to use
and carry a two dimensional medium (paper
map) than a three dimensional medium (globe).
2. allows the user to see what distance, direction
and area exists.
3. ease of computation – Plane trigonometry is
easier than spherical trigonometry.
 Note that the earth is not a sphere but rather a
spheroid with a polar diameter about one-third
of 1% shorter than the equatorial diameter.

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 Introduction to Map Projections

 A plane passing through the equator cuts it in a

circle, while a plane through the poles (meridian
plane) intersects it in an ellipse. With only a
slight difference between the polar and
equatorial dimensions, the ellipse is very nearly a
circle. Hence the assumption that the earth can
be taken as a sphere of radius 6367 km (3960
miles).
 A spherical surface cannot be flattened without
distorting it. (e.g. a section of an orange peel cannot
be flattened without tearing it).
 The map projection will contain errors but not
eliminate them. However, once the size of the error
(its direction and magnitude) is known, the error can
be compensated.
 A map projection will show one characteristic of the
earth at the expense of others or will be a
compromise of different characteristics. There is
literally an infinite number of ways in which this
can be done and projections may be infinitely
varied by choosing different points on the earth
as the centre or as a start point.
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 Introduction to Map Projections

Characteristics Distorted in Map Projections

Distortions occur in the following:
1. Scale (size) – scale is not constant over the map.
Map detail is drawn to more than one scale.
2. Direction (bearing) – varies in the N – S plane or E
– W plane

3. Area – areas on ground  areas on map

4. Shape – shape on ground  shape on map

Types of Map Projections

Type 1> Equidistant
 Projections that show

 true scale between one or two points and

every other point on the map;

 true scale along every meridian.

 Scale measurements on map are the exact
equivalent to ground measurements.
 No map projection shows scale correctly
throughout the entire map or chart.
 However, along one or more lines on the map,
the scale remains true.

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 Introduction to Map Projections
 Choosing the location of these lines properly
will minimize the scale error elsewhere. Some
errors may still be large depending on the size
of the area being mapped and the projection
used.
 Used for world or regional maps.
Type 2> Azimuthal or Zenithal
 Projections where the direction or azimuth of
all points on the map is shown correctly with
respect to one central point
 Commonly used for navigation where
direction on ground must be the same as on
map.
 Distortion in area can be allowed.
Type 3> Equal Area
 Projections which preserve area.
 Different areas on the map are in proper
relative size (proportion) to each other.
Usually the shape, angles and scale are
distorted.
 Used for population density mapping.

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 Introduction to Map Projections

Type 4> Conformal or Orthomorphic

 Preserve shape as nearly as possible.
 Most of the surveying maps commonly used
are conformal.
 Map shows the correct angle between any pair
of short intersecting lines. Thus making small
features or areas appear in correct shape.
 As the scale varies from point to point, the
shape of larger areas are incorrect.
 An important result of conformality is that
relative angles at each point are correct, and
the local scale in every direction around any
one point is correct.
 Therefore meridians intersect parallels at right
angles (90) on conformal projections, as they
do on the earth.
 Areas are generally enlarged or reduced
throughout the map, but are relatively correct
along certain lines depending on the
projection.
 This projection type is of most importance
to the surveyor.

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 Introduction to Map Projections

Categories of Map Projections

 Map projections fall into different categories based
on their construction.
 Here the concept of a Developable Surface is
introduced.
 A Developable Surface is one which can be
detached from the body it covers and place flat
without distortion. E.g. cylinder or cone.
 Projections constructed using developable surfaces
are called Geometric or Perspective Projections.
Projections may also be developed purely by
mathematical means where no one projection point
is used.
 Conceptually - the characteristics of the earth are
projected onto the developable surface surrounding
it, creating the projection and subsequently the map
information is superimposed.
The main categories of projections are: (see Figure 5)
Cat 1> Cylindrical
 Conceptually - A cylinder is wrapped around
the earth so that its surface touches the equator

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 Introduction to Map Projections
throughout its circumference or intersects the
earth in a specified manner.

