Radiology

Lec. 3 Factors relating to the production of radiograph ‫ ارﯾﺞ‬.‫د‬

Topics of lecture:
1. Factors controlling x-ray beam, inverse square low
2. Projection geometry (sharpness, distortion and artifacts)
Radiation Quantity: is the number of x-ray photons in the useful beam. The factors
affecting x-ray quantity are:
1. mAs: x-ray quantity is directly proportional to milliamper-seconds.
2. kVp: x-ray quantity is directly proportional to the square of kilovolt Peak.
3. Distance: x-ray quantity varies inversely with distance.
4. Filtration: x-ray quantity is reduced by filtration, which absorb the low- energy
photon
of the beam.
Radiation Quality: is the penetrating power of the x-ray beam, The factors affecting
x-ray quality are:
1. kVp: x-ray penetrability is increased as kVp is increased.
2. Filtration: x-ray penetrability is increased when filters added to the beam.
Inverse square law: the low stated that ((the intensity of radiation inversely
proportional with the square of distance measured from the source of radiation to the
point of measuring the radiation intensity.
Factors relating to the production of radiograph
A/ Factors related to the radiation beam.
B/ Factors related to the object.
C/ Factors related to the X- ray film.
A/ Factors related to the radiation beam.
1. Exposure time: It’s the interval during which X- rays are being produced.
exposure time is directly related to the total photon production (increase
exposure time cause increase in the quantity of X- radiation) so exposure
time has direct effect on film density.
2. Milliamperage: Its related to amount of electricity pass through the filament
circuit. So it's directly control the rates of X- ray photon production and it has
direct effect on film density.
3. Kilovoltage: kV it refers to the potential difference between cathode and anode in
the x- ray tube, the higher kVp, the greater potential difference and the greater
energy of X- ray photons.
4. Tube – film distance: this distance consists of (tube – object distance) and (object
– film distance)
The tube – film distance affects the intensity of radiation (according to inverse
square law
The tube – film distance affects the exposure time directly.
The distance proportion inversely with the intensity of radiation.
The distance affects the dose of radiation because decrease the tube – film
distance make the X- ray beam more diverge behind the skin area and more
tissue is irradiated. While increase the distance makes the beam less diverges
and reduces the amount of tissue irradiated.
5. Focal spot size: the focal spot or called the source of radiation must be as small as
possible to get best image quality.
6. Collimation: collimator used to control the size and shape of the beam.
Effect of collimation:
Reduce the amount of tissue irradiated
Minimize the production of secondary radiation fog.
* Fog: is the unwanted film density (blackening) and thus reduce radiographic
contrast.
7. Filtration: the effect of filtration is the absorption of long wave length X- ray
photons that have low penetrating power (can't penetrate the hard calcified tissue).
The result of filtration of X- ray beam is hardened beam (more short wave-length
photon with high penetration power), also increase filtration affect the contrast and
density but in different way, the contrast is decreased (long scale) like the effect of
increase kV. While the density is decreased because when filtration increase the
result is the absorption of not only long wave length photons but even some of short
wave length photons so the number of X- ray photons or the quantity of radiation is
reduced so the density is reduced.
8. Equipment efficiency: dental X- ray machine differs in construction and efficiency
so the quality and quantity of X- ray beam vary from machine to another.
B – Factors relating to the object:
The object is basically an absorbing X- ray medium, so 2 points important about the
object during exposure to X- ray:
1. Thickness of the object: Thick object required more radiation to make a
radiographic image so it's advisable to increase kV or mA and /or exposure time in
order to increase the amount of X- ray photons.
2. Density of the object: density refers to weight per unit volume of the object . In
dental radiography enamel of the tooth has highest density of all body tissues.
increase the density of the object increase its ability to absorb X- radiation. So hard
tissue like enamel absorb great amount of radiation when compared with absorption
of soft tissue like pulp because of object density.
C – Factors relating to the X- ray film:
1. Reduction of secondary radiation:
Secondary radiation includes scattered, stray leakage or any other radiation that not
belong to primary X- ray. Secondary radiation is un desirable because it reaches all
parts of the film and produces film fog.
Several ways to minimizing this radiation like:
Using as small beam of radiation as possible.
Proper collimation.
In intra oral film a sheet of lead foil is placed behind the film in the film packet.
In extra oral film a grid is placed between the object and the film. The grid is an
extremely effective device for reducing the amount of scattered radiation that
exiting an object and reaching the film. Its composed of alternating strips of a
radiopaque material (usually lead) and strips of radiolucent material (often plastic).
so the grid transmit only those x-rays whose direction is on straight line from the
source to the film (image receptor) and absorb the remnant scattered radiation.
2. Film and film storage:
X- ray film should be stored in
 Light - tight containers because the Ag Br Crystals in the emulsion are
sensitive to light as well as to X- ray.
 Lead – lined box to keep the films away from the stray radiation.
 In place away from excessive temperature or humidity.
 Should be used before the expiration.
3. Intensifying screen:
Is a device that convert the energy of x-ray beam into visible light, which interact
with x-ray film and forming the latent image. Intensifying screen used in extra oral
film to reduce patient dose by converting the x-ray to light so one x-ray photon give
rise to many light photons, the number of x-rays required to produce the same density
on the film is markedly reduced.
4. Film processing:
The latent image is formed when silver halide grains are exposed to x-ray, then only
the exposed grain will form the visible image by processing and make a permanent
image.

