UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

NEED FOR THE MEASUREMENT

 “The most important thing for a young man to acquire from his first course in physics is an
appreciation for precise details.” – Prof. William S. Franklin

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

 All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of which the laws
of physics can be expressed are called physical quantities. For example, length, mass,
temperature, speed, force, electric current, etc.
 The physical quantities are the building blocks of physics in terms of which the basic laws of
physics can be expressed in mathematical forms.
 Physical quantities are of two types – fundamental and derived.

Fundamental Quantities

 The physical quantities which can be treated as independent of other physical quantities and are
not usually defined in terms of other physical quantities are called fundamental quantities.
 To give a consistent and unambiguous description to all physical quantities, we need a minimum
of seven fundamental or base quantities. These are mass, length, time, electric current,
temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance.

Derived Quantities

 The physical quantities whose defining operations are based on other physical quantities are
called derived quantities.
 All physical quantities other than the seven base quantities are derived quantities. For example,
velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, etc.

THE MEASURING PROCESS

 Measurement : The measurement of a physical quantity is the process of comparing this

quantity with a standard amount of the physical quantity of the same kind, called its unit.
 To express the measurement of a physical quantity, we need to know two things :
1. The unit in which the quantity is measured.
2. The numerical value or the magnitude of the quantity i.e., the number of times that unit
is contained in the given physical quantity.
 Measure of a physical quantity = Numerical value of the physical quantity × size of the unit or Q
= nu
 Let length of a room = 5 m = 500 cm. Clearly, the smaller the size of the unit, the larger is the
numerical value associated with the physical quantity. Thus the numerical value (n) is inversely
proportional to the size (u) of the unit.
 n ∝ 1/u or nu = constant
 If n1 and n2 are numerical values for a physical quantity Q corresponding to the units u1 and u2,
then Q = n1u1 = n2u2

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PHYSICAL UNIT AND ITS DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

 Physical Unit : The standard amount of a physical quantity chosen to measure the physical
quantity of the same kind is called a physical unit.
 Desirable characteristics of a physical unit :
1. It should be well-defined.
2. It should be of convenient size, i.e., neither too small nor too large in
comparison with the measurable physical quantity.
3. It should not change with time.
4. It should be easily reproducible.
5. It should be imperishable or indestructible.
6. It should not be affected by the change in physical conditions such as a pressure,
temperature, etc.
7. It should be internationally acceptable.
8. It should be easily accessible.

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

o Although the number of physical quantities which we measure is very large, yet we do not
need a very large number of units for this measurement. Why?
 This is possible because the various physical quantities are related to each other and so their
units can be expressed in terms of just seven basic or fundamental units.

Fundamental units

 The physical units which can neither be derived from one another, nor they can be further
resolved into more simpler units are called fundamental units.
 The units of fundamental quantities such as mass, length, etc. are fundamental units.

Derived units

 All the other physical units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units are called
derived units.
 Let us consider the unit of speed,
Speed = Distance travelled/Time Taken
∴ Unit of speed = Unit of Distance/Unit of Time
= metre/second = ms-¹
Thus the unit of speed (ms-¹) is a derived unit as it has been expressed in the fundamental units
of length and time.

SYSTEMS OF UNITS

 A complete set of units which is used to measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities
is called a system of units.
 Some of the commonly used systems of units are as follows :

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 1. cgs system : It was set up in France. It is based on centimetre, gram and second as the
fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively.
2. fps system : It is a British system based on foot, pound and second as the fundamental
units of length, mass and time respectively.
3. mks system : It is also a French system based on metre, kilogram and second as the
fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively.
4. SI : The international system of units : SI is the abbreviation for “Systeme Internationale
d’ Unites”, which is French equivalent for international system of units.
This system was adopted by eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures in
1960.

Basic SI quantities and units

Basic physical quantity Basic unit Symbol

1. Length metre m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s
4. Temperature kelvin K
5. Electric current ampere A
6. Luminous intensity candela cd
7. Quantity of matter mole mol

Supplementary SI units

Supplementary quantity Basic unit Symbol

1. Plane angle radian rad
2. Solid angle steradian sr

 The cgs, mks and SI are metric or decimal systems of units. This is because the multiples and
sub-multiples of their basic units are related to the practical units by powers of 10.
 The fps system is not a metric system. This system is not in much use these days.

 θ (in radians) = Arc/Radius = l/r

 Ω (in steradian) = Surface area/Radius²

COHERENT SYSTEM OF UNITS

 It is a system of units based on a certain set of fundamental units from which all derived units
can be obtained by simple multiplication or division without introducing any numerical factor.
 For example, mks system is a coherent system of units in mechanics. All derived units in
mechanics such as those of area, volume, density, acceleration, force, etc. can be obtained by
the multiplication or division of the fundamental units of the fundamental units of mass, length
and time.