 Meridians are projected onto the cylinder as

equidistant straight lines perpendicular to the
equator.
 Parallels are projected (or marked) onto the
cylinder as lines parallel to the equator around
the circumference of the cylinder and
mathematically spaced for desired
characteristic to be preserved.
 Cut the cylinder along one meridian, unroll and
lay flat, a cylindrical projection with straight
meridians and parallels results.
 Most common example is the Mercator
Projection.

Graticule of Mercator Projection

180W 0 180E
Parallels

30N

Equator

30S

Meridians Central Meridian

Figure 2
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 Introduction to Map Projections

Cat 2> Conical

 Conceptually - A cone is placed over the earth
with its peak or apex along the polar axis of the
earth and with the surface of the cone touching
the earth along, or intersecting the earth, at
some particular parallel of latitude.
 Meridians are projected onto the cone as
equidistant straight lines radiating from the
apex.
 Parallels are projected (or marked) as lines
around the circumference of the cone in planes
perpendicular to the earth axis, spaced for
desired characteristic to be preserved.
 Cut the cone along a meridian, unroll and lay
flat, a conical projection results with the
meridians remaining straight radiating lines,
and parallels which are circular arcs centred on
the apex.
 The angles between the meridians are shown
smaller than the true angles.
 An example is Lamberts Projection

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 Introduction to Map Projections

Graticule of Conical Projection

meridians

0 parallels

Figure 3

Cat 3> Azimuthal

 Conceptually – a plane is made tangential to
one point of the earth, generally one of the
poles or intersects the earth in a specified
manner.
 Meridians are projected as straight lines
radiating from the point of tangency spaced at
their true angles.
 Parallels are complete circles centred on the
point of tangency.
 Remove the plane and the result is an
azimuthal projection.
 An example is the Stereograpahic Projection.

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 Introduction to Map Projections

Graticule of Azimuthal Projection

meridians

tangent point

parallels
Figure 4

 Where the developable surface touches the earth along

one parallel or at one point, this projection is known as
a Regular Case for the particular projection type. The
point of tangency is known as the standard parallel.
 Where the developable surface intersects the earth, this
projection is known as the Secant Case for the
particular projection type. This will produce two
points of tangency each being a standard parallel.
 Generally the standard parallels are the lines of least
distortion.

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 Introduction to Map Projections
Figure 5: Categories of Projections

Source: Map Projections Used by the U.S. Geological Survey

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 Introduction to Map Projections
Concepts Associated with Map Projections
(a) The Globe Figure 6
Axis

Parallel of
Latitude
Globe surface

 o o = earth centre
Equator

Meridian of
Longitude
Greenwich Meridian
(Prime Meridian)

 Equator is a plane at right angles to the earth’s axis and

contains the earth’s centre.

 Equator is the plane used for measuring Latitude. i.e.

the reference plane for latitude measurement.
Latitude of a point () (pronounce “phi”)
 Angle measured at the centre of the earth, from
the equator going in a northerly or southerly
direction to the point.

 Many points have the same latitude and lie on a

circle parallel to the equator called a Parallel of
Latitude.

 Latitude values are between 0 and 90 north and

south of the equator. [0    90]

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 Introduction to Map Projections
Longitude
 Measurement of east – west extent defined by
meridians or lines of longitude which pass
through the north and south poles.
 Reference for longitude is the Prime Meridian
which in 1885 was accepted as Greenwich
Meridian.
 Greenwich Meridian refers to the meridian
passing through the centre of the transit
instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich in
England. This meridian was adopted at the
International Meridian Conference meeting in
Washington in 1884, as the reference meridian for
longitude.
 If you visit Greenwich in England, can stand
on the meridian line which is marked out on
the floor of the building.
Longitide of a point () (pronounce “Lambda”)
 The angle measured at the centre of the earth
between Greenwich Meridian (value 0) and the
meridian passing through the point. [0    180]

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 Introduction to Map Projections

 From Greenwich Meridian, going east is positive,

going west is negative.
[ BARBADOS is 59 W 13 N]

(b) The Graticule

 The network of meridians and parallels either on the
spheroid or on a map, the latter being the projected
positions of the former.
 On the datum surface the graticule lines are used to
fix points.

