DDCO

1. Explain processor clock and clock rate.

- The **processor clock** is a crucial component of the CPU, acting as a timing device that generates
a steady sequence of electrical pulses. These pulses regulate the pace at which the CPU operates,
ensuring synchronization among its various subsystems. Every action within the CPU, such as
fetching instructions, decoding them, and executing operations, occurs in sync with these pulses.
The clock’s role is akin to a metronome for musicians, enabling harmonious coordination of tasks like
accessing memory, performing calculations, or transferring data.

- The **clock rate**, measured in Hertz (Hz), denotes the number of clock cycles the processor
completes per second. For example, a 3.5 GHz processor completes 3.5 billion cycles per second. A
higher clock rate typically translates to faster execution of tasks, such as smoother gameplay in video
rendering, faster data encoding, or quicker compilation of programs. However, the performance also
depends on the CPU’s architecture and its ability to execute instructions per cycle (IPC).

2. Explain the basic operational concept of a computer and the operating steps MDR, MAR, and
ALU.

- Computers operate based on the **Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle**:

1. Fetch: The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory. The **Memory Address Register (MAR)**
holds the memory address of the instruction, while the **Memory Data Register (MDR)**
temporarily stores the data fetched from memory.

2. Decode: The instruction is analyzed by the control unit to determine the required operation and
operands.

3. Execute: The instruction is carried out, typically using the **Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)** for
computations or logical operations.

MDR (Memory Data Register): Holds data being transferred to or from memory. For instance, if the
CPU fetches data from address 2000, the data is temporarily stored in the MDR before being
processed.

MAR (Memory Address Register): Specifies the memory address for data access. For example, if
data from memory address 3000 is required, the MAR will contain the value 3000.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction) and logical operations (AND,
OR, NOT). For instance, adding the values in two registers uses the ALU to compute the result.

3. Explain the basic instruction type with an example.

-Instructions are the fundamental commands executed by a CPU. Basic types include:

In computer architecture, instruction types refer to the kinds of operations that a CPU can perform.
These instructions are usually classified into several types based on the type of operation. Below are
the basic types of instructions:

1. Arithmetic Instructions

These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.

 Example 1: Add
The ADD instruction adds the contents of two registers.

ADD R1, R2, R3 ; R1 = R2 + R3

 Example 2: Subtract
The SUB instruction subtracts the contents of one register from another.

SUB R1, R2, R3 ; R1 = R2 - R3

2. Logical Instructions

These instructions perform logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, and XOR.

 Example 1: AND
The AND instruction performs a bitwise AND operation between two registers.

AND R1, R2, R3 ; R1 = R2 AND R3

 Example 2: OR
The OR instruction performs a bitwise OR operation.

OR R1, R2, R3 ; R1 = R2 OR R3

3. Comparison Instructions

These instructions compare two values and set flags based on the result of the comparison (e.g., equal,
greater than).

 Example 1: Compare (CMP)

The CMP instruction compares two registers and sets flags based on the result.

CMP R1, R2 ; Compare R1 and R2 (set flags based on R1 - R2)

 Example 2: Test
The TEST instruction performs a bitwise AND between two registers but does not store the
result. It only updates the flags.

TEST R1, R2 ; Perform bitwise AND on R1 and R2, update flags

4. Shift and Rotate Instructions

These instructions shift or rotate the bits of a register or memory operand.

 Example 1: Shift Left (SHL)

The SHL instruction shifts the bits of a register to the left.

SHL R1, 1 ; Shift the bits in R1 left by 1 position

 Example 2: Rotate Right (ROR)

The ROR instruction rotates the bits of a register to the right.

ROR R1, 1 ; Rotate the bits in R1 right by 1 position

5. Stack Instructions

These instructions deal with the stack memory, performing operations like pushing or popping values
onto/from the stack.

 Example 1: Push
The PUSH instruction places data onto the stack.

PUSH R1 ; Push the contents of R1 onto the stack

 Example 2: Pop
The POP instruction removes data from the stack into a register.

POP R1 ; Pop the top value from the stack into R1

4. Explain big-endian and little-endian with an example.

Big-Endian: Stores the most significant byte (MSB) of a word at the smallest memory address.
Example: If a 32-bit number `0x12345678` is stored, the memory layout would be:

- Address: 1000 | 1001 | 1002 | 1003

- Content: 0x12 | 0x34 | 0x56 | 0x78

Little-Endian: Stores the least significant byte (LSB) at the smallest memory address. For the same
number `0x12345678`, the layout would be:

- Address: 1000 | 1001 | 1002 | 1003

- Content: 0x78 | 0x56 | 0x34 | 0x12

Applications:

- Big-endian is used in network protocols for consistent data representation.

