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270E110
I–V

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Diploma in Computer Applications (DCA)

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
UNITS : I - V

Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
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DIPLOMA IN COMPUTER APPLICATIONS (DCA)

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Table of Contents

Unit-I Page no

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Objective 1
1.2 Content 1
1.2.1 Overview of Computers 1
1.2.2 How Computer Works 13
1.2.3 How To Start the Computer 14
1.2.4 Central Processing Unit and the System Unit 20
1.3 Revision Points 28
1.4 Intext Question 28
1.5 Summary 28
1.6 Terminal Exercise 29
1.7 Supplementary Materials 29
1.8 Assignment 29
1.9 Reference Books 29
1.10 Learning Activities 29
1.11 Keywords 30

Unit-II

2.0 Introduction 31
2.1 Objective 31
2.2 Content 31
2.2.1 Peripheral Devices 31
2.2.2 Mouse and Keyboard Basics 32
2.2.3 Other Input Devices 33
2.2.4 Output Devices 34
2.3 Revision Points 37
2.4 Intext Questions 37
2.5 Summary 37
2.6 Terminal Exercises 38
2.7 Supplementary Materials 38
2.8 Assignment 38
2.9 Reference Books 38
2.10 Learning Activities 38
2.11 Keywords 39
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Unit-III

3.0 Introduction 40
3.1 Objective 40
3.2 Content 40
3.2.1 Types Of Memory 40
3.2.2 Storage Devices 42
3.2.3 Other storage Devices 44
3.3 Revision Points 45
3.4 Intext Questions 45
3.5 Summary 46
3.6 Terminal Exercises 46
3.7 Supplementary Materials 46
3.8 Assignments 46
3.9 Reference Books 47
3.10 Learning Activities 47
3.11 Keywords 47

Unit-IV

4.0 Introduction 48
4.1 Objective 48
4.2 Content 48
4.2.1 Operating System 48
4.2.2 Single-User Operating Systems 48
4.2.3 Multi-User Operating Systems 49
4.2.4 Network Operating System 49
4.2.5 Windows Applications 56
4.2.6 Working with Internet Explorer 61
4.3 Revision Points 64
4.4 Intext Questions 64
4.5 Summary 65
4.6 Terminal Exercises 65
4.7 Supplementary Materials 65
4.8 Assignments 66
4.9 Reference Books 66
4.10 Learning Activities 66
4.11 Keywords 66

Unit-V

5.0 Introduction 67
5.1 Objective 67
5.2 Content 67
5.2.1 The Uses of Computer Network 67
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5.2.2 Network Objectives 68

5.2.3 Applications of Networks 68
5.2.4 Types of Networks 69
5.2.5 Advantages of Networks 70
5.2.6 Network Structure 70
5.2.7 Network Topology 73
5.2.8 Network Architecture 79
5.2.9 OSI Reference Model 80
5.3 Revision Points 84
5.4 Intext Questions 84
5.5 Summary 84
5.6 Terminal Exercises 85
5.7 Supplementary Materials 85
5.8 Assignment 85
5.9 Reference Books 85
5.10 Learning Activity 86
5.11 Keywords 86
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UNIT - I
1.0) Introduction

“A Computer is an electronic device capable of performing arithmetic and logical

operations. It accepts raw data as input and processes it according to the sequence of
instructions given by the programmer/user and provides the desired information as
output. Computers also include the means for storing data”

1.1) Objective
At the end of this unit student should have knowledge about the following:

 Overview of Computers
 How Computers Work
 Starting the Computer
 The Central Processing Unit & the System Unit

1.2) Content

1.2.1 Overview of Computers

In layman’s language the computer is the fast calculating device that can perform
arithmetic operations. Although the computer was originally invented mainly for doing
high speed and accurate calculations, it is not just a calculating device. The computer can
perform any kind of manipulations involving arithmetic and logical operations on data. It
gets the data through an input device processes it according to the instructions given and
gives the information as output. We can define a computer as follows:

The computers were mainly introduced to increase the speed and accuracy of
information manipulation and calculation and to take over low-level tasks that are boring
and degrading. A computer is an efficient machine, its application that sometimes goes
awry. The degree of efficiency that a computer can bring is momentous. The arrangement
of the units of a computer is referred to as organization of a computer (i.e.) the
arrangement of its peripherals.
Generation Of Computers

Computers are classified into the following six types based on their historical
advancement and electronic components used.

a) Zeroth Generation Computers

The Analytical Engine had all the parts of a modern computer i.e. it had four
components the store (Memory Unit), the mill (computation unit), the punched card
reader (input unit) and the punched / printed output (output unit). As Charles Babbage
thought out all basic parts of a modern computer, he is known as the Father of
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Computers. The zeroth generation of computers of the era of mechanical computers

ended in 1946 when vacuum tubes were invented.

b) First Generation Computers

The first Generation Of Computers (1946-1954) was marked, by the use of vacuum
tubes or valves as their basic electronic component. Although these computers were
faster than earlier mechanical devices, they had many disadvantages. First of all, they
were very large in size. They consumed too much power and generated too much heat,
when used for even short duration of time. They were very unreliable and broke down
frequently. They required regular maintenance
Examples:
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)- 1946
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) –1949
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) – 1951
c) Second Generation Computers
The second Generation of computers (1954-64) was marked by the use of transistors
in place of vacuum tubes. These computers are mainly characterized by the change from
vacuum tubes to transistor technology.

d) Third Generation Computers

The third generation of computers (1964-1980) was marked by use of integrated
circuits in place of transistors. Some of the features of third generation computers are

a. Integrated Circuits (ICs) began to replace Discrete Transistor Circuits used

in second-generation machines. Results were substantial and physical size and
costs were reduced.

b. Semiconductor (IC) memories began to augment and finally replaced ferrite

coves in main memory designs. The two main types are Read Only Memories
(ROMs) and read and write memories also called Random Access Memories
(RAM’s).

Examples:

 IBM 360, developed by IBM in 1964

 PDP-8, developed by DEC in 1965
 PDP-11, developed by DEC in 1970
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e) Fourth Generation Computers

In the 1960s the dominant technology for manufacturing computer components
was the integrated circuit (IC). This technology evolved steadily from ICs containing just
a few transistors to those containing hundreds of thousands of transistors; the latter case
is termed "Very Large Scale Integration", or VLSI. All present day computers are fourth
generation of computers. These computers are very powerful having a high memory and
a fast processing speed. Although the fourth generation computers offer too many
advantages to the users, they still have one main disadvantage. The major drawback of
these computers is that they have no intelligence on their own. Scientists are now trying
to remove this drawback by making computers with artificial intelligence.

Examples:

 IBM PC, developed in 1981 was the first industry standard personal computer, having
Intel 8088 memory chip
 386, developed in 1985, had Intel 80386 memory chip
 486, developed in 1989, had Intel 80486 memory chip
 Pentium developed in 1995, has Pentium (80586) memory chip

f) Fifth Generation Computers

The Fifth Generation Computers are still under the research and developmental
stage. These computers have artificial intelligence. They will use ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Intelligence) chips in place of VLSI chips. One ULSI chip contains millions of
components on a single IC. The most important feature of Fifth Generation computers is
that they will use intelligent software. This software will enable the user to tell computer
what to do and not 'How to do' by using intelligent programming and knowledge based
problem solving techniques. So, the programmer or users would not require giving each
and every instruction to the computer for solving a problem. These computers will also
have user interface in form of speed in natural languages.
Example:
 ROBOTS have few features of fifth generation computers
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Types of Computers

There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words imply
the size, expected use or capability of the computer. While the term computer can apply
to virtually any device that has a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as
a device that receives input from the user through a mouse or keyboard, processes it in
some fashion and displays the result on a screen.

PC - The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by
a single person. While a Mac is a PC, most people relate the term with systems that run
the Windows operating system. PCs were first known as ‘Microcomputers’ because they
were complete computers but built on a smaller scale than the huge systems in use by
most businesses.

Desktop - A PC that is not designed for portability. The expectations with desktop
systems are that you will set the computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops
offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portability.

Laptop - Also called notebooks, laptops are portable computers that integrate the
display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in
a power operated or battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover
book.
Palmtop - More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), z.
These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on touch screen technology for
user input. Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very lightweight with a
reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the palmtop is the
handheld computer.

Workstation - A desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional

memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D
Graphics or game development.
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Server - A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other

computers over a network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and
large hard drives. Server’s acts as the gateway or junction for all the computers
communicating with it in the network.

Mainframe - In the early days of computing, mainframes were huge computers

that could fill an entire room or even a whole floor! As the size of computers has
diminished while the power has increased, the term mainframe has fallen out of use in
favor of enterprise server. You'll still hear the term used, particularly in large companies
to describe the huge machines processing millions of transactions every day.

Minicomputer - Another term rarely used anymore, minicomputers fall in

between microcomputers (PCs) and mainframes (enterprise servers). Minicomputers are
normally referred to as mid-range servers now.

Supercomputer - This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or

even millions of dollars. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems,
most are comprised of multiple high performance computers working in parallel as a
single system.

Wearable - The latest trend in computing is wearable computers. Essentially,

common computer applications (e-mail, database, multimedia, and calendar/scheduler)
are integrated into watches, cell phones, visors, and even clothing.

Embedded - computers are found in all sorts of commonly used devices like cars,
televisions, and VCRs. These computers are embedded in other appliances to provide
them with "intelligence".

Fig 1.1 Embedded Computer

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The Microcomputer
The basic components of a microcomputer are:
Input devices allow us to enter information into the computer. They include
keyboards, mouse, scanners, and microphones.

Fig 1.2 Micro Computer

Processing components manipulate the information once it is "in" the computer.
In the microcomputer there is a set of common components consisting of the central
processing unit (CPU), interface components, and memory (RAM).
Storage devices store the entered information and programs for future use. Common
storage devices include hard disks, floppy disks, and CD-ROMs.
Output devices are for the display of the manipulated information. They commonly
include video monitors, printers, and speakers.
Communication and network devices allow the computer to communicate with other
devices. Common communication devices are modems, and Ethernet cards.
Other hardware components include ports and plugs, cables and connectors, expansion
cards and slots.
In computers, based on the architectural design they are called as x86 / PowerPC /
SPARC.
x86
Intel Corporation, which is one of the leading manufactures of Processor chips,
came out with several models as given below. Models after the 8086 are often referred to
by the last three digits (for example, the 286, 386, 486, 586 and Pentium series). In
general computers with these Intel Processors are referred to as x86 machines.
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PowerPC
RISC based computer architecture is developed jointly by IBM, Apple Computer,
and Motorola Corporation. The name is derived from IBM's name for the architecture,
Performance Optimization With Enhanced RISC.
The first computers based on the PowerPC architecture were the Power Macs,
which appeared in 1994. Since then, other manufacturers, including IBM, have built PCs
based on the PowerPC.
There are already a number of different operating systems that run on PowerPC-
based computers, including the Macintosh operating system (System 7.5 and higher),
Windows NT, and OS/2.

SPARC
Short for Scalable Processor Architecture, a RISC technology developed by Sun
Microsystems. The term SPARC itself is a trademark of SPARC International, an
independent organization that licenses the term to Sun for its use. Sun's workstations
based on the SPARC include the SPARC station, SPARC server, Ultra1, Ultra2 and
SPARC cluster (which are servers and machine models from Sun Microsystems)

Types of Computer Languages

There are many types of computer languages, which can be categorized into
following four types.