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  SI is a coherent system of units for all branches of physics.

ADVANTAGES OF SI

1. SI is a coherent system of units : All derived units can be obtained by simple multiplication or
division of fundamental units without introducing any numerical factor.
2. SI is a rational system of units : It uses only one unit for a given physical quantity. For example,
all forms of energy are measured in joule. On the other hand, in mks system, the mechanical
energy is measured in joule, heat energy in calorie and electrical energy in watt hour.
3. SI is a metric system : The multiples and sub-multiples of SI units can be expressed as powers of
10.
4. SI is an absolute system of units : It does not use gravitational units. The use of ‘g’ is not
required.
5. SI is an internationally accepted system of units.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING SI UNITS IN SYMBOL

1. Small letters are used for symbols of units.

2. Symbols are not followed by a full stop.
3. The initial letter of a symbol is capital only when the unit is named after a scientist.
4. The full name of a unit always begins with a small letter even if it has been named after a
scientist.
5. Symbols do not take plural form.

ABBREVIATION IN POWERS OF TEN

 When the magnitudes of the physical quantities are very large or very small, it is convenient to
express them in the multiples or submultiples of the SI units.

Prefixes for powers of ten

Multiple Prefix Symbol Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol

10¹ deca da 10-¹ deci d
10² hecto h 10-² centi c
10³ kilo k 10-³ milli m
10⁶ mega M 10-⁶ micro μ
10⁹ giga G 10-⁹ nano n
10¹² tera T 10-¹² pico p
10¹⁵ peta P 10-¹⁵ femto f
10¹⁸ exa E 10-¹⁸ atto a

 Examples :
1 megaohm = 1 MΩ = 10⁶ Ω
1 kilometre = 1 km = 10³ m
1 decagram = 1 da g = 10 g
1 centimetre = 1 cm = 10-² m
1 milliampere or 1 mA = 10-³ A
1 microvolt or 1 μV = 10-⁶ V

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 1 nanosecond or 1 ns = 10-⁹ s
1 picofarad or 1 pF = 10-¹² F

SOME COMMON PRACTICAL UNITS

Practical units for measuring small distances

 Fermi : It is the small practical unit of distance used for measuring nuclear sizes. It is also called
femtometre.
1 fermi = 1 fm = 10-¹⁵ m
The radius of a proton is 1.2 fermi.
 Angstrom : It is used to express wavelength of light.
1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-¹⁰ m = 10-⁸ cm
 Nanometre : It is also used for expressing wavelength of light.
1 nanometre = 1 nm = 10-⁹ m
 Micron : It is the unit of distance defined as micrometre.
1 micron = 1 μm = 10-⁶ m

Practical units used for measuring large distances

 Light year : It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.

1 light year = Speed of light in vacuum × 1 year
= 3 × 10⁸ ms-¹ × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
∴ 1 light year = 1 ly = 9.467 × 10¹⁵ m
Light year is used in astronomy to measure distances of nearby stars.
Alpha centauri, the nearest star outside the solar system is 4.3 light years away from the earth.
 Astronomical unit : It is defined as the mean distance of the earth from the sun. It is used in
astronomy to measure distances of planets.
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU = 1.496 × 10¹¹ m
 Parsec (parallactic second) : It is the largest practical unit of distance used in astronomy. It is
defined as the distance at which an arc of length 1 astronomical unit subtends an angle of 1
second of arc.
As θ = l/r ∴ r = l/θ
1 parsec = 1 AU/1” = (1.496 × 10¹¹ m)/(1/3600 × π/180 rad) = 3.08 × 10¹⁶ m
1 parsec = 3.08 × 10¹⁶ m = 3.26 ly

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 Relations between astronomical unit, light year and parsec
1 AU = 1.5 × 10¹¹ m
1 ly = 9.46 × 10¹⁵ m
1 parsec = 3.08 × 10¹⁶ m
1 ly/1 AU = 9.45 × 10¹⁵/1.5 × 10¹¹ = 6.3 × 10⁴
∴ 1 ly = 6.3 × 10⁴ AU
Also 1 parsec/1 ly = 3.08 × 10¹⁶/9.46 × 10¹⁵ = 3.26
∴ 1 parsec = 3.26 ly
Clearly, 1 parsec > 1 ly > 1 AU

Practical units for measuring areas

 Barn : It is used for very small areas, such as nuclear cross-sections.