- Little-endian is common in x86 processors for internal processing.

5. What is an addressing mode, and explain all addressing modes?

Addressing modes specify how the operand of an instruction is accessed. The common addressing
modes are:

1. Immediate Mode: Operand is directly specified in the instruction. Example: `MOV R1, #10` loads
the value 10 into R1.

2. Direct Mode: Address of the operand is given explicitly. Example: `MOV R1, [1000]` moves the
value at memory location 1000 into R1.

3. Indirect Mode: Address of the operand is held in a register. Example: `MOV R1, [R2]` moves the
value at the address stored in R2 to R1.

4. Indexed Mode: Combines a base address and an offset. Example: `MOV R1, [R2 + 4]` accesses the
address obtained by adding 4 to the value in R2.

5. Register Mode: Operand is in a register. Example: `ADD R1, R2` adds the values in R1 and R2.

6. Relative Mode: Offset is added to the program counter (PC). Example: `JMP [PC + 5]` jumps to an
address 5 instructions ahead.

6. Explain the functional units of a computer.

1. Input Unit: Accepts user inputs via devices like keyboards, mice, or scanners.

2. Output Unit: Displays processed results on devices such as monitors or printers.

3. Memory Unit: Stores instructions and data. It includes:

- **Primary Memory:** RAM, cache memory.

- **Secondary Memory:** Hard disks, SSDs.

4. Control Unit (CU): Manages execution of instructions, coordinating data flow between the CPU
and other components.

5. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical and logical operations.

6. Registers: Small, high-speed storage within the CPU for temporary data storage, like the
**Program Counter (PC)** for the address of the next instruction.

7. Explain the basic performance equation and SPEC ratio.

The performance of a computer system can be measured in terms of how quickly it executes a task.
The basic performance equation for a system is typically defined as:

Performance=Work Done/Time taken

In the context of computer architecture, this can be related to the execution of a program. For
example, if a program requires a certain number of operations to complete, the performance depends
on how long it takes to execute these operations.

A more specific formula used to express the performance of a system is:

Execution Time=Instruction Count×Cycles Per Instruction (CPI)×Clock Cycle Time

Where:

 Instruction Count (IC): The total number of instructions executed by the program.
 Cycles Per Instruction (CPI): The average number of CPU cycles required to execute one
instruction. This depends on the type of instruction and the architecture of the CPU.
 Clock Cycle Time: The duration of one clock cycle of the CPU, which is the inverse of the
clock frequency (i.e., Clock Cycle Time=1Clock Frequency\text{Clock Cycle Time} = \frac{1}{\
text{Clock Frequency}}).

Since Performance is the inverse of Execution Time, we can express it as:

Performance=1/Execution Time=1/Instruction Count × CPI × Clock Cycle Time

Breakdown of Key Factors:

1. Instruction Count (IC): The total number of instructions executed. Reducing the instruction
count can improve performance, which is why optimization of the code or instruction set is
important.
2. CPI (Cycles Per Instruction): This measures how many cycles the CPU needs to execute
one instruction on average. A lower CPI usually means better performance, and optimizing
CPU design (such as pipelining or parallel execution) can reduce CPI.
3. Clock Cycle Time: The time it takes to complete one clock cycle. A smaller clock cycle time
(higher clock frequency) means that more instructions can be executed per second, improving
performance.

SPEC Ratio

The SPEC ratio is a performance metric used to compare the performance of a system to a reference
machine. SPEC (Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation) benchmarks are widely used to
evaluate the performance of computer systems. The SPEC ratio compares the execution time of a
reference machine to the execution time of the system being evaluated.

The SPEC ratio is defined as:

SPEC Ratio=Execution Time of Reference Machine/Execution Time of Tested Machine

Where:

 Execution Time of Reference Machine: The time taken by a reference or baseline system to
execute the same benchmark.
 Execution Time of Tested Machine: The time taken by the system under test (the machine
being evaluated) to execute the same benchmark.
A higher SPEC ratio indicates better performance, meaning the tested system performs faster
compared to the reference machine. If the ratio is greater than 1, the tested machine is faster; if it is
less than 1, the reference machine is faster.

Example of SPEC Ratio:

If a reference machine takes 200 seconds to execute a benchmark, and the tested machine takes 150
seconds, the SPEC ratio is:

SPEC Ratio=200/150=1.33

This means the tested machine is 1.33 times faster than the reference machine.