 Low-level languages (First and second generation languages)

 High level languages (Third Generation languages)
 User-friendly languages (Fourth Generation Languages)
 Object-oriented Languages (Fifth Generation Languages)

Low Level Languages

In early days of computers, only those languages, which could be directly

executed on the computer, were used for programming. Languages, which computer can
understand directly and are machine dependent are called Low-level languages. For
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example, machine Language and Assembly Language are two important low-level
languages. Machine Languages is the oldest and most difficult of all the languages. It is
also known as First Generation language. In machine language, all the instructions are
given to computer in binary digits, and hence are directly understood by the computer.
On the other hand, assembly language is easier than machine language, and is known as
second Generation Language. In assembly language instructions are given using
mnemonic operation codes (such as ADD, MUL etc) instead of binary digits. Low-level
languages are mainly used for development of systems software.

High Level Languages

Development of applications using low-level languages requires a deep

understanding of the hardware. In order to facilitate the programmers to write programs
without knowing internal details of computer components, many languages were
developed. These languages use common English words and are translated into low-level
languages before processing by the computer. These languages, which the computer
cannot understand directly and are not machine dependent, are called high-level language
(HLL). These languages are also known as Third Generation Languages. Some of the
common-high level languages are:

BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)
C (It does not stand for anything)

These languages were widely used for applications development but most of them
are now outdated due to popularization of 4th GLs. The uses of the different 3 GLs are
summarized
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Language Uses
BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Used for all purposes (Commercial,
Instruction Code) Scientific, Educational, etc) by beginners

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Mainly used for development of

Language) commercial applications on all types of
computers

FORTRAN (Formula translator) Used for development of scientific

(mathematical) applications

PASCAL (Name of a Scientist) Used for both commercial and scientific

applications

C (No full form) Very powerful language for development

of both system and application software.
Uses of 3 GLs (Third Generation Languages)

User Friendly Languages

Although high-level languages are simpler to codify than low-level languages,
they still require a lot of time to learn programming syntax. Hence, these languages are
beyond the reach of many computer users, who do not want to expertise in programming.
Therefore, a new category of languages has been developed which are user-friendly,
very easy to codify and simple to learn. These are called user-friendly languages and
popularly known as 4 GLs (Fourth Generation Languages). Some of the common 4 GLs
are dBase, Fox base, FoxPro, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase and Ingress. The uses of
different 4 GLs are summarized
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Language Uses
Dbase Used for development of mainly single user Dos based
database applications.

FoxBASE Used for development of both single and multi-user Dos

based database applications.

FoxPro Used for development of both DOS and windows – based

database applications.

Oracle Used for development of relational database applications

on any operating environment.

Sybase Mainly used for development of on-line applications such

as Decision support systems and Transaction processing.

Used for development of relational database applications

Ingress
of VAX/UNIX operating system.

Uses of 4 GLs (Fourth Generation Languages)

Object Oriented Languages

We have discussed that the object oriented programming is the latest approach in
programming. The languages, which are based on object oriented programming (OOP)
approach are called Object Oriented Languages. They may be classified into fifth
generation languages. Object oriented languages are especially useful for development of
GUI (Graphical User Interface) applications. These languages also offer a unique feature
of Revisable code. Some of the popular object oriented languages are Small Talk, C++,
Object COBOL, Object Pascal, Simulate, Eiffel, Java and Visual J++. Now a days for
development of window based applications the uses of different object oriented
languages are summarized
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Language Uses
Small talk Used for development of mainly graphical applications.

C++ Used for development of all types of objects Oriented

applications.

Object COBOL Used for development of object-oriented applications.

Object PASCAL Used for general object – oriented applications.

Simulate Malignly used in a research environment.

Eiffel Used for general object oriented applications.

Visual J++ Very popular for development of windows based

applications.

Basic Concepts
Term Meaning
Input Data and instructions given to computer
Digital Digital describes electronic technology that generates, stores, and
processes data in terms of two states i.e. positive and non positive
Data A set of basic facts and entities which by themselves have no meaning
Processes Instance of a program running in a computer for manipulation of data

Instructions Order given to a computer processor by a computer program to perform a

task
Information Data that has a meaning/value in some context for its receiver
Output Information obtained after processing of data

Main Concepts
 In order to solve a problem using a computer, it is necessary to find and write an
algorithm for it.
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 An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions. Each instruction should be

precise, unambiguous, and capable of being carried out by a machine in a finite
time.
 An algorithm can be expressed in a graphical form know as a flow chart.
 A programming language is a precise notation used to express algorithms.
 An algorithm expressed in a programming language is called a computer
program

Language Translators

Regardless of the programming language used (except machine language) the

symbolic instructions have to be translated into a form that can be executed by the
computer. The software, which converts the codes of other languages into machine code
are collectively called Language Translators. Language Translators are categorized into
three types. They are:
 Assemblers
 Interpreters
 Compilers

Assemblers
Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine
language code (object program). After assembling, a linker program is used to convert
the object program into an executable program. The Microsoft assembler program
(MASM) and Borland Turbo assembler program (TASM) are two popular assemblers.
Assemblers are used mainly in the development of system software.

Interpreters
Instructions of a high-level language are coded in many statements. At the time of
their execution, they are converted statement by statement into machine code, by using
system software called interpreters. For example, programs written in BASIC language
are executed by using BASICA or GWBASIC interpreters. Programs written in some
fourth generation languages, like DBASE III plus are also executed using dBASE
interpreter.
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Compilers
As contrast to interpreters, compilers provide faster execution speed. Compilers do
not translate and execute the instructions at the same time. They translate the entire
program (source code) into machine code (object code). Using linker, the object code is
converted into executable code. Compilers are widely used in translating codes of high-
level languages (e.g. COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, Turbo / Microsoft C etc) and
fourth generation languages (Dbase IV, FoxPro etc). As compared to interpreter or
assemblers, Compilers are preferred in development of application software.
1.2.2 How Computer Works
Organization of Computers
The Organization of Computers mainly constitute:
 Processor system
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Main Memory
 Input / output system
 Input/output devices
 Secondary storage
 Stored Program Design
The Central Processing Unit performs the actual processing of data. The data it
processes is obtained, via the system bus, from the main memory. Results from the CPU
are then sent back to main memory via the system bus.
I/O (input/output), pronounced "eye-oh," describes any operation, program, or
device that transfers data to or from a computer. Typical I/O devices are printers, hard
disks, keyboards, and mouse. In fact, some devices are basically input-only devices
(keyboards and mouse); others are primarily output-only devices (printers); and others
provide both input and output of data (hard disks, diskettes, writable CD-ROMs).

Fig 1.3 Processor and I/O Subsystem

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A computer needs some sort of "brain" or "calculator" in order to work. At the

core of every computer is a device roughly the size of a large postage stamp. This device
is known as the central processing unit, or CPU. The CPU reads and executes program
instructions, performs calculations, and makes decisions. The CPU is centrally located on
the motherboard. The CPU is responsible for storing and retrieving information on disks
and other media. It also handles information on from one part of the computer to another
like a central switching station that directs the flow of traffic throughout the computer
system.

1.2.3 How to Start the Computer

Starting the computer is simple. You have to follow three steps
 Switch on the Power supply
 Switch on the CPU
 Switch on the Monitor
The things used to connect the hardware devices to the CPU and monitor are explained
below:
A serial port is used to connect external modems or an older computer mouse to the
computer. A parallel port is used to connect external devices such as scanners and
printers.

A universal serial bus port is the gateway to your computer. It's used to connect all kinds
of external devices, such as external hard drives, printers, mice, scanners and more. In
2003, USB 2.0 connectors were introduced on computers. These transfer data at 480
Mbps. Older USB devices work with USB 2.0 ports, but at 12 Mbps. USB 2.0 devices
also work with older USB ports, again at the lower speed. USB 2.0 is useful for adding
external hard drives like this Maxtor drive

IBM developed a PS/2 port, sometimes called a mouse port. It is used to connect a
computer mouse or keyboard. Most computers come with two PS/2 ports.
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A modem port connects an internal modem to a telephone line. A modem (for those who
are new to the computer world) is used to connect a computer to the Internet by making a
data call to an Internet service.

For faster Internet connections and for networking, an Ethernet or network port is used.
The port is used to connect network cabling to a computer. Cable plugged into this port
can lead either to a network hub (a junction box that can wire lots of network cables
together), directly to a cable modem or DSL modem (both used for high speed Internet)
or to an Internet gateway which shares a fast Internet connection between computers.

Directories, Files and Managing a PC

File and Directory

A file is a collection of information that a computer uses. It is always in a
particular format. For example, if a Microsoft Word document is created, the file is saved
so that Microsoft Word can read it and open it. Often files cannot be opened to read, they
are simply data files the computer and techno-weenies understand, but others cannot.
Files are made up of the filename, and the extension. A Directory or a Folder is a place to
store a collection of files.

File Name
The file name is the first part of the file, and is sometimes referred to as just the
"name." This name can be up to 255 characters in Windows 95, 98, or 2000, as opposed
to 8 characters in Windows 3.x and DOS.
The computer user sets this name. It should be descriptive of what the particular
file or document consists. For example, if the document is a Birthday Card for Kumar's
9th birthday, set the file name equal to "Kumar’s 9th Birthday Card". The second part of
the file is the extension.

Document
A document is a file that contains information that the user (you) can view or
hear. It is most often a word processed letter, a picture, a sound byte, or something
similar. Documents are usually created and edited using programs such as Microsoft
Word, or Adobe Photoshop.
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Extension
The extension is the second part of the name of the file. It is often three characters
long, but can be longer. The extension tells the computer which program, or application,
to associate the file with.
For example, if a document is created in Microsoft Word, the computer
automatically assigns that file the extension "doc". That code tells the computer that it is
an MS Word document, and should be opened using Word.

Find a File on Your Computer (Microsoft Windows)

There are two ways to find a file in Windows. Both methods involve the right-
button on the mouse. Right-Click (click using the right button on your mouse) the "Start"
button at the bottom-left of the screen. There are several options there, including "Find"
and "Explore". The computer uses Windows Explorer and the folder system to keep track
of files. The diagram below shows these options.

Fig 1.4 Finding a file in a computer

Left-click on "Explore" to open the Windows Explorer. Windows Explorer is the
software program that best helps manage the computer's files. It represents the computer
as one big filing cabinet.
Folder System - Windows Explorer

Fig 1.5 Folder System

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On viewing Windows Explorer, the screen is seen as broken into two halves. One
side contains the folders, or directory tree. The other side shows the files and folders
inside the folder selected. This will be explained in more detail later. The view above is
of the left half. It shows a few of the drives on the computer. The disk drive is usually
labeled the "A drive" (A:). The hard drive is usually labeled the "C drive" (C:). CD Rom
drives can be any number of other letters such as D, E, F, G, H, etc. "C Drive" here is
labeled "Jerel" above, the labels can be changed to anything that user want it.
Notice how both the A: and the C: are located under "My Computer". That makes
sense it, because both of the drives are in the computer.
Recall the diagram on the last page...