1 barn = 10-²⁸ m²
 Acre : It is used for measuring large areas.
1 acre = 4047 m²
 Hectare : It is also used for measuring large areas.
1 hectare = 10⁴ m²

Practical units used for measuring large masses

 1 tonne or 1 metric ton = 1000 kg

 1 quintal = 100 kg
 1 slug = 14.57 kg
 1 pound = 1lb = 0.4536 kg
 1 Chandra Shekhar Limit = 1 CSL = 1.4 times the mass of the sun.
CSL is the largest practical unit of mass.

Practical unit used for measuring very small masses

 Atomic mass unit : It is defined as 1/12 th of the mass of one 6C¹² atom.
1 atomic mass unit = 1 amu = 1 u = 1.66 × 10-²⁷ kg
The mass of a proton or a neutron is of the order of one amu.

Practical unit used for measuring time

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  Solar day : It is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation about its own axis w.r.t the
sun.
 Sedrial day : It is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation about its own axis w.r.t a
distant star.
 Solar year : It is the time taken by the earth to complete one revolution around the sun in its
orbit.
1 solar year = 365.25 average solar days
= 365.25 sedrial days.
 Tropical year : The year in which there is total solar eclipse is called tropical year.
 Leap year : The year which is divisible by 4 and in which the month of February has 29 days is
called a leap year.
 Lunar month : It is the time taken by the moon to complete one revolution around the earth in
its orbit.
1 lunar month = 27.3 days
 Shake : It is the smallest practical unit of time.
1 shake = 10-⁸ s

Practical units used for measuring pressure

 1 bar = 1 atmospheric pressure

= 10⁵ Nm-² = 10⁵ pascal (Pa)
 1 millibar = 10² Pa
 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg column
 1 atmospheric pressure = 1 bar = 760 mm of Hg column = 760 torr.

Examples based on Simple Conversion of Units

1 kg m-³ = 10-³ g cm-³
1 g cm-³ = 10³ kg m-³
1 N = 10⁵ dyne
1 amu = 1.66 × 10-²⁷ kg
1 AU = 1.496 × 10¹¹ m
1 ly = 9.46 × 10¹⁵ m
1 parsec = 3.08 × 10¹⁶ m
1 Å = 10-¹⁰ m = 0.1 nm

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE

 The order of magnitude of a physical quantity is that power of 10 which is closest to its
magnitude.
 It gives an idea about how big or how small a given physical quantity is.
 To determine the order of magnitude of a number N, we first express it as
N = n × 10x.
If 0.5 < n ≤ 5, then x will be the order of magnitude of N.

Order of magnitude

Measure number N Expressed in nearest power Order of magnitude

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 of 10
8 0.8 × 10¹ 1
49 4.9 × 10¹ 1
52 0.52 × 10² 2
555 0.555 × 10³ 3
999 0.999 × 10³ 3
1001 1.001 × 10³ 3
753000 0.753 × 10⁶ 6
0.135 1.35 × 10-¹ -1
0.05 5 × 10-² -2
0.99 0.99 × 10⁰ 0

Write the order of magnitude of the following measurements :

(I) 25,710,000 m
(II) 0.00000521 kg
Solution : We first express each number in terms of nearest power of 10.
(I) 25,710,000 m = 2.571 × 10⁷ m
As 0.5 < 2.571 < 5
∴ Order of magnitude = 7.
(II) 0.00000521 kg = 0.521 × 10-⁵ kg
As 0.5 < 0.521 < 5
∴ Order of magnitude = -5.

Express 1 light year in terms of metres. What is its order of magnitude?

Solution : One light year is the distance travelled by light in one year.
Speed of light, c = 3 × 10⁸ ms-¹
t = 1 year = 365.25 days = 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
∴ 1 light year = ct
= 3 × 10⁸ × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 m
= 9.467 × 10¹⁵ m = 0.9467 × 10¹⁶ m.
Order of magnitude of light year = 16.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH BY DIRECT METHODS

 Metre scale.
 Vernier callipers.
 Screw gauge or spherometer.

INDIRECT METHODS FOR MEASURING LARGE DISTANCES

Triangular method for the height of an accessible object

 Let AB = h be the height of the tree or the tower to be measured.

Let C be the point of observation at distance x from B.
Place a sextant at C and measure the angle of
elevation,
∠ACB = θ

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 From right ∆ABC, we have
tan θ = AB/CB = h/x
or height, h = x tan θ
Knowing the distance x, the height h can be determined.

Triangulation method for the height of an inaccessible object

 Let PQ = h be the height of the mountain to be measured.

By using a sextant, we first measure the angle of elevation of its peak from a point A on the
ground. Let it be θ1
Move the sextant to another position B such that AB = d.
Again measure the angle of elevation, ∠PBQ = θ2
In rt. ∆PQA, cot θ1 = AQ/PQ = x/h
In rt. ∆PQB, cot θ2 = BQ/PQ = (d + x)/h
∴ cot θ2 – cot θ1 = (d + x)/h – x/h = d/h
or h = d/(cot θ2 – cot θ1)
Knowing d, the height h can be determined.