Conclusion:

 The Performance Equation helps in understanding the factors affecting the execution time
of a program and the overall system performance.
 The SPEC Ratio is a standardized metric used to evaluate the performance of different
systems by comparing them against a reference machine. This helps users and developers
understand the relative efficiency of different computer systems when executing the same
workload.

*8. What is an interrupt? With an example, illustrate the concept of interrupt.

What is an Interrupt?

An interrupt is a mechanism that temporarily halts the execution of the current program or task,
allowing the system to attend to a higher-priority task or event. Once the interrupt is serviced, the
system resumes the interrupted task from where it left off. Interrupts are a critical part of modern
computing as they enable efficient multitasking and real-time processing.

Interrupts are commonly used to handle events such as hardware failures, user input, or other
asynchronous events that require immediate attention.

How Interrupts Work:

When an interrupt occurs, the following sequence of events typically happens:

1. Interrupt Signal: A hardware device or software generates an interrupt signal to the CPU,
notifying it that an event needs to be handled.
2. Interrupt Acknowledgment: The CPU stops executing its current instruction (if necessary)
and acknowledges the interrupt signal.
3. Context Save: The CPU saves the current state of execution (e.g., the program counter,
register values) so it can resume the task later.
4. Interrupt Service Routine (ISR): The CPU jumps to a predefined location in memory where
the interrupt service routine (ISR) or interrupt handler is stored. The ISR is a small program
that addresses the cause of the interrupt (e.g., reading data from an I/O device).
5. Context Restore: After the ISR is completed, the CPU restores the saved context and
resumes the interrupted task from where it left off.
Types of Interrupts:

1. Hardware Interrupts: These interrupts are triggered by external hardware devices such as
keyboards, mice, timers, or I/O devices.
o Example: A keyboard interrupt occurs when a user presses a key. The interrupt tells
the CPU to temporarily stop its current task and read the keypress from the
keyboard.

2. Software Interrupts: These interrupts are generated by software programs. A program might
use a software interrupt to request a specific service from the operating system or perform
system-level tasks.
o Example: A system call is an example of a software interrupt. For example, a
program might generate a software interrupt to request data from a file system.

3. Maskable Interrupts: These interrupts can be ignored or "masked" by the CPU if the system
is handling a more critical task.
o Example: A timer interrupt might be masked when a higher-priority task is running.

4. Non-maskable Interrupts (NMI): These interrupts cannot be ignored and must be processed
immediately, typically for critical issues such as hardware failures or system errors.
o Example: A hardware failure interrupt that indicates a serious problem like
overheating or power failure.

Example of an Interrupt in Action:

Imagine a simple example where the CPU is executing a program that computes a sum of numbers,
and during the execution, a user presses a key on the keyboard:

1. The CPU is performing calculations in the background, adding numbers together.

2. Suddenly, a keyboard interrupt is triggered when the user presses a key.
3. The CPU halts its current task and saves its state (e.g., program counter, register values).
4. The CPU jumps to the interrupt service routine (ISR) for the keyboard. The ISR might read
the key pressed by the user and then display it on the screen or process it further.
5. Once the ISR finishes, the CPU restores the saved state and continues the calculation from
where it left off.

In this way, interrupts allow the CPU to respond to external events (like user input) without having to
constantly check for them (polling), allowing more efficient multitasking.

Benefits of Interrupts:

 Efficiency: Interrupts allow the CPU to respond to important events without constantly
checking for them, freeing up time for other tasks.
 Real-time Processing: Interrupts are essential for real-time systems, where timely responses
to external events are required.
 Multitasking: They enable multitasking by allowing the CPU to pause and resume tasks
based on priority.

Summary:

An interrupt is a signal that temporarily stops the CPU from executing its current instruction so it can
handle an urgent task. Once the interrupt is serviced, the CPU returns to the task it was performing.
This mechanism is used in both hardware and software to improve system efficiency, responsiveness,
and multitasking.

9. Draw the arrangement for bus arbitration using a daisy chain and explain in brief.

- **Daisy Chain Bus Arbitration:** In this method, devices are connected in a linear sequence,
forming a chain. The bus grant signal is passed down this chain, starting from the highest-priority
device and proceeding to the lower-priority ones. Only the device that receives the bus grant and
has a request pending can access the bus, ensuring a simple but effective priority mechanism.

- **Signal Flow:**

1. **Bus Request (BR):** Each device sends a request to the arbiter when it needs bus access.

2. **Bus Grant (BG):** The arbiter grants access to the highest-priority device first. This signal
cascades through devices until it reaches the one that has requested access.

3. **Data Transfer:** The granted device performs data transfer, blocking lower-priority devices
until completion.

