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 Linux for
Developers
 Developer’s Library

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 Linux for
Developers
Jumpstart Your Linux Programming Skills

William “Bo” Rothwell

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 ❖

“A best friend is the only one that walks into your life when
the world has walked out.”
— Shannon L. Alder

Thank you, Sarah, my love and my wife, for walking

into my life.

“Strong people don't put others down... They lift them up.”
— Michael P. Watson

Thank you, Mom and Dad, for being supportive.

“Fall seven times, stand up eight.”

— Japanese Proverb

Thank you, Julia, for being understanding.

❖
Contents at a Glance
Preface xii

I: Open Source Software 1

1 Introduction to Open Source Software 3

II: Linux Essentials 11

2 Introduction to Linux 13

3 The Filesystem 29

4 Essential Commands 47

5 Text Editors 67

6 System Administration 83

III: Linux Programming Languages 95

7 Overview of Linux Programming Languages 97

8 BASH Shell Scripting 111

9 Perl Scripting 119

10 Python Scripting 131

11 C, C++, and Java 139

IV: Using Git 147

12 Git Essentials 149

13 Manage Files with Git 161

14 Manage Differences in Files 173

15 Advanced Git Features 183

Index 189
Contents

Preface xii

I: Open Source Software 1

1 Introduction to Open Source Software 3

Defining Source Code 3
Closed Source 4
Open Source 5
“Free” Software 5
Choosing Open Source Licensing 7
Options 8
Key Terms 8
Examples 8
Useful Links 9
Summary 10

II: Linux Essentials 11

2 Introduction to Linux 13
Accessing a Linux System 13
Choosing the Right Distribution 14
Logging In 15
Using the GUI 18
Basic Command-Line Execution 21
Command-Line Structure 22
Getting Help 22
Summary 28

3 The Filesystem 29
Understanding the Filesystem 29
Learning the Most Used Directories 30
Naming Considerations 30
Navigating the Filesystem 31
Managing the Filesystem 33
Managing Directories 36
Managing Files 37
Summary 45
viii Contents

4 Essential Commands 47
Command-Line Tools 47
Viewing Files 48
Finding Files 52
Comparing Files 54
Shell Features 55
Permissions 57
Developer Tools 59
File Compression Commands 59
The grep Command 62
Summary 66

5 Text Editors 67
The vi Editor 67
Why Learn vi? 68
What Is vim? 68
Essential vi Commands 69
Additional Editors 79
Emacs 79
gedit and kwrite 81
nano and joe 81
lime and bluefish 82
Summary 82

6 System Administration 83
Essential Tasks 83
Gaining Access to the Root Account 84
Displaying Disk Usage 86
Managing Software 88
Listing and Finding Software 89
Installing Software 90
User Accounts 91
Adding User Accounts 91
Modifying User Accounts 92
Deleting User Accounts 93
Understanding Groups 93
Managing Groups 93
Summary 94
 Contents ix

III: Linux Programming Languages 95

7 Overview of Linux Programming Languages 97

Scripting Languages 97
BASH Shell Scripting 98
Perl Scripting 99
Python Scripting 100
Additional Scripting Languages 101
Compiled Languages 107
C Programming Basics 107
C++ Programming Basics 108
Java Programming Basics 108
IDEs 108
Summary 109

8 BASH Shell Scripting 111

Basics of BASH Scripting 111
Conditional Expressions 113
Integer Comparisons 115
File Test Comparisons 115
Flow Control Statements 115
The while loop 116
The for Loop 116
The case Statement 117
User Interaction 117
Additional Information 118
Summary 118

9 Perl Scripting 119

Basics of Perl Scripting 119
Executing Perl Code 120
Additional Perl Documentation 121
Variables and Values 122
Flow Control 124
Conditions 126
Additional Features 128
Summary 130
x Contents

10 Python Scripting 131

Basics of Python Scripting 131
Executing Python Code 132
Additional Documentation 133
Variables and Values 133
Flow Control 136
Conditions 137
Additional Features 137
Summary 138

11 C, C++, and Java 139

Understanding System Libraries 139
Managing Shared Library Files 140
Viewing Shared Library Files 142
Building Packages 142
Building RPM Packages 142
Building Debian Packages 145
Exploring Java Installation and Basics 145
Summary 146