Parallax

 Parallax is the apparent shift in the position of an object with respect to another when we shift
our eye sidewise. The closer object always appears to move in the direction opposite to that of
our eye.
 To understand parallax, hold a pen O at distance S from the eyes.
Look at the pen first by the left eye L (closing the left eye). The
position of the pen appears to change with respect to the
background. This is called parallax. The distance between the two
points of observation is called basis. In this case, the distance (LR
= b) between the two eyes is the basis. ∠LQR = θ is called
parallax angle or parallactic angle.

Distance of the moon or any planet

 To measure the distance S of the moon or a far away planet

P, we observe it simultaneously from two different positions
(observatories) A and B on the earth, separated by a large
distance AB = b. We select a distant star S’ whose position
and direction can be taken approximately same from A and B.
Now ∠PAS’ = Φ1 and ∠PBS’ = Φ2 are measured from two
observatories at the same time.
As b << S, so we can take AB as an arc of length b.
Now θ = Arc/Radius = b/S
∴ S = b/θ
where θ = ∠APB = Φ1 + Φ2, is the parallactic angle.

Distance of a nearby star by parallax method

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  As shown in Figure, suppose N is the nearby star whose distance d from the earth is to be found.
F is a far off star whose direction and position is fixed for all positions of the earth in its orbital
motion. When the earth is at position P, the parallax angle between distant star F and nearby
star N is determined. Let it be θ1. After six months, the earth is at diametrically opposite position
Q. The parallax angle, ∠NQF = θ2 is measured.
Total parallax angle subtended by N on the earth’s orbital
diameter PQ is
θ = θ 1 + θ2
As θ = Arc/Radius
∴ θ = PQ/d
or d = PQ/θ
The parallax method is useful for measuring distances of the
stars which are less than 100 light years away from the earth.

Method for the determination of distance of a far away star

Intensity method

 This is a spectroscopic method based on inverse square law of intensity.

 According to this law, the intensity of illumination at a point is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source of light. Here we assume that the intrinsic brightness of
all the stars is same. We compare the intensity I1 of the faint image of a far away star taken on a
photographic plate with the intensity I2 of the bright image of a nearby star. Let r1 and r2 be the
respective distances of these two stars.
From inverse square law of intensity,
I1/I2 = r2²/r1² or r1 = r2[I2/I1]1/2
Knowing the distance r2 of the nearby star, the distance r1 of the far away star can be
determined. This method is useful for measuring distances of stars which are more than 100
light years away from the earth.

Inferior planets
 The planets which are closer to the sun than the earth are called inferior planets.
 Mercury and Venus are the inferior planets.

Superior planets
 The planets which are further from the sun than the earth are called superior planets.
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are the superior planets.

Method for determining the distance of an inferior planet

Copernicus method

 Copernicus assumed circular orbits for the planets. The angle formed at the earth between the
earth-planet direction and earth-sun direction is called the planet’s
elongation.
As shown in figure, let
rPS = distance of the planet from the sun

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 rPE = distance of the planet from the earth
rES = distance of the earth from the sun
ε = planet’s elongation
When the elongation attains its maximum value and the planet appears farthest from the sun,
the angle subtended by the sun and the earth at the planet is 90°.
Then from the right angle triangle shown in the figure, we find that
rPS/rES = sin ε
Hence the distance of the planet from the sun is
rPS = sin ε . rES = sin ε . AU
where rES is the average distance of the earth from the sun and is called astronomical unit (AU).

Method for determining the distance of a superior planet from the earth

Distance of a superior planet

 By knowing the distance of any planet from the sun, we can determine the distance of any
superior planet. For this purpose we use Kepler’s third law of planetary motion. This law states
the square of the period (T) of revolution of a planet round the sun is proportional to cube of the
semi-major axia (a) of the orbit i.e.,
T² ∝ a³
If T1 and T2 are periods of revolution of two planets, and a1 and a2 are their respective semi-
major axes, then
a2³/a1³ = T2²/T1² or a2 = a1(T2/T1)2/3
Knowing the values of a1, T1 and T2, we can find out a2.

Method to measure the diameter of the moon or any planet.

Diameter of the moon

 Let AB = D, be the diameter of the moon (or planet) which is to be measured by an observer O
on the earth. A telescope is focused on the
moon and the angle AOB subtended by it on
the point O of the earth is found.
As θ = Arc/Radius
= AB/OB = D/S
or D = Sθ
Linear diameter = Distance × angular diameter
Knowing S and θ, D can be determined.