Just as the two drives are in "My Computer", the C: drive has folders in it as well.
The folders "~mssetup.t", "Acrobat3", "All Documents", etc. are all contained within C:.
This is where the analogy of a filing cabinet fits in. The Cabinet(My Computer), consist
of Drawers (C: and A:). Inside the drawers are folders (Acrobat3, All Documents), and
inside the folders may be sub-folders or the papers themselves (files).
Notice the plus (+) signs by certain folders in the diagram above. Those indicate
the folder has other sub-folders contained within. Click on the plus sign, and the tree will
expand further.
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When the plus sign to the left of the "Acrobat3" folder is clicked, it shows a sub-
folder named "Reader". "Reader" also has its own sub-folders, as the plus sign to the left
of it shows. Windows Explorer shows the sub-folders of "Acrobat3" and the files within
on the right side. Readme.txt is the only file contained in the "Acrobat3" folder.
Managing Files and Directories
Nearly everyone gets into difficulty sometime in managing files and directories.
Here are the two principles you need to know to securely store and find your files:
Principle #1: Put personal files and program files in separate directories.
There are two main classes of file on a computer --
One class is program files. Program files are files that can be recovered from a
CD or set of disks or download from the Web. This class of files isn't very important to
back up, because if Windows crashes severely or users upgrade to a new operating
system, they will have to re-install all the programs completely. Also, users don't own
program files, and haven't invested hours of effort in them. There are plenty of ways to
get another copy of a program.
The other class of files is personal data files. Users create these files. They may
represent weeks of work, they are unique, and if users lose them they are gone forever.
And, if an average computer user, may have one backup or no backups of these files.
Because these classes of files are treated differently, one being immediately
replaceable, the other representing much personal effort, they should not be mixed
together. Here is an example to effectively manage files and directories:
Create two main directories: code & data, code for programs, data for data:
Create subdirectories under these main directories for each program and task:
Find all the files and move them into these two categories. This means always
putting new data files into a subdirectory of the data directory, and it also means
installing new programs under the program directory. With the single exception of the
Windows system directory, nearly all files and folders can be placed into one of these two
main categories. This principle may require users to adopt new habits. For example, on
pressing "Save," users should know where the file is being saved? They should know –
and must make a conscious decision to place files of a particular kind in a particular
place.
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When a new program is acquired, the program should not be installed in the
system's root directory. This principle has several important benefits. One, when user
backs up the files, all the files worth backing up are under the data directory -- this saves
time locating files for backing up. Two, subdirectories can be created instead of putting
all the files in a gigantic pile, the computer will find files more easily and run faster.
Three, user will always know what folder (directory) a particular kind of file is in.
Microsoft Windows has a folder called "Program Files," and newer programs
automatically install themselves under this directory. Windows has also a folder called
"My Documents" that is the equivalent of the "data" directory in this example. But there
is one problem with this arrangement -- the folder name has spaces in it, which makes it
difficult for Web-aware software to work with it.
To put the files on the Web, avoid spaces in the names of the files or directories,
and avoid using uppercase characters. Use all uppercase or use all lowercase, but don't
mix uppercase and lowercase. Lowercase is generally preferred.
The reason for this is Windows doesn't care about the case of file names, and also
doesn't care if there are spaces in directory and file names, but many Web server
computers care about both. Many of the Web server computers are running UNIX, and
under UNIX, a file name like "this is my page.html" is simply not acceptable. To make
this file acceptable to UNIX, the file name should be read as "this_is_my_page.html."
If there is a file named BIGtree.GIF, and a tag is created that refers to it -- <IMG
SRC="bigtree.gif"> -- the tag will work perfectly under Windows, but UNIX cares about
the case of file names, so when this page is uploaded onto the Web, user won't see the
graphic any more. Directories thus should be arranged in a logical way.

Principle #2: Back up your files.

Studies show computer storage media are generally the least reliable storage
methods. To save valuable data, a regular backup copy of it should be taken.
Obviously, simply having copies of a file isn't enough – it has to be ensured that
the file that is being backed up is actually what one thinks it is, otherwise one might be
replacing a valid file with one that has been damaged or is a zero-length file with the
 20

same name as the magnum opus. Users should not only back up regularly, but should also
review the contents of the files regularly to be sure they are what they appear to be.
As drives get larger, the probability that one will successfully write and then read
all those diskettes becomes smaller and smaller. Get a tape drive or a removable-media
hard drive as a backup device.
1.2.4 Central Processing Unit and the System Unit

The CPU resides inside a box known as the system unit, along with various
support devices and tools for storing information. The CPU has two main components,
namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit
The Control Unit
The Control Unit controls the fetching of instructions from the main memory and
the subsequent execution of these instructions. Among other tasks carried out are the
control of input and output devices and the passing of data to the Arithmetic/Logical Unit
for computation.
Some functions of control unit are:
 The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored

program instructions. The control unit uses the instruction contained in the
Instruction Register to decide which circuits need to be activated.
 The control unit co-ordinates the activities of the other two units as well as

all peripheral and auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.

 The control unit instructs the arithmetic logic unit which arithmetic

operations or logical operation is to be performed.

 The control unit is literally in control.

The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU) - carries out arithmetic operations on integer

or real numbers. It can also perform simple logical tests for equality and greater than and
less than between operands.
 21

Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Logical operations compare numbers, letters and special characters. Relational operations
(=, <, >) are used to describe the comparison operations used by the arithmetic logic unit.
The arithmetic logic unit performs logic functions such as AND, OR and NOT.
The most important functions of the CPU are: -
 Managing the instruction – execution cycle

 FETCH – DECODE – EXECUTE operations

 Coordinates the activities of other devices

Fetch the
Instruction

Execute Decode
the the
Instruction Instruction

Fig 1.6 Functions of CPU

To execute an instruction, the CPU performs the following 4 steps:

1. The control unit gets the instruction from memory.

2. The control unit decides what the instruction means and directs the necessary
data to be moved from the memory to the arithmetic logic unit.

3. The Arithmetic Logical Unit performs the actual operation on the data.

4. The result of the operation is stored in memory or a register.

 22

The first two instructions together are called the instruction time. The last two
instructions together are called the execution time. The combination of these two is called
a machine cycle.

Fig 1.7 Central Processing Unit

Each central processing unit has an internal clock (or system clock), which
produces pulses at a fixed rate to synchronize all computer operations. A single machine
cycle instruction is made up of a number of sub instructions, each of which must take at
 23

least one clock cycle. An Address, or a number that stands for a location in the computer
memory identifies the location in memory for each instruction and each piece of data.
The CPU finds the instructions and data by this Address. Each type of CPU is designed to
understand a specific group of instruction called the instruction set.
Communication between units
Communication between the units is achieved through conductor parallel lines,
called buses. A system board’s bus is an electronic pathway between various computer
components. Buses are etched onto the printed circuit board and connected to pins on the
sides of the chips.
There are two types of buses: system bus and local bus.
The system bus of a microcomputer connects all components of the computer
system. It consists of from 50 to 100 parallel wires. Each line is assigned a certain
function. According to the function assigned the line is called control bus, address bus or
data bus.
Control bus carries control signals. For example, when a user clicks on a Print
button to print a document, the CPU sends a control signal to the printer. When the
printer is ready to print, it sends a responding control signal for the CPU to pass data to
the printer.
Address bus carries the address of the required location, for example, port
number when the CPU sends a signal to the peripheral device, or memory address when
the CPU writes data to RAM.
Data bus carries data from one component to another, e.g. from keyboard to
RAM. The greater the width of the data bus (in bits), faster the performance of the
computer. The width of the bus must be matched to the CPU. But some CPUs have wide
main bus inside the chip and another narrow one for connecting to the bus on the
motherboard (e.g. 386SX). These CPUs are cheaper at the expense of performance. The
width of the bus is most important in relation to the expansion slots.
There are several bus technologies that have been developed over years.
Local buses were introduced for the CPUs from 80386 onwards. Any bus that runs a
direct path between a peripheral device and the processor is called a local bus. Local bus
was developed to handle high-speed video accelerator cards, but other types of cards such
 24

as networking cards or disk controllers can use it too. Cards installed on a local bus can
communicate with the processor at the CPU's full speed. Some devices can't use a local
bus because they are slow and therefore require a slower bus (e.g. modem).
Two most popular local bus technologies are VESA and PCI.
Digital Computer: is a finite, discrete device that stores and manipulates a Boolean state
map.
Digital computers are also called discrete processors because they compute over discrete
sets of numbers. Because the size of a digital computer memory is finite, digital
computers are sometimes called finite discrete processors.
Digital computers are comprised of hardware (equipment) and software
Computer hardware consists of the following electronic or electro-mechanical devices:
Memory -- a collection of registers and storage devices that store the computer's state
map.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) -- the "brains" of the computer, which does the work of
changing the state map stored in memory.
Input/Output (I/O) Processor -- manages and performs the work associated with reading
(or writing) information that is added to (subtracted or copied from) portions of the
computer's state map.
Peripherals -- include (a) input devices such as a keyboard, mouse or scanner, (b) output
devices such as display device (e.g., the monitor), printers and plotters and (c) devices
that store ancillary software and data
The following schematic illustration fig1.8 depicts a typical arrangement of hardware in a
personal computer or basic workstation with a sequential processor.
Such an arrangement is frequently called a von Neumann architecture (VNA), so
named for John Von Neumann, who helped develop this method of connecting computer
components. The VNA comprises over 95 percent of computer processors currently in
use.
 25

Fig 1.8 Arrangement of hardware in a personal computer

Following are some basic definitions of the most commonly used terms.
State Map: is a collection of values that describe the state of a process or machine
at a given time.
Boolean State Map: is a state map that has Boolean values (i.e., consists of ones
and zeroes).

Operating System and other Software

A computer is usually running on an operating system for all its internal activities
including I/O of all types. Computers can be set up, using the operating system to start
applications immediately after the switch-on instead of giving the user an option of
choosing the application. An operating system is a program that acts as an intermediary
between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. The primary goal of the
operating system is to make the computer system convenient to use.
The operating system can be classified into two categories: single tasking
and multi-tasking. A single tasking system, for example a microcomputer, allows only
one task to run at a time whereas a multi-tasking OS is one that is capable of running
several tasks simultaneously. Many OS’s (single and multi-tasking) are designed to
service a network of computers.
Some internal commands that are commonly included in an OS are:
DIR - To list all the directories and files in the current directory
CLS – To clear the screen
REN – To rename a file
COPY – To copy a file from one path to another
 26

DEL – To delete the file

The above commands are of DOS. Different operating systems use different names for
these commands.
The operating system, is a software that performs a variety of functions that include:
Timekeeping: The system clock is interrogated to determine time-of-day and date and the
duration of each sequence of instructions being executed.
Input/Output: The instructions or data are moved to or from memory or secondary
storage (e.g., a disk drive).
User Interface and I/O Management: It includes managing the layout and display
parameters (e.g., color and resolution) of windows in which application software is run,
inputting instructions from pointing devices such as the mouse, and managing user input
from the keyboard.

Compilation Management: This include tasks that constitute portions of the software
development process, such as,
Editing programs developed by system users
Program translation into low-level machine code
Linking user programs with various libraries to achieve versatility.

File Organization:
In DOS, the disk can be divided into separate directories or hierarchies. Each disk
has a main root and a number of subdirectories. Each subdirectory can have a number of
subdirectories under them and thus a hierarchy can be created.

Application Software -- programs that users run to accomplish various home, business,
and scientific tasks such as word processing (e.g., Word Perfect or Microsoft Word),
spreadsheets (e.g., Quattro or Excel), drawing or sketching (e.g., AutoCAD or Corel-
Draw), and graphics (e.g., Adobe Photoshop).
 27

Operating System – Operating System is the platform on which the entire applications
reside. It interfaces application software with libraries and (in very few cases) microcode
in a convenient manner that is transparent to (i.e., unseen by) the user.

Ancillary Utilities - In addition to the utilities provided by the computer's operating

system, there may be available to the user compilers, linkers, and loaders for
programming languages such as Pascal, FORTRAN, C and C++.

Fig 1.9 Organization of computer software for compilation and applications software
execution.

 Light solid lines denote flow of data

 Light dotted lines denote flow of control.