Features of the global Graticule

1. Meridians and parallels cross or cut at right angles.
2. Meridians converge to meet at poles.
3. Parallels are curved lines and parallel - i.e. equally
spaced apart going north and south from equator.
4. Any degree of latitude (say 1) subtends the same
distance on any part of any meridian.
5. Meridians are equally spaced along the parallels but
their distance apart, decreases from the equator to
the poles.
6. Meridians on the equator are spaced the same as
parallels – i.e. 1 of longitude on the equator

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 Introduction to Map Projections

subtends the same distance as 1 of latitude on any

meridian.
7. The area of the figure bounded by two parallels, 1
and 2 and two meridians,  apart is the same
anywhere. ( means difference in longitude).

(c) Scale Factor

 The scale factor is the ratio of the straight line
distance on the map joining two points, to the
corresponding distance on the datum surface.
Scale Factor = distance on map / distance on datum
surface

 Scale factor is considered under the following

headings:-
i. Nominal Scale – scale along line(s) of zero
distortion. Stipulated scale for a map and given by
its representative fraction (e.g. 1 : 50 000).
ii. Differential Scale or Scale Error – the small
amount the nominal scale varies over the map.

The Scale Factor at a point “P” = nominal scale of map

Scale at point “P”

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 Introduction to Map Projections
 In other words, the Scale Factor is the amount by
which the scale has been distorted from its stipulated
value (nominal scale).
 Surveyors work with a nominal scale of unity (at life
size), thus the scale factor at unity scale is 1.
 The differential scale or scale error is the amount
the scale differs from 1.
 E.g. if the scale factor at a point on a projection is
0.9996, the corresponding scale error is 0.0004.
(error = observed – true)
 Reduction of coordinates from life size to some
convenient map scale merely alters the nominal
scale of the survey.
 Use of the word “error” is perhaps unfortunate, since
it connotes (implies) the idea of a mistake, whereas
the introduction of scale factor is deliberate and its
effects are predictable.
 The scale factor from any point on a projection may
not be the same in all directions.
 Whereas, the scale factor on the datum surface
(globe) from any point is 1.

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 Introduction to Map Projections
 On a projection only the scale factor along the
line(s) of zero distortion is 1. A comparison of the
scale on line(s) of zero distortion [standard
parallel(s)], to the scale of the same line(s) on the
datum surface is 1.
 Scale Factor is the factor introduced into the
projection to change the scale ratio of the line of
zero distortion from 1. The factor will increase or
decrease the ratio of unity (1) to make the particular
scale at a point closer to the nominal scale.
(d) Grid
 A system of squares superimposed on the projection
(drawn on the map) facilitating the plotting of map
graticule, points of detail and the execution of
computations all in plane trigonometry.
Development of a Grid
1. Choose an origin
 Origin is always located along the Central
Meridian of the projection / map so scale
error is minimized.

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 Introduction to Map Projections
2. Determine the direction of north at origin.
 True North (direction of Central Meridian)
coincides with Grid North at origin and
forms the northing axis (y-axis) of the
coordinate system.
3. Determine the east direction.
 East direction is at right angles to the north
direction and forms the easting axis (x-axis)
of the coordinate system.
Adoption of Grid System
The following outlines why a grid system is adopted.

Item Graticule Grid

Fixing points Use curve lengths Use straight
lengths
Computing Complex – use of Simple- use of
distance spherical plane
trigonometry trigonometry
Concept of Not in relation to a In relation to a
bearing fixed direction fixed direction
Matches map Problem – require No problem –
sheet edges curve edges on sheets have
sheet straight edges
Scaling Problem - curve No problem -
distances distance to measure Straight distance
to measure

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 Introduction to Map Projections
 Generally false coordinates for the origin are
introduced to ensure that all grid coordinate vales
are positive. False coordinates are numerical values
added to coordinates of the origin (0 E, 0 N).