IV: Using Git 147

12 Git Essentials 149

Version Control Concepts 149
The First Generation 149
The Second Generation 149
The Third Generation 151
Installing Git 154
Git Concepts and Features 155
Git Stages 155
Choosing Your Git Repository Host 156
Configuring Git 157
Summary 160

13 Manage Files with Git 161

Basic Configuration 161
git status 162
Handling a Multiple Location Situation 165
 Contents xi

Telling Git to Ignore a File 166

Removing Files 168
Handling Branches 169
Pushing Branches 171
Summary 171

14 Manage Differences in Files 173

Executing Diffs 173
Dealing with White Space 175
Comparing Branches 176
Merging Files 178
Summary 182

15 Advanced Git Features 183

Managing Repositories 183
Getting Content from the Remote Server 184
Connecting via SSH 186
Patching 187
Summary 188

Index 189
Preface
When I envisioned this book, I thought of it as the beginning of a journey. Your exact starting
point on this journey may differ from that of others, but the purpose of this book is to provide
you with what you need to know to start developing software on a Linux Operating System.

Some readers will already have software developing experience on Windows-based platforms.
For those folks, this book should serve as a guide to how software development differs on Linux
from the platform you are used to developing on.

Perhaps you already work in Linux, but want to start writing code. Again, this book will
provide you with an excellent starting point for that journey.

The book is organized into four parts.

■ Part I, “Open Source Software,” contains a single chapter—Chapter 1, “Introduction to

Open Source Software.” You learn about open source software, including its advantages
over closed source software, as well as some essentials regarding software licenses.
■ In Part II, “Linux Essentials,” you are introduced to the Linux operating system. The goal
of this part is to provide you with the key knowledge that software developers need to
know while working in Linux. This includes both end user and administration topics.
The chapters in this part include the following:
■ Chapter 2, “Introduction to Linux.” In this chapter you learn the basics of Linux,
including how to access a Linux system, how to use a Linux-based GUI, and basic
command-line execution.
■ Chapter 3, “The Filesystem.” This chapter focuses on how the files are organized in
Linux. You are introduced to filesystem concepts, learn how to navigate the filesystem,
and learn how to manage the filesystem.
■ Chapter 4, “Essential Commands.” In this chapter you learn a variety of Linux
commands that are critical for any developer to know.
■ Chapter 5, “Text Editors.” As a developer, you need to know how to edit files. This
chapter focuses on the vi editor, a common text editor in both Linux and Unix. You
are also introduced to additional Linux editors.
■ Chapter 6, “System Administration.” It is helpful to know how to perform system
administration tasks, even as a developer. You learn how to add software and
administer users in this chapter.
■ Part III, “Linux Programming Languages,” provides an overview of different programming
languages available in Linux. You have a lot of choices here! The goal here isn't to teach
you everything about each language but to introduce you to many of them so you can
decide which language will work best for you.

■ Chapter 7, “Overview of Programming Languages.” This chapter provides an overview

of programming languages with the focus on distinguishing between scripting
languages and structured (or compiled) languages.
 Preface xiii

■ Chapter 8, “BASH Shell Scripting.” In this chapter you are introduced to the BASH
shell language. You learn how to create code that interacts with users as well as other
features of the BASH shell programming language.
■ Chapter 9, “Perl Scripting.” The focus of this chapter is how to program in the Perl
scripting language. Topics include flow control and variable usage.
■ Chapter 10, “Python Scripting.” You learn the basics of Python scripting in this
chapter, including the large variety of Python variable types, and how to reuse code
and flow control.
■ Chapter 11, “C, C++, and Java.” In this chapter you learn the essentials to create C,
C++, and Java code on Linux-based systems.
■ Lastly, Part IV, “Using GIT,” covers a very popular software revision control product called
Git. Using a revision control product, especially when working with teams of developers,
can save a lot of time, money, and effort.
■ Chapter 12, “GIT Essentials.” In this chapter you learn the concepts of GIT. Topics
include revision control concepts, GIT installation, and GIT features.
■ Chapter 13, “Manage Files with GIT.” In this chapter you learn how to use GIT features
such as staging, committing, and branches.
■ Chapter 14, “Manage Differences in Files.” The focus of this chapter is on how to deal
with different versions of files. You learn how to execute diffs (differences in files) and
merge files.
■ Chapter 15, “Advanced GIT Features.” You learn how to manage GIT repositories and
perform patching in this chapter.