The above illustration schematically depicts the arrangement of software in a

program-development sequence.
 28

1.3) Revision Points

The Analytical Engine had all the parts of a modern computer

The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by a single
person

palmtops are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard
drive for storage

An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions

An algorithm expressed in a programming language is called a computer program

The CPU has two main components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit

1.4) Intext Question

1.Explain the organization of computers

2.Discuss the types of computers and computer languages

3.Discuss CPU and its operations elaborately

1.5) Summary

 A Computer is an electronic device capable of performing arithmetic and logical

operations. It accepts raw data as input and processes it according to the sequence
of instructions given by the programmer/user and provides the desired
information as output. Computers also include the means for storing data
 There are many types of computer languages, which can be categorized into
following four types, Low-level languages, High-level languages, User-friendly
languages, Object-oriented Languages.
 Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine
language code (object program).
 Instructions of a high-level language are coded in many statements. At the time of
their execution, they are converted statement by statement into machine code, by
using system software called interpreters.
 29

 Compilers do not translate and execute the instructions at the same time. They
translate the entire program (source code) into machine code (object code).
 The Central Processing Unit performs the actual processing of data. The data it
processes is obtained, via the system bus, from the main memory. Results from
the CPU are then sent back to main memory via the system bus.
 The CPU resides inside a box known as the system unit, along with various
support devices and tools for storing information. The CPU has two main
components, namely: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logical Unit

1.6) Terminal Exercise

1. Define Computers and explain the generation of computers
2. Define Assembler, Compiler, Interpreter
3. What is the difference between file and directory?

1.7) Supplementary Materials

1.Sanjay Saxena, "A first course in computers", Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi,
1998.
2.Andrew S TanenBaum, "Computer Networks", PHI Third Edition, 1997
1.8) Assignment
1.Prepare a chart that describes the organization of computer System

1.9) Reference Books

1. R.G.Saha & Jai Gopi K “Computer Fundamentals” subas stores, Bangalore.
2. Pradeep K sinha “Computer Fundamentals”,3rd Edition, BPB Publications,New Delhi.

1.10) Learning Activities

1. Discuss the generation of Computers.
 30

1.11) Keywords
ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
EDSAC - Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
EDVAC - Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
IC – Integrated Circuits.
ROM – Read Only Memory
RAM – Random Access Memory or Read/write memory
VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration.
ULSI – Ultra Large Scale Integration
SPARC - Scalable Processor Architecture
RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer
CISC – Complex Instruction Set Computer
BASIC - Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
COBOL - COmmon Business Oriented Language
FORTRAN - FORmula TRANslator
CPU – Central Processing Unit
DOS – Disk Operating System
UI – User Interface
 31

Unit II

2.0) Introduction
Peripheral devices are devices connected to the computer but external in relation
to the processing unit. If a peripheral device is disconnected, the computer will still be
able to work; only functions performed by this peripheral device will not be available.
For example, if you disconnect a keyboard, you would not be able to type in information
but you will be able work with the graphical user interface by clicking the mouse. If you
remove the hard disk, you will have to start up your computer using floppy disk and you
will have to save your data on floppy disks only but the computer will still be working.

2.1)Objective

At the end of this unit student should have knowledge about the following topics:

 Peripheral Devices
 Mouse & Keyboard Basics
 Other Input Devices
 Discussing
 Output Devices
 Printers

2.2) Content

2.2.1 Peripheral Devices

Peripheral devices can reside inside the computer case or outside. For example, a mouse,
a keyboard, a monitor is always outside the case and they are connected to the computer
via ports, which are situated on the back of the case. Disk drives are positioned inside the
case and they are connected to the motherboard via disk controller cards, which are
inserted in the expansion slots on the motherboard.

Hardware Devices

Hardware refers to any physical component of a computer. In today's computer

industry, a wide variety of hardware components are available for microcomputers. The
hardware components of a microcomputer can be classified into the following types
namely,
 Input Devices
 32

 Output Devices
 Processor
 Memory
 Storage Devices
Input Devices
Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM.
We may classify these devices into the following two broad categories.
(i) Basic Input Devices
(ii) Special Input Devices
The Structure and function of the common input devices of these two categories
are discussed in detail.

2.2.2 Mouse and Keyboard Basics

Basic Input Devices
The input devices, is one of the prerequisites for input operations, which may be
called Basic Input Devices. The chief input device such as keyboard and Mouse are used
to enter any input to the computer. Today, every PC has a keyboard and mouse as the
basic input devices.

a) Keyboard
Keyboard is the main input device of a computer. It contains 3 types of keys-
alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type
all alphabets, numbers and special symbols. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>,
etc are used for special functions. Function keys such as <F1>, <F2>, <F3> etc. used to
give special commands depending upon the software used.

b) Mouse
Mouse is another important input device. It is a pointing device used to move
cursor, draw sketches/diagrams, selecting a text/object/menu item etc. on monitor screen
while working on windows. Mouse is a small, palm size box containing 3 buttons and a
 33

ball underneath which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding
signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.

2.2.3 Other Input Devices

The input devices, which are not essential to operate a PC, are called special Input
Devices. These devices are used for various special purposes and are generally not
required for basic input operations. Some of these devices are discussed below.

a) Trackball
A trackball works like a mouse, as the roller is on the top with selection buttons
on the side. It is also a pointing device used to move the cursor and works like a mouse.
For moving the cursor in a particular direction, the user spins the ball in that direction. It
is sometimes considered better than mouse because it requires little movement and less
desktop space.
b) Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to a pen) is a pointing device, which is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and
an optical system placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen
and pen button is pressed, its photocell-sensing element detects the screen location and
sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

c) Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move cursor position on a
monitor screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball both at its lower and upper
ends. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of joystick is similar
to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Design (CAD) and computer
games.
d) Scanner
Scanner is widely used on DTP applications. It is used for digitizing images such
as photographs, forms, documents etc. into computer memory. Some scanners can also
read text by converting them to digital code. The scanners are very useful for converting
 34

the typed pages into word processing files. Graphic scanners convert a printed image into
video image without converting into digital code.

e) Bar Code Reader

Bar Code Reader is an optical scanner used for reading bar-coded data (data in
form of light and dark lines). The bar-coded data consists of a numbers of bars of varying
thickness and spacing between them. The bar code reader reads the bar coded data and
converts into electrical pulses, which are then processed by the computer.

f) Voice-Input Devices
Voice-Input devices are the latest input devices that can recognize the human
voice. They are very useful but are not popular due to storage of limited vocabularies and
variations in the way of pronouncing words by different persons

2.2.4 Output Devices

Output devices are hardware components, which are used to display or print the
processed information. The structure, function and uses of the common output devices
are given below
a) Monitor

Visual Display Unit (VDU) commonly called monitor is the main output device
of a computer. It consists of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), which displays characters as an
output. It forms images from tiny dots called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image (screen resolution) depends upon the number of pixels.
Some common types of monitors are CGA (Color Graphics Adapter), VGA (Video
Graphics Adapter), MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter).
b) Printer
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on
paper. Printers are essential for getting output of any computer-based application
 35

Types of Printers

There are many types of printers that are classified on various criteria as below

Fig 2.1 Types of Printers

a) Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the
paper are called Impact Printers. These printers are of two types: (i) Character and (ii)
Line printers.
i. Character Printers

These printers print one character at a time. These printers are again of two types -
Daisy Wheel and Dot Matrix Printers.

 Daisy Wheel Printers

These printers print the characters by a mechanism that uses a plastic or metal hub
with spokes called daisy wheel. The characters are embossed on the radiating spokes and
printed by striking these spokes against the ribbon and paper.

 Dot Matrix Printers

These Printers Print the characters by putting dots onto the paper. They do not
give better printing quality than daisy wheel printers, but are faster in speed. The printing
speed of a dot matrix printer can be upto 360 cps (characters per second).
 36

ii. Line Printers

These Printers Print one line at a time. Their printing speed is much more than
character printers. They are again of two types - Drum Printer and chain Printers

 Drum Printers

These printers print the line by a rotating drum having a lief of characters for
each print position. The hammers strike each character of the drum simultaneously so that
entire line is printed for one full rotation of the drum. These printers are also called Band
Printers

 Chain Printers

These printers print the line by a rotating chain having ring characters for each
print position. Their printing mechanism is similar to drum printers. The printouts
obtained from these printers, have uneven character spacing but even line height

b) Non-Impact Printers
The printers that print the character without striking against the ribbon and onto
the paper are called non-impact printers. These printers print a complete page at a time
and therefore also called Page Printers.
Page Printers are of three types –

a) Laser Printers
b) Inkjet Printers and
c) Thermal Printers
a) Laser Printers

These printers look and work like photocopiers. They are based on laser
technology, which is the latest development on high speed and high quality printing. In
these printers, a laser beam is used to write the image on a paper. First, the image is
formed by electrically changing thousands of dots on a paper by laser beam. Then, the
 37

paper is sprayed with a laser having the opposite charge and is passed over a heated roller
to make the image permanent.
b) Ink Jet Printer

These printers print the characters by spraying the paper with electrically charged
ink. These printers give better quality than character printers but not better than laser
printers. They are cheaper than laser printers, hence used widely in many offices. They
also offer an option of using color cartridges for multi color printing.
c) Thermal Printers

These printers print the characters by melting a wax-based ink off a ribbon on to a
special heat sensitive paper. They give letter quality printing but are relatively expensive
in maintenance than other printers.

2.3) Revision Points

Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM.
The input devices, which are not essential to operate a PC, are called special Input
Devices.
Output devices are hardware components, which are used to display or print the
processed information

2.4) Intext Questions

1. What is a peripheral device?
2. Explain Input Devices and its advantages
3. Explain Output Devices and its functionalities

2.5) Summary
 Peripheral devices are devices connected to the computer but external in relation
to the processing unit. If a peripheral device is disconnected, the computer will
still be able to work; only functions performed by this peripheral device will not
be available.
 38

 Hardware refers to any physical component of a computer. In today's computer

industry, a wide variety of hardware components are available for
microcomputers.
 Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into the RAM.
We may classify these devices into the following two broad categories.

2.6) Terminal Exercises

1. List some Input Devices.
2. What is scanner and how it is used?
3. What is the advantage and Disadvantage of the Mouse?
4. What is meant by CRT monitor?

2.7) Supplementary Materials

1.Sanjay Saxena, "A first course in computers", Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi,
1998.
2.Andrew S TanenBaum, "Computer Networks", PHI Third Edition, 1997

2.8) Assignment
1.Discuss about the various input devices.

2.9) Reference Books

1. R.G.Saha & Jai Gopi K “Computer Fundamentals” subas stores, Bangalore.
2. Pradeep K sinha “Computer Fundamentals”,3rd Edition, BPB Publications,New Delhi.

2.10) Learning Activities

1.An individual or a small group of people can collect the information about the output
devices.
 39

2.11) Keywords

DTP - DeskTop Publishing

CAD – Computer Aided Design
BCR – Bar Code Reader
MICR – Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
VDU – Visual Display Unit
CGA – Color Graphics Adapter
VGA – Video Graphics Adapter
MDA – Monochrome Display Adapter
 40

Unit III
3.0) Introduction

Memory unit is that component of a computer system, which is used to store the
data, instructions and information before, during and after processing by ALU. It is
actually a work area (physically a collection of integrated circuits) within the computer,
where the CPU stores the data and instructions. It is also known as a
Main/Primary/Internal Memory.

3.1) Objective
At the end of this unit student should have knowledge about the following topics

 Types of Memory
 Data Storage
 Floppy Disks
 Hard Disks
 Other Storage Devices

3.2) Content

3.2.1 Types Of Memory

a) Read Only Memory (ROM)
b) Random Access Memory (RAM)
c) Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory (CMOS)

Read Only Memory

Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit. The computer
has no intelligence or memory and requires instructions, which are given by man.
Whenever the computer is switched on, it searches for the required instructions. The
memory, which has these essential instructions, is known as Read Only Memory (ROM).
The memory is permanent and is not erased when the system is switched off. ROM
contains a number of programs (set of instructions). The most important program of
ROM is the Basic Input Output System (BIOS), which activates the hardware such as
keyboard, monitor, floppy disk etc in communicating with the system and application
software.
 41

Types of ROM
There are many types of ROM available for microcomputers like Mask ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM and EAPROM.
i.Mask ROM: Mask ROM is the basic ROM chip. In this type of ROM,
the information is stored at the time of its manufacturing.

ii.PROM: PROM stands for the Programmable Information and it is

stored by programmers after it’s manufacturing. It also cannot be
altered or erased later on.

iii.EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory. It is similar to PROM, but its information can be erased
later on by ultra violet and it can be reprogrammed.

iv.EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable

Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar to EPROM, but
using a high voltage current can erase its information.

v.EAPROM: EAPROM stands for Electrically Alterable Read Only

Memory. As compared to EPROM and EEPROM, the information
stored in EAPROM can be altered later.

a. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is another important component of the Memory
Unit. It is used to store data and instructions during the execution of programs. Contrary
to ROM, RAM is temporary and is erased when the computer is switched off. RAM is a
read/write type of memory and thus can be read and written by the user/programmer. As
it is possible to randomly use any location of this memory it is known as Random Access
Memory.