Barbados Mapping Parameters

Grid Barbados National Grid (BNG)
Projection Transverse Mercator
Spheroid Clarke 1880 (Modified)
a = 6 378 249.145
b = 6 356 514.869
Unit of measure metre
Meridian of origin 59 33’ 35” West of Greenwich
Latitude of origin 13 10’ 35” North of Equator
Scale factor at origin 0.999 998 6
False coord of origin 30 000m East
75 000m North

Summary
 Have the physical earth whose size and shape needed
to be know so the earth and its features could be
mapped.

 The size and shape were determined through following

methods:

 mathematical (e.g. sun dial observations);

 physical (e.g. voyage around earth);

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 Introduction to Map Projections

 scientific (e.g. Newton’s discoveries, theories on

law of gravity) &

 survey measurements (e.g. latitude & meridian

surveys by French).

 These methods indicated that the earth was not a

sphere but closer to an ellipsoid in shape.

 In order to map the earth, a mathematically definable

figure to represent the earth was needed in order to
provide a reference (datum) for all measurements.

 Measurements for height (Z) and position (E, N)

would be required.

 While the earth is a dynamic entity, a mathematical

figure that best fit the mean position of the dynamic
variables was necessary.

 To achieve this, a mathematical figure that best fit the

concept of mean seal level – i.e. if the surface of the
earth was everywhere at sea level (the concept of the
Geoid) was needed.

 The mathematical figure adopted as datum for the

earth is an ellipsoid rotated about its minor axis known
as an Oblate Ellipsoid.
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 Introduction to Map Projections
To develop a geodetic coordinate system for the chosen
ellipsoid, must define;

 The shape and size of the ellipsoid which is given by

any combination of at least two (2) of the following
parameters:

a – length of semi-major axis

b – length of semi-minor axis

f – flatting

e – eccentricity

 The centre of the ellipsoid given by latitude,

longitude, ellipsoid height coordinates.

 Orientation of the ellipsoid in relation to earth.

 The geodetic coordinates are based on:

 gratitude of the ellipsoid with on meridians and

parallels that mirror those on the earth. The Equator
as zero for latitude; Prime Meridian as zero for
longitude.

 Heights (ellipsoidal) with zero at mean sea level

(surface of ellipsoid chosen).

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 Introduction to Map Projections

 In order to represent the 3dimensional ellipsoid in 2

dimensions, map projections are necessary.

 Map projections allow the transfer of the 3D to 2D

with least distortion of data with respect to scale (size),
direction (bearing), area and shape.

 The type (equidistant, azimuthal, equal area or

conformal) and category (cylindrical, conical or
azimuthal) of map projection is chosen based on
purpose of map to be produced.

 At this stage, the map projection will mirror the

ellipsoid with geodetic coordinates.

 To facilitate simpler calculations, a Grid is

superimposed on the map projection with;

 An origin always located along the Central

Meridian.

 Direction of north at origin such that Grid north and

True north along central meridian coincide. This
direction forms the northing axis of grid coordinate
system.

 East direction of grid coordinate system is at right

angles to north direction and forms the easting axis.
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 Introduction to Map Projections

 Heights relate to ground height transferred from the

ellipsoid height by applying the ellipsoidal
separation between the ellipsoid and ground at
origin of grid coordinate system.

 Generally false coordinates are introduced for the

origin to keep the grid coordinate values positive.
False coordinates are numerical values added to
coordinate of origin (0E, 0N).
--00--
Bibliography
Bunnett, R. B. (1965) Physical Geography in Diagrams Edition
1972, LONGMAN ISBN 0-582-69457-4.

Snyder, John P. (1983) U.S. Geological Survey, Map

Projections Used by the U.S. Geological Survey 2nd Edition,
Geological Survey Bulletin 1532.

Holmes, Doris Elements of Physical Geology

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