The diagram above illustrates bus arbitration using a daisy chain. In this setup, multiple devices are
connected in a chain, with each device having the ability to request access to the shared bus. The first
device in the chain has the highest priority, and if it requests the bus, it will be granted access.

 Bus Request: Each device in the chain can signal a request to use the bus.
 Bus Grant: The request signal propagates through the devices in the chain. The first device
with the highest priority gets access to the bus, and the grant signal passes through the devices
to indicate who has control of the bus.

In a daisy chain arbitration, the devices are granted bus access in order of priority, which is
determined by their position in the chain.

10. Analyze the execution sequence in a single-bus organization for a data path transfer of data
from one register to another register.
In a single-bus organization, data is transferred between registers via a shared bus. The bus acts as
the communication medium that connects all the components (registers, ALU, memory, etc.) in the
system.

When transferring data from one register to another in a single-bus organization, the execution
sequence involves a series of steps, typically controlled by the control unit. Here’s a simplified
analysis of the execution sequence for a data path transfer between two registers, say Register A and
Register B:

Execution Sequence for Data Transfer (Register A → Register B)

1. Control Signal Initialization: The control unit sets the appropriate control signals to direct
the bus and the registers to perform the required actions.
o The bus is enabled to transfer data.
o The source register (Register A) will output its data to the bus.
o The destination register (Register B) will be prepared to receive the data from the
bus.

2. Enable Register A to Output Data:

o Register A's output is connected to the bus.
o Register A's contents (the data) are placed on the bus.
o A control signal is activated to enable the output of Register A.

3. Enable Bus to Transfer Data:

o The bus is now connected between the two registers.
o The control unit ensures that the bus is active for data transfer.

4. Enable Register B to Receive Data:

o Register B is enabled to receive data from the bus. This is done by activating a
control signal that tells Register B to latch the data from the bus.

5. Data Transfer to Register B:

o The data from Register A, now on the bus, is transferred into Register B.
o Register B's contents are updated with the value previously stored in Register A.

6. Disable Bus and Registers:

o After the transfer is complete, the control unit disables the bus and the registers to
stop further data flow.
o The system returns to its idle state or continues with the next instruction.

Diagram of Data Transfer Sequence

Here’s a simplified flow of the sequence:

Step 1: Control Unit sets up bus and register signals.

(Enable bus, output from Register A, input to Register B)

Step 2: Register A outputs data to the bus.

Step 3: Bus transfers data.

Step 4: Register B latches data from the bus.

Step 5: Data is now in Register B, and bus is disabled.

Key Control Signals Involved:

 Bus Enable: Allows the bus to carry data between components.

 Register A Output Enable: Allows Register A to send its data to the bus.
 Register B Input Enable: Allows Register B to receive data from the bus.
 Clock Cycle: The clock cycles synchronize these control signals to ensure proper sequencing.

Summary:

In a single-bus organization, data transfer between registers requires careful management of control
signals to ensure that data flows correctly from the source register (Register A) to the destination
register (Register B) via the shared bus. The control unit orchestrates this sequence by enabling the
appropriate outputs and inputs at each step, ensuring that the correct data is transferred to the correct
register.

11. Write a program that takes one line from the keyboard, stores it in memory buffer, and echoes
it back to the display.

12. What are the different methods of DMA? Explain in brief.

1. Burst Mode:

- Transfers an entire block of data in one operation without interrupting the CPU. This method is
particularly advantageous for applications requiring high-speed transfers, such as copying a large file
from memory to an external storage device or streaming media files where a continuous flow of
data is critical.

2. Cycle Stealing Mode:

- Transfers one word of data at a time during the CPU’s idle cycles. This ensures minimal disruption
to the CPU’s normal operations. It is well-suited for scenarios like sensor data acquisition, where
periodic data transfers occur without heavily impacting the main processing tasks.

3. Transparent Mode:

- Transfers data only when the CPU is idle. This mode is ideal for low-priority operations like
background printing tasks or moving data during downtime to prevent interference with time-
sensitive CPU operations.

1. **Burst Mode:** Transfers a block of data without CPU intervention. Example: Copying a file from
RAM to a USB drive.

2. **Cycle Stealing Mode:** Transfers one word of data per cycle, allowing the CPU to continue
processing during idle cycles.

3. **Transparent Mode:** Transfers data only when the CPU is idle, minimizing disruption.
13. Demonstrate the control sequence for the execution of a complete instruction `ADD (R3), R1

To execute the instruction `ADD (R3), R1`, the control sequence can be divided into the following
detailed steps:

1. **Instruction Fetch:**

PC → MAR: The Program Counter (PC) value is loaded into the Memory Address Register (MAR) to
fetch the instruction.