 Types of RAM:

There are two types of RAM used in PCs - Dynamic and Static RAM.
 42

i. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): The information stored in Dynamic

RAM has to be refreshed every few milliseconds, otherwise it is
erased. DRAM has a higher storage capacity and is cheaper than
static RAM.

ii. Static RAM (SRAM): The information stored on Static RAM

need not be refreshed, but it remains stable as long as power
supply is provided. SRAM is costlier but has higher speed than
DRAM.

b. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store

the system configuration, date, time and other important data. When the computer is
switched on, BIOS matches the information of CMOS with the peripheral devices and
displays error in case of mismatching.

3.2.2 Storage Devices

There are many storage devices, which are used with microcomputers. Some of the
common storage devices are
a) Floppy Disk

In this device, the medium used to record the data is called as floppy disk. It is a flexible
circular disk of diameter 3.5 inches made of plastic coated with a magnetic material. This
is housed in a square plastic jacket. Each floppy disk can store approximately on million
characters. Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer's memory by
a device called a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer's memory by a device
called a floppy disk drive (FDD). A floppy disk is inserted in a slot of the FDD. The disk
is rotated normally at 300 revolutions per minute. A reading head is positioned touching a
track. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the head when a magnetized spot moves
below the head. The polarity of the induced voltage when a 0 is read. The voltage sensed
 43

by the head coil is amplified, converted to an appropriate signal and stored in computer's
memory.
 Floppy Disks come with various capacities as mentioned below.

 51/4 drive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 2 10

= 1024 bytes)

 31/2 drive- 1.44 Mb, 2.88 MB (1MB= 2 20

bytes)
The storage capacities of floppies vary from 360 KB to 1.44 B. The floppies can
store data on both sides (Double-sided floppies) or on single side (Single-side floppies)
depending upon the floppy device. Double-sided floppy devices are most frequently used
in present day PCs. The latest floppy device that packs two high-density floppy devices
(5.25 and 3.5 inch).

Fig 3.1 Floppy Drive

b) Compact Disk Drive (CDD)

Compact Disk (CD) is the latest storage device, used to store data, information
and software, which can only be read and not changed or erased. It is an optical read only
memory made up of a resin. Therefore it is actually called Compact Disk Read Only
Memory (CD-ROM).CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) used a laser beam
to record and read data along spiral tracks on a 51/4 disk. A disk can store around 650 MB
of information. CD-ROMs are normally used to store massive text data. (Such as
encyclopedias) which is permanently recorded and read many times. Recently CD writers
have come in the market. Using a CD writer, lot of information can be written on CD-
ROM and stored for future reference.

Fig 3.2 Compact Disk Drive

 44

c) Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Winchester Disk is the most common storage device of present day

microcomputers. It is popularly called the Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or sometimes Fixed
Disk Drive. Unlike a floppy disk that is flexible and removable, the hard disk used in the
PC is permanently fixed. The hard disk used in a higher end Pc can have a maximum
storage capacity of 17 GB (Giga Byte; 1 GB= 1024 MB = 2 30 bytes). Now days, hard
disks capacities of 540 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB and 8 GB are quite common. The data
transfer rate between the CPU and hard disk is much higher as compared to the between
the CPU and the floppy disk drive. The CPU can use the hard disk to load programs and
data as well as to store data. The hard disk is a very important Input/Output (I/O) device.
The hard disk drive doesn't require any special care other than the requirement that one
should operate the PC within a dust-free and cool room (preferably air-conditioned).
In summary, a computer system is organized with a balanced configuration of
different types of memories. The main memory (RAM) is used to store program being
currently executed by the computer. Disks are used to store large data files and program
files. Tapes are serial access memories and used to backup the files form the disk. CD-
ROMs are used to store user manuals, large text, audio and video data.

Fig 3.3 Hard Disk Drive

3.2.3 Other storage Devices

a) Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Tape is the oldest storage device available for microcomputers. It is

generally used to store a large volume of data that is needed to be sequentially accessed
and processed. The tape is made up of a plastic ribbon coated with an iron-oxide material,
which can be magnetized. The data stored on tape can be read as well as erased and
 45

written again. Magnetic tape is a sequential access storage device; hence it is not possible
to read the data randomly or directly. Therefore, magnetic tapes are suitable only for
storing data for backups and batch-made applications and not for on-line applications.

b) Video Disk

Video Disk is used to store text, video and audio data. It is widely used for
training applications as if can be played like a phonograph record.

c) DVD ROM / RAM Disk

DVD ROM and DVD RAM disks are optical disks having a storage capacity of
47 GB and 5.2 GB respectively. These disks are becoming the next generation's new
standard for higher capacity removable media. They are ideal for storage of huge amount
of information required for multimedia applications.

3.3) Revision Points

Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store the

system configuration, date, time and other important data

Compact Disk (CD) is the latest storage device, used to store data, information and
software, which can only be read and not changed or erased

DVD ROM and DVD RAM disks are optical disks having a storage capacity of 47 GB
and 5.2 GB respectively

3.4) Intext Questions

1. What is a memory?
2. What are the 3 types of memory?
3. Explain the following
 Floppy disk
 Compact disk
 Hard disk
 46

4. Describe Magnetic tape, Video Disk, DVD ROM / RAM Disk

3.5) Summary
 Memory unit is that component of a computer system, which is used to store the
data, instructions and information before, during and after processing by ALU.
 Read Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit. The computer
has no intelligence or memory and requires instructions, which are given by man.
Whenever the computer is switched on, it searches for the required instructions.
The memory, which has these essential instructions, is known as Read Only
Memory (ROM).
 RAM is temporary and is erased when the computer is switched off. RAM is a
read/write type of memory and thus can be read and written by the
user/programmer.
 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Memory is used to store
the system configuration, date, time and other important data.
 There are many storage devices, which are used with microcomputers. Some of
the common storage devices are floppy disk, compact disk, hard disk etc.,

3.6) Terminal Exercises

1. Explain the difference between ROM and RAM

3.7) Supplementary Materials

1.Sanjay Saxena, "A first course in computers", Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi,
1998.
2.Andrew S TanenBaum, "Computer Networks", PHI Third Edition, 1997

3.8) Assignments
1.Discuss about the secondary storage devices.
 47

3.9) Reference Books

1. R.G.Saha & Jai Gopi K “Computer Fundamentals” subas stores, Bangalore.

2. Pradeep K sinha “Computer Fundamentals”,3rd Edition, BPB Publications,New Delhi.

3.10) Learning Activities

1. An individual or a small group of people can analyze the various types of memory.

3.11) Keywords
SRAM – Static RAM
DRAM – Dynamic RAM
CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide SemiConductor
PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EAPROM – Erasable Alterable PROM
 48

UNIT IV
4.0) Introduction

Operating system is a set of programs, which provides an easy to use interface

between the users and the computer system and manages the computer resources in order
to achieve a maximum efficiency of the computer system. An operating system is a part
of the system software and has become an integral part of a computer system.

4.1) Objective
At the end of this unit student should have knowledge about the following topics:

 Operating Systems
 Single user system
 Multi user system
 Network operating system
 Working with Applications
 Windows Accessories
 Working with Internet Explorer
 Shutting Down Windows Siblings

4.2) Content

4.2.1 Operating System

Functions of an Operating System

1. Command Interpreter
2. Memory Manager
3. Process Manager
4. Peripherals Manager

4.2.2 Single-User Operating Systems

These operating systems are used mainly for computers having only one terminal
(stand-alone PCs). MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and PC DOS (Personal
 49

Computer Disk Operating System) are the two important single user operating systems.
Both systems are almost identical and are simply called DOS. OS/2 and Windows NT are
other popular single-user multi-tasking operating systems for microcomputers.

4.2.3 Multi-User Operating Systems

Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or
more simultaneous users. All mainframes and minicomputers are multi-user systems.
Another term for multi-user is time-sharing, which refers to the concurrent use of a
computer by more than one user where users share the computer's time. Some operating
systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.

4.2.4 Network Operating System

A NOS is a network operating system. A network operating system implements
protocol stacks as well as device drivers for networking hardware. Some network
operating systems, like Windows 98 Second Edition, also add custom networking
features like Internet Connection Sharing (ICS).
Multiprocessing Operating Systems refers to a computer system’s ability to
support more than one process (program) at the same time. Multiprocessing Operating
Systems enable several programs to run concurrently. UNIX is one of the most widely
used multiprocessing system, but there are many others, including OS/2 for high-end
PCs. Multiprocessing systems are much more complicated than single-process systems
because the operating system must allocate resources to competing processes in a
reasonable manner. Multiprocessing Operating Systems also refers to the utilization of
multiple CPUs in a single computer system. This is also called parallel processing, which
is defined as the simultaneous use of more than one CPU to execute a program. Ideally,
parallel processing makes a program run faster because there are more CPUs functioning.
In practice, it is often difficult to divide a program in such a way that separate CPUs can
execute different portions without interfering with each other.

With single-CPU computers, it is possible to perform parallel processing by

connecting the computers in a network. Parallel processing differs from multitasking, in
which a single CPU executes several programs at once. Parallel processing is also called
parallel computing.
 50

Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task
being a program. The terms multitasking and multiprocessing are often used
interchangeably, although multiprocessing sometimes implies that more than one CPU is
involved. In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one program to
another so quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all of the programs at the
same time.
There are two basic types of multitasking: pre-emptive and co-operative. In pre-
emptive multitasking, the operating system allocates CPU time slices to each program. In
co-operative multitasking, each program can control the CPU for as long as it needs it. If
a program is not using the CPU, however, it can allow another program to use it
temporarily. OS/2, Windows 95, Windows NT, and UNIX use pre-emptive multitasking,
whereas Microsoft Windows 3.x and the MultiFinder (for Macintosh computers) use co-
operative multitasking.

Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute different parts of a

program, called threads, simultaneously. A thread is a logical part of a program, which
can run as a separate process. The programmer must carefully design the program in such
a way that all the threads can run at the same time without interfering with each other

The Real time OS responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating

systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.

Fig 4.1 Connection to Operating system

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Examples of Operating System

Some of the commonly used operating system is discussed below.

Windows Operating System

Windows is the most popular system software that provides graphical user
interface. Windows provides an interface, which is similar to Macintosh user interface. In
such interface, each active application is displayed in windows on the screen. The
application window can be opened, hidden, closed, moved, resized, minimized or
maximized. The user can run several applications simultaneously, each in its own
window. Windows allow the user to share data among different applications. Windows
provides an interactive environment, where the user is engaged in continuous dialog with
the computer. In windows, although both keyboard and mouse are used as input device,
the mouse is the primary tool for selecting and running window applications.

The different versions of windows are Windows 1.x, Windows 2-x, Windows 3.0,
Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11, and Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows 95,
Windows 98 and Windows NT. Windows 1.x, 2.x and 3.0 were the earlier attempts from
Microsoft Inc. for creating graphical user interface but were not very successful.
Windows 3.1 and higher versions provide powerful and multi featured GUI capabilities.
Windows NT may appear the same as Windows 3.1, but it is based on entirely a different
concept.