Reflection or echo method/Laser method/Radar method/Sonar method

 2S = v × t or S = (v × t)/2

where S is the distance, v is the speed and t is the total time taken.

Calculate the angle of (a) 1° (degree) (b) 1’ (minute of arc or arcmin) and (c) 1” (second of arc or arc
second) in radius.
Solution : (a) As 360° = 2π rad
∴ 1° = 2π/360° rad = 1.745 × 10-² rad.

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 (b) 1° = 60’ = 1.745 × 10-² rad
∴ 1’ = 2.908 × 10-⁴ ≈ 2.91 × 10-⁴ rad.
(c) 1’ = 60” = 2.908 × 10-⁴ rad
∴ 1” = 4.847 × 10-⁶ rad ≈ 4.85 × 10-⁶ rad.

The shadow of a tower standing on a level plane to be 50 m longer when sun’s altitude is 30° than
when it is 60°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution : Here d = 50 m, θ1 = 60°, θ2 = 30°
h = d/(cot θ2 – cot θ1)
= 50/(cot 30° – cot 60°)
or h = 50/(√3 – 1/√3)
= 50√3/(3 – 1)
= 25√3
= 25 × 1.732 = 43.3 m.

A man wishes to estimate the distance of a nearby tower from him. He

stands at a point A in front of the tower C and spots a very distant object O in
line with AC. He then walks perpendicular to AC up to B, a distance of 100 m.
and looks at O and C again. Since O is very distant, the direction BO is
practically the same as AO but he finds the line of sight of C shifted from the
original line of sight by an angle θ = 40° (θ is known as parallax) estimate the
distance of the lower C from his original position A.
Solution : Here parallax angle, θ = 40°
Now tan θ = AB/AC
∴ AC = AB/tan θ
= 100 m/tan 40°
= 100 m/0.8391 = 119 m.

The moon is observed from two diametrically opposite points A and B on Earth. The angle θ
subtended at the moon by the two direction of observation is 1° 54’. Given the diameter of earth to
be about 1.276 × 10⁷ m, compute the distance of the moon from the Earth.
Solution : Here parallactic angle,
θ = 1° 54’ = 114’ = (144 × 60)”
= 114 × 60 × 4.85 × 10-⁶ rad
= 3.32 × 10-² rad
Basis, b = AB = 1.276 × 10⁷ m
The distance of the moon from the earth,
S = b/θ = (1.276 × 10⁷)/(3.32 × 10-²) = 3.84 × 10⁸ m.

The angular diameter of the sun is 1920". If the distance of the sun from the earth is 1.5×10¹¹ m, what
is the linear diameter of the sun?
Solution : Distance of the sun from the earth,
S = 1.5 × 10¹¹ m
Angular diameter of the sun,
θ = 1920” = 1920 × 4.85 × 10-⁶ rad

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 Linear diameter of the sun,
D = S × θ = 1.5 × 10¹¹ × 1920 × 4.85 × 10-⁶
= 1.4 × 10⁹ m.

Assuming that the orbital of the planet Mercury around the Sun to be a circle, Copernicus determined
the orbital radium to be 0.38 AU. Form this, determine the angle of maximum elongation for Mercury
and its distance from the Earth when the elongation is maximum.
Solution : Here rPS = 0.38 AU,
rES = 1 AU [By Definition]
The angle of maximum elongation ε for a planet is given by
sin ε = rPS/rES = 0.38/1 = 0.38
ε = sin-¹ (0.38) = 22.3°
Distance of mercury from the earth is
rPS = cos ε . AU = cos (22.3°) × 1.496 × 10¹¹ m
= 0.9252 × 1.496 × 10¹¹ m
= 1.384 × 10¹¹ m = 1.384 × 10⁸ km.

In the case of Venus the angle of maximum elongation is found to be approximately 47°, Determine
the distance between Venus and the Sun rVS and the distance between Venus and the Earth.
Solution : Here angle of maximum elongation, ε = 47°
Distance between Venus and the Sun is
rVS = sin ε . AU = sin 47° × 1 AU
= 0.73 × 1.496 × 10¹¹ m = 1.09 × 10¹¹ m.
Distance between Venus and the earth is
rVE = cos ε . AU = cos 47° × 1 AU
= 0.68 × 1.496 × 10¹¹ m = 1.02 × 10¹¹ m.

Suppose there existed a planet that went around the sun twice as fast as the earth. What would be its
orbital size as compared to that of the earth?
Solution : Let the period of revolution of the earth = Te
As the planet goes round the sun twice as fast as the earth, so its period of revolution is
Tp = 1Te/2
Orbital size of the earth, ae = 1 AU
Orbital size of the planet, ap = ?
From Kepler’s law of periods,
Tp²/Te² = ap³/ae³
∴ ap = [Tp/Te]²/³ × ae
= [(Te/2)/Te]¹/³ × 1 AU
= (0.5)²/³ AU = 0.63 AU.