Good luck in your journey!

—William “Bo” Rothwell

December 22, 2016

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Acknowledgments
Thanks to all who helped me put this book together. As any decent author will tell you, there
are many, many hours put into a publication like this, which were the results of other people’s
efforts and dedication.

Keith Wright and Matthew Helmke, thank your technical reviews. There is no doubt this is a
much better book than my original effort because of your feedback.

Chris Zahn: I couldn't have asked for a better editor. You make me look like I can put together a
coherent sentence—no small feat!

Debra Williams Cauley, thanks for seeing the value and providing a guiding hand throughout
this process.
About the Author
At the impressionable age of 14, William “Bo” Rothwell crossed paths with a TRS-80 Micro
Computer System (affectionately known as a “Trash 80”). Soon after, the adults responsible for
Bo made the mistake of leaving him alone with the TSR-80. He immediately dismantled it and
held his first computer class, showing his friends what made this “computer thing” work.

Since this experience, Bo’s passion for understanding how computers work and sharing this
knowledge with others has resulted in a rewarding career in IT training. His experience includes
Linux, Unix, and programming languages such as Perl, Python, Tcl, and BASH. He is the
founder and lead instructor of One Course Source, an IT training organization.
This page intentionally left blank
 I
Open Source Software

One of the most important questions you need to answer when creating
software is, “Under what type of license will this software be released?”
Arriving at that answer can be a difficult journey.
You must determine what sort of protection you want to place on your
code as well as what you will allow others to do with the software that you
create. This part includes just one chapter, focusing on helping you decide
how to license your software. In this chapter, you learn the following:
■ The difference between closed and open source software
■ Open source protection concepts
■ The difference between primary open source licenses
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Introduction to Open
Source Software

You have created an awesome program, and now you want to make it available to the public.
Now comes an important decision to make: what license to apply to your software.

This decision will have several important impacts, including the following:

■ How users can use your software

■ Whether the code is visible to others or “hidden” from plain sight
■ Whether other developers can use the code to create their own programs
■ Whether others can sell (or resell) the program

Disclaimer
License issues can be complex and have a significant impact on how your software is used.
The discussion in this book is designed to provide you with a basic understanding of different
licenses but is not intended to provide any legal advice. The author of this book does not
intend to provide any legal advice. Always consider consulting proper legal advice before making
a decision regarding software licenses.

Defining Source Code

Most likely the first question you need to answer is, “Will this be closed source software or open
source software?” To answer this question, you first need to understand what source code is.

Software consists of a collection of instructions that are written in a programming language.

Dozens of different languages exist, including C, C++, Java, Perl, Python, and many others.
This collection of instructions is referred to as source code. See Figure 1.1 for a demonstration
of source code written in C.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Source Software

/* Hello World program */

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
printf("Hello World");

Figure 1.1 Source code written in C

Typically, you can’t use this source code directly to run your program. Most languages require
a compile process in which the source code is converted into instructions that the operating
system can understand. The result is data that looks like garbage to a human but makes sense
to the operating system. See Figure 1.2 for a demonstration of source code that is converted
into compiled code.

/* Hello World program */

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
printf("Hello World");

Figure 1.2 Example of source code converted to compiled code

If you choose to license your software as closed source, then you only provide the compiled
code to customers. Software open source licenses include access to the original source code.

Closed Source
Also called proprietary software, the purpose of closed source software is to keep the source
code a closely guarded secret. The idea is that if others can see the source code, then the source
code may be copied and illegally used. As a result, competitors of the organization that created
the software might end up having a negative impact on the financials of the organization that
created the software. As you can imagine, copying someone else’s software is much cheaper
than creating your own software.

Often the term closed source is used in place of the term commercial software, but this isn’t
accurate. Commercial software must be purchased in order to use it. Both closed and open
 Defining Source Code 5

source software can be commercialized; the specific license determines whether the software is
commercial or “free.”1

Examples of closed source software include:

■ Microsoft Windows
■ Adobe Photoshop
■ Apple macOS

Open Source
Software is considered open source when both the compiled and source versions of the code
are made available.2 The software license from the copyright holder grants certain rights to
view, modify, and distribute the software. A variety of open source licenses are available that
enable you to pick which rights are granted.