The various types of windows operating system are given below.

a) Windows 3.1 / 3.11 and Windows for Workgroups 3.11

Windows 3.1 is generally misunderstood as an operating system, but actually it is

not an operating system Windows 3.1 is a graphic based operating environment that
replaces the DOS interface. In order to run Windows 3.1, DOS must be installed on the
computer. It also provides non-preemptive multitasking features, which allow users to
 52

run several programs at one. Windows 3.11 is the successor of Win 3.1 with a trivial
difference.
b) Windows 95

Windows 95 is a much-awaited replacement for Win 3.1. It is a new 32-bit

operating system from Microsoft, released in 1995. Windows 95 provides the following
important features.

i. Built in Networking: Windows 95 has sophisticated 32-bit built-in network

components, that allow operating both as a client-server network and peer-to-
peer network operating system. In client-server approach, there is a central
computer acting as a file server, with which workstations called clients are
attached.

ii. Multimedia functions: Windows 95 provides all multimedia controls and

functions. Multimedia is the way of disseminating information in form of
text, audio, graphics/animated graphics and full motion video.

iii. Memory Protection: Memory protection feature of Windows 95 ensures that

one application do not crash other applications in memory.

iv. Plug and Play: Windows 95 automatic does the hardware configuration
process, by knowing the kind of printers, mouse and other peripherals. This
feature is known as 'Plug and Play'.

v. OLE (Object Linking and Embedding): OLE is the key technology for
Windows 95. It is the Microsoft's standard for creating compound
documents (compound document is a document made from different
programs) in windows.
 53

c) Windows NT

The Microsoft Windows NT operating system is a 32-bit pre-emptive multi-

tasking operating system for modern microprocessors. NT is portable to a variety of
processor architectures. One or more versions of NT have been ported to Intel 386 and
higher, MIPS R4000, and Power PC. Key goals for the system are portability, security,
compliance, multiprocessor support, extensibility, international support and compatibility
with MS-DOS and MS-Windows applications. NT uses micro-Kernel architecture, so
enhancements can be made to one part of the operating system without greatly affecting
other parts of the system. NT is not a multi-user operating system.

The two versions of NT are Windows NT workstation and Windows NT server.

They use the same kernel and operating-system code, but NT server is configured for
client-server applications and can act as an application server on Netware and Microsoft
LANs. Versions 4.0 of NT Server incorporate Internet web-server software and the
Windows 95 user interface. In 1996, more NT server licenses were sold than all versions
of UNIX licenses. Some of the key features of Windows NT are as follows.

i. Extensibility: Extensibility is an important property of any operating system

that hopes to keep up with advancements in computing technology so that
changes are facilitated over time; NT is implemented using a layered
architecture. The programs written for MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, can all
run on NT on the appropriate environment. Because of the modular structure,
additional environmental subsystems can be added without any adverse
effect.

ii. Portable: An operating system is portable if it can be moved from one

hardware architecture to another with relatively few changes. NT is designed
to be portable.

iii. Reliability: Reliability is the ability to handle error conditions, including the
ability of the operating system to protect itself and its users from defective or
 54

malicious software. NT is designed to resist defects and attacks by using

hardware protection for virtual memory and software protection mechanisms
for operating system resources. Also, NT comes with a file system called the
native NT file system (NTFs) that recovers automatically from many kinds of
file system errors after a system crash.

iv. Compatibility: Windows NT provides source-level compatibility to

applications that follow the IEEE standard. They can be compiled to been on
NT without changing the source code.

v. Performance: NT is designed to afford good performance. The subsystems

that comprise NT can communicate with one another efficiently by a local-
procedure-call facility that provides high-performance message passing.

vi. International support: NT is also designed for international use. It provides

support for different locales via the national language support (NLS) API.
NLS API provides specialized routines to format dates, time and money in
accordance with various national customs.

LINUX Operating System

LINUX is quote possibly the most important free software achievement since the
original space war, or more recently, emacs. It has developed into an OS for business
education and personal productivity. Linux is no longer meant only for UNIX wizards
who sit for hours in front of a glowing console. Linux is a Unix operating system clone
that runs on a variety of platforms especially personal computers with Intel 80386 or
better processor. It supports a wide range of software, from Tex, to the X window system,
to the GNU C/C++ compiler, to TCP/IP. It is a versatile bona fide implementation of
Unix, freely distributed under the terms of GNU General Public License.
What makes Linux so different is that it is a free implementation of Unix. It was
and still is developed cooperatively by a group of volunteers, primarily on the Internet
who exchange code, report bugs and fix problems in an open-ended environment.
 55

Kinds of operating systems

Functionality

Operating systems can be grouped according to functionality: operating systems

for supercomputing, render farms, mainframes, servers, workstations, desktops, handheld
devices, real time systems, or embedded systems.

Supercomputing is primarily scientific computing, usually modeling real

systems in nature. Render farms are collections of computers that work together to render
animations and special effects. Work that previously required supercomputers could be
done with the equivalent of a render farm.

Mainframes used to be the primary form of computer. Mainframes are large

centralized computers. At one time they provided the bulk of business computing through
time-sharing. Mainframes and mainframe replacements (powerful computers or
clusters of computers) are still useful for some large-scale tasks, such as centralized
billing systems, inventory systems, database operations, etc. When mainframes were in
widespread use, there was also a class of computers known as minicomputers, which
were smaller, less expensive versions of mainframes for businesses that couldn’t afford
true mainframes.
Servers are computers or groups of computers used for Internet serving, intranet
serving, print serving, file serving, and/or application serving. Servers are also sometimes
used as mainframe replacements.
Desktop operating systems are used for personal computers.
Workstations are more powerful versions of personal computers. Often only one
person uses a particular workstation (like desktops) and workstations often run a more
powerful version of a desktop operating system, but workstations run on more powerful
hardware and often have software associated with larger computer systems.
Handheld operating systems are much smaller and less capable than desktop
operating systems, so that they can fit into the limited memory of handheld devices.
 56

Real time operating systems (RTOS) are specifically designed to respond to

events that happen in real time. This can include computer systems that run factory
floors, computer systems for emergency room or intensive care unit equipment (or even
the entire ICU), computer systems for air traffic control, or embedded systems. RTOSs
are grouped according to the response time that is acceptable (seconds, milliseconds,
microseconds) and according to whether or not they involve systems where failure can
result in loss of life.
Embedded systems are combinations of processors and special software that are
inside of another device, such as the electronic ignition system on cars.

4.2.5 Windows Applications

Windows Accessories

Calculating with Calculator

Like a calculator you keep in a desk drawer, the Windows Calculator is small but saves
you time by performing all the calculations common to a standard calculator. The
Windows Calculator, however, has added advantages: You can keep this calculator
onscreen alongside other applications, and you can copy numbers between the Calculator
and other applications.

Operating the Calculator

To use the Calculator with the mouse, just click the appropriate numbers and sign keys,
like you would press buttons on a desk calculator. Numbers appear in the display window
as you select them, and the results appear after the calculations are performed.

To enter numbers from the keyboard, use either the numbers across the top of the
keyboard or those on the numeric keypad (you must first press the NumLock key if the
NumLock feature is not enabled). To calculate, press the keys on the keyboard that
matches the Calculator keys. Table 14.2 shows the Calculator keys for the keyboard.
 57

Keyboard Equivalents for the Calculator

Calculator Key Function Keyboard Key

MC Clear memory Ctrl+L

MR Display memory Ctrl+R

M+ Add to memory Ctrl+P

MS Store value in memory Ctrl+M

CE Delete displayed value Del

Back Delete last digit in displayed value Backspace

+/- Change sign F9

/ Divide /

* Multiply *

- Subtract -

+ Add +

sqrt Square root @

% Percent %

1/x Calculate reciprocal R

C Clear Esc

= Equals = or Enter

Using HyperTerminal

HyperTerminal is a Windows accessory that enables you to connect your

computer to another PC or online service. HyperTerminal is a full-featured
communications tool that greatly simplifies getting online. With HyperTerminal, you can
 58

connect to a friend's computer, a university, an Internet service provider, or even

CompuServe.
Before the existence of graphical interfaces to online services such as
CompuServe and The Microsoft Network, most communications tools were character
oriented. For example, students all over the world used terminal emulation programs to
connect to their schools' computers. They typically used VT100 terminal emulation, to
make their PCs behave like any other display terminal on the system.
If you can use the graphical communications tools mentioned here, why do you
need a character-oriented tool such as HyperTerminal? The reason is that most bulletin
boards, Internet shell accounts, and university connections are still character oriented.
Most bulletin boards do not provide a graphical interface like The Microsoft Network.
HyperTerminal does the following:

 Makes the focal point of your activities the connections you create (documents),
which allows you to dial or configure a connection without loading
HyperTerminal first.

 Automatically detects the terminal-emulation mode and communications

parameters of the remote computer.

 Fully integrates with TAPI and the centralized modem configuration, which
provides Windows 98 applications, a single interface to your modem for dialing,
answering, configuration, and more.

 Supports several popular terminal-emulation modes and file transfer protocols,

such as VT100, VT52, and Kermit.

 Enables you to greatly customize each of your connections.

What You Can and Can't Do with HyperTerminal

HyperTerminal is a communications tool with many uses. The following list describes
many tasks you can perform with HyperTerminal:
 59

 Connect to another computer and exchange files.

 Connect to an online service (such as CompuServe) that supports one of

HyperTerminal's terminal-emulation modes.

 Connect to a school's computer using VT100.

 Connect to an Internet service provider using a shell account and even access the
World Wide Web using Lynx.

Working with Phone Dialer

Phone Dialer is a handy accessory built into Windows 98 that remembers up to eight
phone numbers and that you can use as a speed dialer. Although this may seem a bit
redundant if you already have a speed dialer built into your existing phone, this one is
very easy to program and change, and it can do the more intricate dialing needed to
navigate voice-mail systems and make credit card calls. It can even keep a log of your
outgoing and incoming calls. To access the Phone Dialer, open the Start menu and choose
Programs, Accessories, Phone Dialer

Fig 4.2 Phone Dialer

Adding Phone Dialer Entries

When you first start Phone Dialer, it doesn't have any speed dial entries set. Your first
task is to add names and phone numbers to the eight blank dial memories. Choose any
 60

blank entry and enter the name and number you would like to save .You can choose a
button by clicking it or by pressing Alt+ the number that appears next to the button.

Fig 4.3 Speed Dialing

Using the Phone Dialer Log

The Phone Dialer comes with a log in which it keeps a record of your outgoing and
incoming calls. Each time you connect a phone call, an entry is placed in this text file.
You can cut, copy, and delete from this log using the Edit menu commands, and you can
redial an entry in your Log by double-clicking it or by selecting Log, Dial.

Fig 4.4 Phone dialer Log

Playing Games

Windows 98 includes four games for your diversionary pleasure: FreeCell, Hearts,
Minesweeper, and the classic Solitaire. To start a game, open the Start Menu and choose
 61

Programs, Accessories, Games. Then select the game you want to play from the Games
submenu.
If you don't see any games, they weren't installed when you installed Windows.
See "Adding Windows Accessories" to find out how to add the games using your
Windows 98 installation CD-ROM or disks.
After you open a game, use the Help topics to learn about the objective and rules
of the games and to get some tips on strategy. If you are connected to a network, check
out Hearts, which you can play with other players who are connected to your network.