INDIRECT METHODS FOR MEASURING SMALL DISTANCES

Atomic radius by Avogadro’s hypothesis
 Atoms are spherical in shape. So, when a large number of atoms are packed together, some
empty spaces are left between them. According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, the actual volume

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 occupied by the atoms in one gram of a substance is two-third of the volume of one gram of the
substance.
 Let M be the molecular mass of a substance. Then M grams of the substance will contain N
(Avogadro number) of atoms.
∴ Number of atoms in 1 gram = N/M
If r be the radius of each atom, then volume of atoms in one gram = N/M . 4π³/3.
Let V be the actual volume occupied by molecules in 1 gram of the substance. Then by
Avogadro’s hypothesis, N/M . 4πr³/3 = 2V/3
If ρ is the density of the substance, then
ρ = Mass/Volume = 1/V or V = 1/ρ
∴ N/M . 4πr³/3 = 2/3 . 1/ρ or r = [M/2πNρ]1/3
Thus, the radius of an atom of the substance can be determined.

Size of molecule of oleic acid

 Oleic acid is a soapy liquid with large molecular size. We dissolve 1 cm³ of oleic acid in 20 cm³ of
alcohol and then redissolve 1 cm³ of this solution in 20 cm³ of alcohol. Then the concentration of
oleic acid is 1/400 cm³ in 1 cm³ of alcohol. We then determine the approximate volume of each
drop (V cm³). Now pour n drops of the solution on the surface of water taken in a broad vessel.
We stretch the film carefully. As the alcohol evaporates, a very thin film of oleic acid is left on
water surface. We measure the area A of the film using a graph paper.
Volume of n drops of the solution = nV cm³
Amount of oleic acid in this solution = nV/400 cm³
Thickness of the oil film,
t = Volume of the film/Area of the film = nV/(400 A) cm
Assuming that the film has one molecular thickness, then t will be approximately the size or
diameter of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of t is found to be of the order of 10-⁹ m.

Molar volume = Volume of 1 mole of a gas at S.T.P. = 22.4 L

Volume of a sphere = 4πr³/3
Avogadro’s Number, N = 6.023 × 10²³
1 L = 10-³ m³

The radius of a muonic hydrogen atom is 2.5 × 10-¹³ m. What is the total atomic volume in m³ of a
mole of such hydrogen atoms?
Solution : Radius, r = 2.5 × 10-¹³ m
Volume of one atom = 4πr³/3
Number of atoms in 1 mole = 6.023 × 10²³
Volume of 1 mole of H-atoms
= N × 4πr³/3
= 6.023 × 10²³ × (4/3) × 3.14 × (2.5 × 10-¹³)³
= 3.94 × 10-¹⁴ m³.

A drop of olive oil of radius 0.25 mm spreads into a circular film of radius 10 cm on the water surface,
Estimate the molecular size of olive oil.

14
 Solution : Thickness of oil film
= Volume of oil drop/Area of the film
= [4π/3 × (0.025)³ cm³]/[π × (10)² cm²] = (4/3) × (25)³ × 10-¹¹ cm
= 2.08 × 10-⁷ cm
Assuming that the film has one molecular thickness, then molecular size of olive oil
= 2.08 × 10-⁷ cm.

 Linear magnification = Final size/Initial size = Size of image/Size of object

 Linear magnification = √Areal magnification
 Magnification has no units.

If the size of a nucleus (≈ 10-¹⁵ m) is scaled up to the tip of a sharp pin (≈ 10-⁵ m), what roughly is the
size of the atom?
Solution : Magnification in size
= Size of the tip of sharp pin/Size of nucleus = 10-⁵/10-¹⁵ = 10¹⁰
Actual size of an atom = 1 Å = 10-¹⁰ m, which is scaled up by a factor 10¹⁰.
∴ Apparent size of atom = 10-¹⁰ × 10¹⁰ = 1 m
Thus a nucleus in an atom is as small in size as the tip of a sharp pin placed at the centre of a sphere
of radius about one metre.

A 35 mm wide slide with a 24 mm × 36 mm picture is projected on a screen placed 12 cm from the

slide. The image of slide picture on the screen measures 1.0 m × 1.5 m. What is the linear
magnification of the projector-screen arrangement?
Solution : Areal magnification
= (1.0 m × 1.5 m)/(24 × 10-³ m × 36 × 10-³ m)
≈ 1736
Linear magnification = √1736 = 41.67.

MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass

 The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.

 The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

Weight

 The weight of a body is the force with which a body is pulled towards the centre of the earth. It
is equal to the product of the mass (m) of the body and the acceleration due to gravity (g) of the
earth on body.
Thus W = mg
 The SI unit of weight is newton (N).

Distinguish between mass and weight

Mass Weight

15
 Mass is the measure of inertia. Weight is the measure of gravity.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
It is a constant quantity. It varies place to place.
It cannot be zero for a body. Weight of a body is zero at the centre of the
earth.
It is an essential property of material bodies. It is not an essential property.
It is not affected by the presence of other bodies. It is affected by the presence of other bodies.
Its unit are gram, kilogram, etc. Its unit are dyne, newton, etc.

Consider a white dwarf and a neutron star each of one solar mass. The radius of the white dwarf is
same as that of the earth (≈ 6400 km) and the radius of the neutron star is 10 km. Determine the
densities of the two types of the stars. Take mass of the sun = 2.0 × 10³⁰ kg.
Solution : For white dwarf : M = 2 × 10³⁰ kg, r = 6400 km = 64 × 10⁵ m.
Density of white dwarf
= M/(4πr³/3) = [2 × 10³⁰]/[4π/3 ×(64 × 10⁵)³] = 1.822 × 10⁹ kg m-³
For neutron star : M = 2 × 10³⁰ kg, r = 10 km = 10⁴ m
Density of neutron star
= [2 × 10³⁰]/[4π/3 ×(10⁴)³] = 4.77 × 10²⁷ kgm-³.

Assume that the mass of a nucleus is given by M = A mp, where A is the mass number and radius of a
nucleus r = r0 A¹/³, where r0 = 1.2 f. Estimate the density of nuclear matter in kg m-³.
Given mp = 1.67 × 10-²⁷ kg.
Solution : Here mp = 1.67 × 10-²⁷ kg,
r0 = 1.2 f = 1.2 × 10-¹⁵ m
Nuclear density = Amp/(4πr³/4) = Amp/[4π/3(r0 A¹/³)³ = 3mp/4πr0³
= (3 × 1.67 × 10-²⁷)/[4 × 3.14 × (1.2 × 10-¹⁵)³ kgm-³
= 2.3 × 10¹⁷ kg m-³.

Fractional error in time = Difference in time/Time interval = ∆t/t

The average life of an Indian is 56 years. Find the number of times the human heart beats in the life of
an Indian, if the heart beats once in 0.8 s.
Solution : Average life of an Indian = 56 years
= 56 × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
Period of heart beat = 0.8 s
Total number of heart beats in 56 years
= (56 × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60)/(0.8) = 2.2 × 10⁹ times.

DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

Seven dimensions of the world

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  All the derived physical quantities can be expressed in terms of some combination of the seven
fundamental or base quantities. We call these fundamental quantities as the seven dimensions
of the world, which are denoted with square brackets [ ].
Dimension of length = [L]
Dimension of mass = [M]
Dimension of time = [T]
Dimension of electric current = [A]
Dimension of thermodynamics temperature = [K]
Dimension of luminous intensity = [cd]
Dimension of amount of substance = [mol]

Dimensions of a physical quantity

 The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the fundamental
quantities must be raised to represent that quantity completely.
For example,
Density = Mass/Volume = (Mass)/(Length × breadth × height)
∴ Dimensions of density
= [M]/[L][L][L] = [ML-³] = [M¹L-³T⁰]
Hence the dimensions of density are '1’ in mass, '-3’ in length and '0’ in time.

DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

Dimensional formula

 The expression which shows how and which of the fundamental quantities represent the
dimensions of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical
quantity.
Examples : The dimensional formula of the volume is [M⁰L³T⁰] and that of momentum is [MLT -¹].

Dimensional equation

 The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the
dimensional equation of the given physical quantity.
Examples : The dimensional equation of force is
[Force] = [MLT-²]
The dimensional equation for pressure is
[Pressure] = [ML-¹T-²]

Name the physical quantities whose dimensional formulae are as follows:

(I) ML²T-² (II) ML²T-³ (III) MT-² (IV) ML-¹T-¹ (V) ML-¹T-²
Solution : (I) ML²T-² = MLT-² . L
= Force × distance = Work.
(II) ML²T-³ = ML²T-²/T = Work/Time = Power.
(III) MT-² = MLT-²/L = Force/Length = Surface tension or force constant.
(IV) ML-¹T-¹ = MLT-²/L²T-¹ = Force/(Area × velocity gradient) = Coefficient viscosity.
(V) ML-¹T-² = MLT-²/L² = Force/Area = Pressure or stress.