Ideal radiographic projection

The term image quality describes the subjective judgment by the clinician of the
overall appearance of a radiograph. It depends on density, contrast, latitude,
sharpness, resolution and other factors.
Ideal radiograph demonstrates certain image qualities include:
A – Radiographic image that is sharp.
B – Radiographic image that is shaped like the object.
C – Radiographic image that is the same size as the object.
Sharpness: is the ability of radiograph to define an edge precisely (like
Dentinoenamel junction)
Image Size Distortion (magnification) is the increase in size of the image on
the radiograph compared with the actual size of the object

Basic Principles of Projection Geometry for Radiography

1. Source of radiation should as small as possible.
2. Tube – object distance should be as great as possible.
3. Object – film distance should be as small as possible.
4. Film should be parallel to an easily identifiable plane of the object.
5. Central ray of the beam should be perpendicular to the film.
The first 3 principles deal with the image sharpness while the last 2 principles
required during exposure as a technique.
Radiographic errors and Artifacts:
Classified into three categories:
A. Technique and projection errors
B. Exposure errors
C. Processing errors
1. Cone cut: is clear unexposed area result from positioning fault when the X- ray
beam not completely cover the film during exposure.
2. Double exposure: when same film used and exposed twice to X- ray this result
in excessive dense and blurred image .
3. Elongated image: vertical angulation of X- ray tube was too shallow.
4. Shortened image: vertical angulation was too steep.
5. Over lapping of adjacent structures: when horizontal angulation was incorrect.
Horizontal and vertical angulations
 Horizontal angulation: refers to X-ray beams direction in a horizontal plane.
 Vertical angulation: refers to X-ray beam direction in a vertical plane.
 Plus vertical angulation: when the beam is tipped down ward
 Minus vertical angulation: when the beam is tipped upward.
6. Blurred film: due to excessive bending of the film during placement for exposure.
7. Pale X- ray film: this due to either under exposure, or under developing.
8. Dark X- ray film: this is due to either over exposure or over development .
9. Completely clear film: when the film didn't receive radiation
10. Scratched film: when the film is processed in manual processor, the soft
emulsion is easily scratched due to rough handling of the film , ex. scratched by
holder, tank or nails.
11. Yellow or brown stain: stain or discoloration of film due to contaminated
solution or insufficient rinsing.
 Cone cut double exposure overlapping

shortened image elongated image dark film

Clear film pale film blurred image

Yellow- brown discoloration scratched film