4.2.6 Working with Internet Explorer

A browser is the computer program (Interface) used to explore the World Wide
Web. Web browsers are applications that run on a user's personal computer to provide the
interactive graphical interface for searching, finding, and viewing text documents,
sounds, animations and other multimedia resources on the web. The browser program
translates documents containing the HTML language into words and images on the
screen. Browsers are the "window to the web" for Internet users around the world. The
different classes of browsers are given below:

Graphical Browsers

Graphical browsers display pictures, play sounds and show animations. They are
multimedia presentation tools. Multimedia features place high demands on data
transmission and storage hardware. It takes a lot of transmission time as well as disk
space to utilize video and high fidelity sound. Internet Explorer is also a Graphical
Browser.

1. If you have the URL (address) of a Web page

 Type the URL to go directly to the page. IE 6 gives you two ways of doing this.
 Type the URL in the Address bar at the top of the screen. To accomplish this,
click on the Address bar to highlight the current URL. Then type in the new URL
and press the Enter key.
 62

 Click on File/Open at the top left of the screen. A pop-up window will appear
with a text entry window. Within that window, type the URL of the file you wish
to retrieve. Press the Enter key.

2. If you are on a Web page

Click on:
- words or images which change the shape of the mouse pointer from an arrow to a hand
and display a URL on the bottom of the screen when the mouse pointer is placed over it
- the blue words on the display screen
- the purple words on the display screen (the purple color indicates that the resource has
been recently accessed on your terminal)

Note: The color blue is generally the default color for text that contains a link, and purple
is the default color for text representing a link that has been visited in the recent past.
Nowadays, Web page creators are coloring their links in all sorts of ways. The best way
to figure out which text represents a link is to position your mouse over the words and see
if the pointer shape changes from an arrow to a hand. The hand represents a link.

3. If you want to use pre-installed links

IE 6 offers a collection of Web sites in its Favorites collection. Click on Favorites on
either the text bar or the tool bar at the top of the screen to access these resources.

To go back to previous sites:

Click on the small Back left arrow on the navigation bar near the top left corner of your
screen. Each time you click on this arrow, you will return to the next previous site that
you visited. If you hold your mouse over the Back arrow, the title of the upcoming page
will briefly appear.

To move forward:

To move farther ahead; click on the small black triangle to the right of the Forward arrow
in the menu bar at the top of the screen. This presents a list of several sites you have
 63

visited. Click on any of the choices to return to the desired site. This is the equivalent of
clicking on the Forward arrow several times.

Additional Tool Bar Options

Stop: The circle containing the X will stop a page while it is in the process of loading.
This is useful if a page is not successfully or speedily retrieving.

Refresh: the Square containing the two curved arrows re-retrieves the page you are
currently viewing. This is useful if the page does not load successfully or completely.

Home: The home icon takes you back to the page that was on the screen when you first
started IE 6. You can customize your selection. See below under "Customizing Internet
Explorer."

Search: The search button opens up a function that uses one or more Web search tools.
You can choose the search tool(s) you want as your default.

Favorites: Favorites are Web sites you have visited that you would like to store for easy
access. You can add, delete and organize your Favorites To add the current Web page as
a favorite, click on Favorites and then Add. To choose the folder where you want to store
this listing, click on Create in and choose the folder you want. At this point, you also
have the option to create a new folder.

To delete a Favorite, simply right click on the item and choose Delete. Or, you
can choose Organize Favorites select the desired item, and click on the Delete button.

To move a favorite to another folder, click on Organize Favorites, select the

desired item, and click on Move to folder. In the pop-up window, select the folder where
you would like to store this listing.

History: The history function allows you to view and select Web pages you have recently
visited. You can sort your items by clicking on the black triangle to the right of the word
 64

View. You can sort by size, date, the number of times visited, and the order you have
visited today.

Mail: You can read email from this window. Choose the email software you wish to use
by going back to the Menu Bar and choosing Tools/Internet Options/Programs.

Print: Allows you to print the current page. This option will be explained in more detail
below under Printing

Edit: You may edit the current page in the HTML editor of your choice. Choose the
editor by going back to the Menu Bar and choosing Tools/Internet Options/Programs.

Discuss: You may set a default Usenet newsgroup server.

4.3) Revision Points

Operating system is a part of the system software

Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports two or more
simultaneous users

Multitasking and multiprocessing are often used interchangeably

LINUX is quote possibly the most important free software achievement since the original
space war, or more recently, emacs.

4.4) Intext Questions

1.Define Multitasking, Multiprocessing and explain.

2.Discuss Linux Operating System

3.Explain any one Windows Operating System

4.Discuss Internet Explorer and its tool bar options

 65

4.5) Summary

 Operating system is a set of programs, which provides an easy to use interface

between the users and the computer system and manages the computer resources
in order to achieve a maximum efficiency of the computer system.
 Single-User Operating systems are used mainly for computers having only one
terminal. Multi-User Operating Systems refers to a computer system that supports
two or more simultaneous users. A network operating system implements
protocol stacks as well as device drivers for networking hardware
 Multiprocessing Operating Systems refers to a computer system’s ability to
support more than one process (program) at the same time.
 Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task
being a program
 Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute different parts of
a program, called threads, simultaneously
 A browser is the computer program (Interface) used to explore the World Wide
Web. Web browsers are applications that run on a user's personal computer to
provide the interactive graphical interface for searching, finding, and viewing text
documents, sounds, animations and other multimedia resources on the web.

4.6) Terminal Exercises

1.What is an Operating system? Explain its types

2.What is Multithreading?

3.What are the Available windows accessories?

4.What are the advantages of using a browser?

4.7) Supplementary Materials

1.Sanjay Saxena, "A first course in computers", Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi,
1998.
 66

4.8) Assignments
1.Discuss about the Operating System and its functions.

2.Discuss the various types of Operating System.

4.9) Reference Books

1.Andrew S TanenBaum, "Computer Networks", PHI Third Edition, 1997

4.10) Learning Activities

1.An individual or small group of people can analyze the Windows Operating System.

4.11) Keywords
NOS – Network Operating System
OLE – Object Linking and Embedding
LAN – Local Area Network
NTFS – NT File System
TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
RTOS –Real Time Operating System
URL – Uniform Resource Locator
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Unit V

5.0) Introduction

The term Computer Networks can be referred to as an interconnected collection

of computers for information exchange. One or more transmission paths, often the
universally present telephone lines, can establish the interconnection.

5.1) Objective
At the end of this unit student should have knowledge about the following topics:
 Network Basics
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN

5.2) Content
5.2.1 The Uses of Computer Network

1. Resource Sharing:

Resource sharing is the primary goal, which makes all programs, data and
equipment available to everyone on the network regardless of the physical location of
the resource and the users. A network of computers can provide a powerful
communication medium among widely separated people.

2. High Reliability:

High reliability can be achieved by having alternative sources of supply. Since all
information can be replicated on more than one machine, if one of them is
unavailable due to a failure, the other copies could be used. The presence of multiple
CPUs means that if one goes down, the others may be able to take over its work,
although at reduced performance. The ability to continue to work even during a
hardware failure is of great importance.
 68

3. Economical:

Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better price and
performance ratio than large ones. A network of small powerful personal computers
can achieve almost the same performance as that of larger mainframes.

4. Communication Medium:

A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among

widely separated people. Using a network a report can be prepared by two or more
people together living far apart. Changes made to a document kept online will be
reflected to everyone on the network. This speedup makes cooperation among people
easy. In the long run, the use of networks to enhance human-to-human
communication may prove more important than technical goals.

5.2.2 Network Objectives

1. To provide sharing of resources such as information or processors.
2. To provide interprocess communication such as among users and processors.
3. To improve reliability of the networks through backup and recovery.
4. To provide distribution of processing functions.
5. To furnish centralized control for a geographically distributed system.
6. To provide centralized management and allocation of network resources.
7. To provide compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software.
8. To provide network users with maximum performance at minimum cost.

5.2.3 Applications of Networks

1. Access to Remote Programs:

Programs residing on various remote terminals could be executed or used for

various purposes like gathering statistical information. A company that has produced
a model simulating the world economy may allow its clients to log in over the
network and run the program to see how various projected inflation rates, interest
rates, and currency fluctuations might affect their businesses.
 69

2. Access to Remote Databases:

Another major area of network use is access to remote databases. A centralized
database is maintained to provide various services. With the help of this database, a
person sitting at home can make reservations for airplanes, trains, buses, hotels,
restaurants, theaters, and so on, anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
Home banking and the automated newspaper also fall in this category.

3. Communication Medium:

A third category of potential widespread network use is as a communication

medium. One can send electronic mail from one terminal to another anywhere in the
world. The mail can contain digitized voice, still pictures and even moving television
and video images.

5.2.4 Types of Networks

There are 3 types of Networks
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN
LAN
LAN is Local Area Network. A local computer network for communication
between computers; especially a network connecting computers and word processors and
other electronic office equipment to create a communication system between offices.

MAN
A group of LANs with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a
'metropolitan' area. The latter is not necessarily a city; it normally means any area, which
is spread out but in some sense a single entity: for instance, two company buildings on
Opposite sides of the road or on a large site
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WAN
WANs are networks that span the distance between buildings, cities and even
countries. WANs are LANs connected together using wide area network services from
telecommunications carriers and typically use technologies such as standard phone lines
(called POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) or PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network)), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), Frame Relay, ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode) or other high speed services

5.2.5 Advantages of Networks

The important advantages of computer network can be summarized as below:

1. Modern organizations today are widely dispersed, with offices located in diverse
parts of a country and the world. Many of the computers and terminals at the sites
need to exchange information and data. A network provides the means to
exchange data and to make programs and data available to all the people of the
enterprise.
2. The networking of computers permits the sharing of resources. Such load sharing
permits a better, more even utilization of resources.
3. Networking also supports the critical function of backup.
4. The use of networking allows a very flexible working environment. Employees
can work at home by using terminals tied through networks to the computer at the
office.

5.2.6 Network Structure

In any network there exists a collection of machines intended for running user or
application programs. These machines are called host or end system. The hosts are
connected by the communication subnet. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from
host to host. The subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and
switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. The switching
elements are specialized computers used to connect two or more transmission lines.
 71

When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element will choose one of them and
place it on the output line, called IMPs (Interface Message Processors).

Fig 5.1 Relation between Hosts and the Subnet

There are two types of communication subnet;

1. Point-to-Point Channel:

When a message called packet is sent from one IMP to another, the packet is received
at every intermediate IMP, stored there until the required output line is free and then
forwarded towards the destination. Here the network contains numerous cables or leased
telephone lines each connecting a pair of IMPs. This principle is also called store-and
forward or packet-switched subnet. Almost all wide area networks use this kind of
subnets. When point-to-point subnet is used, the design of IMP interconnection topology
is important. The following figure shows the several topologies available.

Fig 5.2 Some possible topologies for a Point-to-point Subnet (a) Star (b) Ring (c) Tree
(d) Complete (e) Intersecting Rings (f) Irregular
Local area networks have a symmetric topology, whereas wide area network have
irregular topologies.
 72

2. Broadcast Channel:

Most local area networks and a small number of wide area networks are of this type.
In a local area network, the IMP is reduced to a single chip embedded inside the host, so
there is always one host per IMP, whereas in a wide area network there may be many
hosts per IMP. Broadcast systems have a single communication channel that is shared by
all the machines on the network. Packets sent by any machine are received by all the
others. An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is intended. Upon
receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for some
other machine, it is just ignored.

Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all
destinations by using a special code in the address field. When a packet with this code is
transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network. Some
broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, known as
multicasting.

The following figure shows some broadcast topologies:

Fig 5 .3 Communication Subnets using Broadcasting

(a) Bus (b) Satellite or Radio (c) Ring

In a bus or cable network, at any instant one machine is master and is allowed to
transmit. All other machines should not send the messages. An arbitration mechanism is
needed to resolve conflicts when two or more machines want to transmit simultaneously.
This mechanism may be centralized or decentralized.