Memory → MDR: The memory at the address in MAR sends the instruction to the Memory Data
Register (MDR).

MDR → IR: The instruction in the MDR is transferred to the Instruction Register (IR), and the PC is
incremented to point to the next instruction.

2. **Instruction Decode:**

- The control unit decodes the instruction in the IR to identify the operation (`ADD`) and the
addressing mode (`(R3)` indicates indirect addressing).

3. **Operand Fetch:**

- **R3 → MAR:** The content of register R3, which holds the memory address of the operand, is
placed in the MAR.

- **Memory → MDR:** The memory at the address in MAR sends the operand value to the MDR.

4. **Execution (Addition):**

- **R1 + MDR → R1:** The value in R1 is added to the value in the MDR (operand fetched from
memory). The result is stored back in R1.

5. **Final State:**

- The CPU completes the instruction execution, and the updated value in R1 can now be used for
subsequent instructions.

### Impact on Registers and Memory:

- **PC (Program Counter):** Incremented during the fetch stage to point to the next instruction.

- **MAR (Memory Address Register):** Holds the address during fetch and operand fetch stages.
- **MDR (Memory Data Register):** Temporarily holds the fetched instruction and operand values.

- **IR (Instruction Register):** Stores the current instruction being executed.

- **R1:** Holds the final result of the addition.

- **R3:** Remains unchanged, as it only serves to provide the memory address for the operand.

1. **Fetch:** Retrieve instruction from memory.

2. **Decode:** Interpret the opcode and operands.

3. **Execute:**

- Access memory at the address in R3.

- Add the value to R1.

- Store the result in R1.

14. Interpret the process of transferring the block of data between main memory and an external
device without continuous intervention of CPU.

The process of transferring a block of data between main memory and an external device without
continuous intervention of the CPU is typically achieved through a mechanism called Direct Memory
Access (DMA). DMA allows an external device, such as a hard disk, network interface card, or sound
card, to transfer data directly to or from memory without requiring constant CPU involvement.

DMA Process Overview:

1. Initiation by the CPU:

o The CPU configures the DMA controller by specifying the memory address, the data
transfer direction (read or write), the size of the data block, and the external device
involved (e.g., disk or I/O device).
o The CPU then issues a command to the DMA controller to initiate the data transfer.

2. DMA Controller Takes Over:

o Once the DMA controller is initialized, it takes control of the data transfer process.
The CPU is no longer involved in moving the data, which frees up the CPU to
perform other tasks.
o The DMA controller manages the bus arbitration (ensuring that it gains control of
the system bus), initiates the data transfer, and handles the transfer of data
between the device and memory.

3. Data Transfer:
o The DMA controller communicates directly with the external device and the
memory. Depending on the direction of the transfer:
 From memory to the device: The DMA controller reads data from a
specified memory address and writes it to the external device.
  From the device to memory: The DMA controller reads data from the
external device and writes it directly into memory.
o The data transfer occurs in blocks, and the DMA controller can handle multiple
transfers (such as block-by-block or byte-by-byte).

4. Completion of Transfer:
o Once the DMA controller finishes transferring the entire block of data, it sends an
interrupt to the CPU. This interrupt signals that the data transfer is complete, and
the CPU can process the data or proceed with the next task.
o The CPU then resumes control of the system and can take further actions, such as
processing the data now in memory.

5. CPU Interrupt Handling:

o After the transfer is completed, the CPU is interrupted by the DMA controller. The
interrupt informs the CPU that the operation is done, allowing it to check the data or
proceed with any post-transfer processing.

Example Scenario (Disk-to-Memory Transfer):

1. The CPU requests the DMA controller to transfer a block of data from the disk to memory.
2. The DMA controller takes over the bus and begins reading data from the disk.
3. The DMA controller writes the data directly to the memory without involving the CPU.
4. Once the data block has been completely transferred, the DMA controller interrupts the CPU
to inform it that the transfer is finished.
5. The CPU processes the data in memory after the transfer.

Summary:

DMA is an efficient method for transferring large blocks of data between an external device and
memory without requiring the CPU to be involved in every step of the transfer. The CPU initializes
the transfer, the DMA controller handles the actual data movement, and then the CPU is notified once
the transfer is complete. This mechanism reduces the load on the CPU and increases overall system
performance.

15. Differentiate between RISC and CISC.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
Few simple, fixed-length instructions. Many complex, variable-length instructions.
One instruction per clock cycle. Multiple
Optimized for faster performance with Multitasking and compatibility.
fewer tasks.
Requires more RAM and compiler support Efficient for programs with fewer instructions.
Example: ARM processors Example: x86 processors