Although some open source software is free, in the economic sense, that isn’t a requirement
for open source software to be considered open source. Open source refers to the capability to
access the source code, not how the software can be used or any costs associated with
the software.

Common examples of open source software include:

■ Linux3
■ Apache HTTP Server
■ Firefox
■ Git
■ Openoffice.org

“Free” Software
The concept of free in regards to software is not necessarily agreed upon by all. Some people
might consider free software to be software without cost. In other words, it doesn’t cost you
anything to obtain and use the software.

1 There is a reason why I put free in quotes. As you will soon read, the term free must be legally
defined in regards to software use.
2 Actually, some open source projects only provide the source code and leave it to the people who use
the software to compile it. Additionally, some languages don’t have a compile process, so a program
written in such a language would only include the source code.
3 Technically, Linux refers to the Linux kernel, which is the heart of the Linux operating system. Most of
the software found on Linux operating systems is also open source, but this isn’t a requirement for
inclusion in the OS.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Source Software

However, what does it mean to use software? Does this mean that the software can be used
in any way that the user wants, or are there some restrictions? Can this software be used
anywhere in the world, or are there geographic limitations? Are you free to modify the software
and distribute free copies of the modified format, or are these actions prohibited? As you can
see, free in terms of software isn’t so clear cut.

One way of defining the term free is to use the definition created by Richard Stallman and
published by Free Software Foundation (FSF):

“The word ‘free’ in our name does not refer to price; it refers to freedom. First, the freedom to
copy a program and redistribute it to your neighbors, so that they can use it as well as you.
Second, the freedom to change a program, so that you can control it instead of it controlling
you; for this, the source code must be made available to you.”

Note that the preceding definition mandates that free software also be open source software.
Not everyone agrees with this, and you will find some closed source freeware on the market.

Another way to define the term free is by the Four Freedoms, as defined by the Free Software
Foundation:

■ Freedom 0: “The freedom to run the program as you wish, for any purpose.”
■ Freedom 1: “The freedom to study how the program works and change it so it does your
computing as you wish. Access to the source code is a precondition for this.”
■ Freedom 2: “The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor.”
■ Freedom 3: “The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others. By
doing this you can give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes.
Access to the source code is a precondition for this.”

These Four Freedoms are at the heart of what is referred to as FOSS (Free and Open Source
Software).4 FOSS attempts to address the challenge of defining what constitutes “free software.”
Note that the definition highlights the fact that not all free software is open source. Conversely,
not all open source software is licensed with the Four Freedoms.

Understanding the complex world of open source software and what part “freedom” plays
takes some time. See Figure 1.3 for a graphic that includes the various components of open
source software.

4 Often used interchangeably with the term FLOSS (Free/Libre and Open Source Software).
 Choosing Open Source Licensing 7

License Source Code Executable Code

Modify Developers Documentation

Freedom Support

Distribute Utilize

Community Users

Figure 1.3 Visualize the Open Source community

The graphic in Figure 1.3 highlights the complex combination of elements that make up open
source software. You can see that the developers write the source code, create documentation,
and provide support. However, the users of the software are often major components in
this process as well. In fact, some open source software includes little or no support or
documentation from the developer, but rather relies on a strong user base (the community) to
provide these critical elements.

Note that the freedoms to modify, distribute, and utilize are also depicted in the diagram in
Figure 1.3. Additionally, the software license is what provides these freedoms.

Choosing Open Source Licensing

Ultimately you need to decide whether to license your software as closed source or open
source. Part of that decision will be based on specifics regarding licenses, a topic that this
chapter covers further. However, you should consider some general benefits to creating open
source software:
■ Open source tends to invoke trust. The reason is that others can see exactly what the
software does by looking at the source code.
■ Open source can result in better code and less development time. With other
developers reviewing your code and providing feedback, bug fixes, and improvements are
created more rapidly, often at no cost to you.
■ Open source that is “free” can increase the scope of the user base. More users are
willing to try software that is free rather than paying money to test out new software.
■ You can still make money from “free” open source software. Other available sources
of revenue include training, support contracts, and additional services.
8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Source Software

Options
Dozens of standard open source licenses and a large number of custom licenses are available.
Typically, they fall into one of the following four categories:
■ Standard—Regular licenses that are often reused for other software products. Typically,
these are specific to a country and many of them center around United States or
European laws.
■ International—Regular licenses that are often reused for other software products. Unlike
the standard licenses, these licenses are designed to be used throughout the world.
■ Special purpose—Licenses that are written for specific cases.
■ Nonreusable—Licenses that are not permitted to be used for any software product
besides the product the license was written for.