A second possibility is a satellite or ground radio system. Each IMP has an antenna
through which they can send and receive. All IMPs can hear the output from the satellite,
 73

and in some cases they can also hear the upwards transmissions of their fellow IMPs to
the satellite as well.

A third broadcast system is ring in which each bit propagates around on its own, not
waiting for the rest of the packet to which it belongs. Typically, each bit circumnavigates
the entire ring in the time it takes to transmit a few bits, often even before the complete
packet has been transmitted.

Broadcast subnets can be further divided into static and dynamic, depending on how
the channel is allocated. A typical static allocation would be to divide uptime into
discrete intervals, and run a round robin, allowing each Mac machine to broadcast only
when its time slot comes up. Static allocation wastes channel capacity when a machine
has nothing to say during its allocated slot.

Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are either centralized or

decentralized. In the centralized channel allocation method, there is a single entity,
which determines who goes next. It might do this by accepting requests and making a
decision according to some internal algorithm. In the decentralized channel allocation
method, there is no central entity; each machine must decide for itself whether or not to
transmit.

5.2.7 Network Topology

A network is a logical extension of a data communication system. The term

‘Topology’, in the context of a communications network, refers to the way in which the
end points or stations of a network are linked together. It determines the data paths that
may be used between any pair of stations of the network.

The network designer has three major goals when establishing the topology of a network:

1. Provide maximum possible reliability to assure proper receipt of all traffic

(alternate routing).
 74

2. Route the traffic across the least-cost path within the network between the sending
and receiving host (although the least-cost route may not be chosen if other
factors, such as reliability, are more important).
3. Give the end user the best possible response time and throughput.

The more common network topologies are:

 The hierarchical topology (tree)

 The horizontal topology (bus)
 The star topology
 The ring topology (hub)
 The completely connected topology
 The mesh topology

Hierarchical Topology

The Hierarchical topology is also called a tree topology or a tree network. It is one of
the common networks found today.

Figure 5.4: Hierarchical Topology

The host at the highest order of the hierarchy is in control of the network. The
host at the root initiates traffic flows among and between the hosts. A distributed aspect
can be implemented by providing methods for the sub-ordinate hosts to directly control
the hosts below them in the hierarchy. This reduces the workload of the central host at the
root.

Advantage:

1. The topology is attractive because of simplicity of control.

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2. Since sub-ordinate hosts can be added easily to the network, complex networks
can be evolved.

Disadvantage:

1. As the host at root controls all traffic between and among the host, it presents
reliability problems.
2. If the upper-most machine fails, the network capabilities are lost completely, if the
others are not backed up.

Horizontal Topology (BUS)

This arrangement is quite popular in local area networks. It is relatively simple to

control traffic flow between and among the DTEs (Data Transmission Equipments)
because the bus permits all stations to receive every transmission. That is, a single
station broadcasts to multiple stations.

Fig 5.5 Horizontal Topology

Advantage:

1. Easy to construct the network.

2. Simplicity in traffic control between and among hosts.
3. All stations receive every transmission.

Disadvantage:

1. Only one-communication channel exists to service all the devices on the network.
2. The entire network is lost, in the event of communication channel failure.
 76

Star Topology

In a star configuration of computer network, there is a host computer which is

attached to local computers through multiple communication lines. The local computers
are not linked directly to each other and can communicate only via the host computer.
The routing function is performed by the host computer, which centrally controls
communication between any two local computers by establishing a logical path between
them.

Fig 5.6 Star Topology

Advantage:

1. Traffic flow is simple and easy to control

2. Star topology has minimal line cost because only n-1 lines are required for
connecting n nodes.
3. Transmission delays between two nodes do not increase by adding new nodes to
the network because any two nodes may be connected via two links only.
4. If any of the local computers fail, the remaining portion of the network is
unaffected.

Disadvantage:

The system crucially depends on the central node. If the host computer fails, the
entire network fails.
 77

Ring Topology

The Ring topology is so named because of the circular aspect of the data flow. In
most instances, data flows in one direction only, with one single station receiving the
signal and relaying it to the next station on the ring. The logic to implement a ring
network is relatively simple. Each component is tasked with a straightforward job of
accepting the data, sending it to the host, attached to it, or sending it out on the ring to the
next intermediate component.

Fig 5.7 Ring Topology

Advantage:

The ring network works well where there is no central-site computer system. It is a truly
distributed data processing system.
It is more reliable because communication is not dependent on a single host computer. If
one line between any two computers breaks down, or if one of the computers breaks
down, alternate routing is possible.

Disadvantage:

In a ring network, communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes in

the network. Hence addition of new nodes in the network increases the communication
delays. If a channel between two nodes fails, the entire network is lost.

Completely Connected Topology

A completely connected network has a separate physical link for connecting each
node to any other node. Thus, each computer of such network has a direct dedicated link,
 78

called a point-to-point link with all other computers of the network. The control is
distributed with each computer deciding its communication priorities.

Fig 5.8 Completely Connected Network

Advantage:

1. This type of network is very reliable, as any line breakdown will affect only
communication between the connected computers.
2. Each node of the network need not have individual routing capability.
3. Communication is very fast between any two nodes.
Disadvantage:

1. It is the most expensive system from the point of view of line costs.
Mesh Topology

The Mesh topology has been used in the last few years. Its attraction is its
relative immunity to bottleneck and failure problems. Due to the multiplicity of paths
from the DTEs and DSEs (Data Switching Equipment), traffic can be routed around
failed components or busy nodes. Even though this approach is an expensive
undertaking, some users prefer the reliability of the mesh network to that of the others,
especially for networks with only a few nodes that need to be connected.

Fig 5.9 Mesh Topology

 79

5.2.8 Network Architecture

To reduce the network design complexities, most networks are organized

as a series of layers or levels, each one built upon its protocol predecessor. The
number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer and the
function of the layer differ from network to network. A layer format is as shown
below:

Fig 5.10 Layers, Protocols and Interfaces

Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another

machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively called
layer n Protocols. The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different
machines are called peer processes. In reality, no data is directly transferred from layer
n on one machine to layer n on the other machine. Each layer passes data to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. The lowest layer is the Physical
medium, through which the communication occurs. Between each pair of adjacent layers
there is an interface that defines primitive operations and services the lower layer offers
to the upper one.
 80

5.2.9 OSI Reference Model

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) as a first step towards International Standardization of the various
protocols that has seven layers. The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection Reference Model), because it deals with connecting open systems –
that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems.
But according to OSI reference model, the principles used to arrive at the layers
can be noted as below:

1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye towards defining
internationally standardized protocols.

4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information across the
interfaces.

5. The number of layers should be large enough that the distinct functions need not
be thrown together in the same layer and small enough that the architecture does
not become unwieldy.

The Physical Layer

The Physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel. Efforts should be made to see that, when a 1 bit is sent, it is received by the
other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. The design issues here largely deal with mechanical,
electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and
transform it into a line that appears free of transmission errors to the network layer. It
accomplishes this task by having the sender break the input data into data frames
 81

(typically a few hundred bytes), transmit the frames sequentially, and process the
acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. Frame boundary identification is
taken care of by this layer. In case of information frame loss, this layer retransmits the
same frame in a controlled manner. It handles flow control and uses the channel
bandwidth efficiently (piggy backing).

The Network Layer

The Network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet and
the number of packets routed from the source to destination is also determined. This
layer is concerned with finding a path (routing) for communication along with congestion
control mechanisms. It also takes care of the problems that will arise when
heterogeneous networks are interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is
simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.

The Transport Layer

It accepts data from the session layer, splits it into small units if needed, and
passes it to the network layer and ensures that all the pieces arrive correctly at the other
end. It also determines what type of service needs to be provided to the session layer and
the users of the network. The transport layer is a true source-to-destination or end-to-end
layer. In addition to multiplexing several message streams into one channel, the transport
layer, must take care of establishing and deleting connections across the network.

The Session Layer

The Session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions
between them. A session allows ordinary data transport and might be used to allow a
user to log into a remote time-sharing system or to transfer a file between two machines.
One of the services of the session layers is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can
allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time.
If traffic can only go one way at a time the session layer can help keep track of whose
turn it is.
 82

Another service provided is the token management. This service prevents both
the sides from performing the same operation at the same time. Session layer provides
tokens. Only the side holding the token can perform the critical operation.
Yet another service is Synchronization. This service attempts to solve problems that
might arise during long duration file transfer between machines on the network.

The Presentation Layer

This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. A typical e.g. is encoding data in a standard agreed way (i.e., from one
format to another format which is suitable for the users machine). Converting from the
representation used inside the computer to the network standard this layer handles
representation. This layer handles data compression and cryptography.

The Application Layer

The Application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed.
One way to solve the problem of incompatible terminal types is to define an abstract
network virtual terminal. To handle each terminal type, a piece of software must be
written to map the functions of the network’s virtual terminal onto the real terminal. All
virtual terminal software is in this layer. Another important function is file transfer.
Different file systems have different file naming conventions and different ways of
representing text lines. Transferring file between two different systems requires handling
these and other incompatibilities.
 83

Data Transmission in the OSI Model

Fig 5.11 An example of how the OSI Model is used

The sending process has some data it wants to send to the receiving process. It
gives the data to the application layer, which attaches an application header to the front of
presentation layer. The presentation layer, not aware of what data has been received,
transforms it in various ways, adds a header to the front of it and gives the result to the
session layer. This process is repeated till the data reaches the physical layer, where the
actual transmission of data to receiving machine takes places. On the receiving machine,
as the data moves up the layers, the various headers are removed before the message
arrives at the receiving process.
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5.3) Revision Points

Resource sharing is the primary goal

High reliability can be achieved by having alternative sources of supply

Local Area Network is a local computer network for communication between computers

Broadcast subnets can be further divided into static and dynamic, depending on how the
channel is allocated

A network is a logical extension of a data communication system

5.4) Intext Questions

1. What are the uses of Computer Networks?

2. What are the Objectives of Networks?
3. What are Applications of Networks?
4. What are the types of networks?
5. Explain the advantages of using Networks.
6. Discuss the topologies of networks

5.5) Summary

 The term Computer Networks can be referred to as an interconnected collection

of computers for information exchange.
 LAN is Local Area Network. A local computer network for communication
between computers; especially a network connecting computers and word
processors and other electronic office equipment to create a communication
system between offices.
 A group of LANs with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a
'metropolitan' area.
 85

 WANs are networks that span the distance between buildings, cities and even
countries.
 In any network there exists a collection of machines intended for running user or
application programs. These machines are called host or end system
 A network is a logical extension of a data communication system. The term
‘Topology’, in the context of a communications network, refers to the way in
which the end points or stations of a network are linked together.

5.6) Terminal Exercises

1. What is LAN?
2. When and where is WAN used?
3. MAN is ___________.

5.7) Supplementary Materials

1.Sanjay Saxena, "A first course in computers", Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi,
1998.
2.Andrew S TanenBaum, "Computer Networks", PHI Third Edition, 1997

5.8) Assignment

1.Discuss the advantage of Network

2.Discuss the types of Network.
3.Discuss the various topologies in the network.

5.9) Reference Books

1. R.G.Saha & Jai Gopi K “Computer Fundamentals” subas stores, Bangalore.

2. Pradeep K sinha “Computer Fundamentals”,3rd Edition, BPB Publications,New Delhi.
 86

5.10) Learning Activity

1.An individual or small group of people analyzes the OSI Reference Model.

5.11) Keywords
WAN – Wide Area Network
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
POTS – Plain Old Telephone Service
PSTN – Public Switched Telephony Network
ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network
ATM – Asynchronous Transfer Mode
DTE – Digital Transmission Equipment
DSE – Data Switching Equipment
ISO – International Standard Organization
OSI – Open System Interconnection

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270E110
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