Key Terms
Regarding open source software licenses, you should understand a couple of key terms. One
term is copyleft, which ensures intellectual property (IP) can be copied or distributed as open
source software. The two forms of copyleft are
■ Strong—All derived works must maintain original copyleft.
■ Weak—Derived works don’t need to follow the original restrictions.

Another important open source license term is permissiveness. This term is related to derived
works and whether mixed licenses are allowed. The two forms of permissiveness are
■ Strict—Limited mixed licenses (no closed source or more permissive licenses)
■ Permissive—Allows mixed licenses

Examples
The following list describes some of the more popular open source licenses:

■ Apache License 2.0:

■ Very permissive
■ Non-copyleft
■ Use for any purpose
■ Distribute and modify
■ Allows derived works
■ MIT License:
■ Also known as X11 license
■ Similar to Apache license 2.0
 Choosing Open Source Licensing 9

■ Very permissive
■ Non-copyleft
■ Use for any purpose
■ Must keep copyright message
■ User must agree that no warranty is provided
■ GNU General Public License (GPL):
■ Strong copyleft
■ Strict permissiveness
■ All derived works must be GPL
■ Two versions: v2 and v3
■ BSD License:
■ Very permissive
■ Non-copyleft
■ Three types:
■ Two-clause—Same as MIT
■ Three-clause—Derived work not endorsed by original holder
■ Four-clause—Advertising must acknowledge original holder

Useful Links
Hopefully, you now have a basic understanding of open source software and licenses. Clearly,
the topic is not a simple one, and spending additional time researching which license is the
best for your project and organization is important. In addition to consulting a legal expert,
you should find the following URL resources helpful:
■ http://choosealicense.com—This tool uses a series of questions to help you determine
which license works best for your situation. It provides a good start, but you should also
consult a legal expert before making a final decision.
■ http://fsf.org—The website for the Free Software Foundation offers a great deal of useful
information regarding open source software and licenses.
■ http://opensource.org—This is another great resource to learn more about open source
licenses.

Open Source Humor

Open source: free as in “free speech,” not as in “free beer.” —Anonymous
10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Open Source Software

Summary
In this chapter you learned the differences between closed and open source software.
The concept of free software was also explored. Lastly, you learned about some of the basics of
open source licenses. At this point you should be able to start the process of determining what
type of license under which to release your software. However, remember that you want to put
a lot of time, effort, and thought into this decision before releasing your software because these
licenses can have a powerful effect on how your software will be used by the community.
 II
Linux Essentials

If you are going to develop software on a Linux-based operating system

(OS), then it will be important for you to know how to interact with and
manage the OS. The next five chapters are devoted to providing you with
a solid foundation in the tools and features of Linux.
These chapters focus specifically on what you should know about Linux
as a developer. Linux itself is a huge topic with large volumes devoted to
exploring the OS. The goal here is to provide you with what you need to
know as a developer, not as a regular end user or administrator.1
The next five chapters cover the following:
■ The core concepts of the Linux operating system
■ What Linux distributions are
■ How to manage the Linux filesystem
■ Critical Linux commands that all software developers should know
■ Essential system administration tasks that will be useful for you to
know as a developer

1 Certainly, the topics presented will also be useful to these sets of Linux users.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 “That they are married, sir,” answered the little Duchess—“wooed
and won and wedded, sir! Which is great joy to me, for our Herminia
hath found a man shall rule her rigorously at last; in a word, master
her megrims, control, curb and constrain her contrariness as only a
masterful man might.”
“Wooed and won ... rule rigorously,” murmured Sir Hector, “curb
and constrain——”
“Well, sir, well, why must you mop and mow and mutter like a
mere male? Wouldst not do the same, sir?”
Then, looking down into the little Duchess’s strangely youthful
eyes, Sir Hector emitted that sound to which no one but a true-born
Scot may give utterance, and which, so far as poor words go, may
be roughly translated thus:
“Umph-humph!” quoth Sir Hector Lauchlan MacLean.

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