17
 Deduce the dimensional formulae for the following physical quantities:
(I) Gravitational constant (II) Power (III) Young’s modulus (IV) Coefficient of viscosity (V) Surface
tension (VI) Plank’s constant
Solution : (I) According to Newton’s law of gravitation,
F = G (m1m2/r²)
∴ [G] = [F][r²]/[m1][m2] = MLT-².L/MM = [M-¹L³T-²].
(II) Power = Work/Time = (Force × Distance)/Time
∴ [Power] = MLT-².L/T = [ML²T-³].
(III) Young’s modulus,
Y = Longitudinal stress/Longitudinal strain = (F/A)/(∆l/l) = (F/A) . l/∆l
∴ [Y] = MLT-².L/L².L = [ML-¹T-²].
(IV) Coefficient of viscosity,
η = Force/(Area × velocity gradient) = (Force/Area) × (Distance/Velocity)
[η] = MLT-².L/L².LT-¹ = [ML-¹T-¹].
(V) Surface tension,
σ = Force/Length
[σ] = MLT-²/L = [MT-²].
(VI) Plank’s constant,
h = Energy/Frequency
[h] = ML²T-²/T-² = [ML²T-¹].

Taking velocity, time and force as the fundamental quantities, find the dimensions of mass.
Solution : Force = Mass × Acceleration
= Mass × (Velocity/Time)
or Mass = (Force × Time)/Velocity
∴ [Mass] = [FTV-¹].

If density ρ, acceleration due to gravity g and frequency v are the basic quantities, find the dimensions
of force.
Solution : We have ρ = ML-³ , g = LT-² , v = T-¹
Solving for M, L and T in terms of ρ, g and v, we get
M = ρg³v-⁶ , L = gv-² , T = v-¹
∴ [Force] = MLT-² = ρg³v-⁶.gv-².v²
= [ρg⁴v-⁶].

If the velocity of light c, acceleration due to gravity g and atmospheric pressure p are the fundamental
quantities. Find the dimensions of length.
Solution : We have,
c = LT-¹ , g = LT-² , p = ML-¹T-²
[Length] = L = L²T-²/LT-² = (LT-¹)²/LT-² = [c²/g].

The number of particles crossing a unit area perpendicular to X-axis in unit time is given by
n = - D[(n2 – n1)/(x2 - x1)]
where n1 and n2 are number of particles per unit volume for the values of x meant to be x1 and x2. Find
the dimensions of the diffusion constant D.

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 Solution : As n = - D[(n2 – n1)/(x2 – x1)]
∴ D = n(x2 – x1)/(n2 – n1) [numerically]
Now n = number of particles per unit area per second,
∴ [n] = L-²T-¹
n2 – n1 = number of particles per unit volume
∴ [n2 – n1] = L-³
x2 – x1 = position
∴ [x2 – x1] = L
Hence [D] = L-²T-¹.L/L-³ = [L²T-¹].

DIFFERENT TYPES OF VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS

 On the basis of dimensions, we can classify quantities into four categories :
1. Dimensional variables : The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have variable
values are called dimensional variables.
Examples : Area, Volume, Velocity, Force, etc.
2. Dimensionless variables : The physical quantities which have no dimensions but have variable
values are called dimensionless variables.
Examples : Angle, Specific gravity, Strain, etc.
3. Dimensional constants : The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have constant
values are called dimensional constants.
Examples : Gravitational constant, Planck’s constant, etc.
4. Dimensionless constants : The constant quantities having no dimensions are called
dimensionless constants.
Example : π, e, etc.

APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

 The method of studying a physical phenomenon on the basis of dimensions is called dimensional
analysis.
 Following are the three main uses of dimensional analysis :
1. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
2. To check the correctness of a given physical relation.
3. To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.

CONVERSION OF ONE SYSTEM OF UNITS TO ANOTHER

 It is based on the fact that the magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same, whatever
may be the system of units.
 If u1 and u2 are the units of measurement of a physical quantity Q and n1 and n2 are the
corresponding numerical values, then Q = n1u1 = n2u2
 Let M1, L1 and T1 be the sizes of fundamental units of mass, length and time in one system; and
M2, L2, T2 be corresponding units in another system. If the dimensional formula of quantity Q be
Ma Lb Tc , then
u1 = M1a L1b T1c
and u2 = M2a L2a T2c
∴ n1 [M1a L1b T1c] = n2 [M2a L2b T2c]
or n2 = n1 [M1/M2]a [L1/L2]b [T1/T2]c

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 This equation can be used to find the numerical value in the second or new system of units.

Let us convert one joule into erg.

Joule is SI unit of energy and erg is the CGS unit of energy. Dimensional formula of energy is ML2T-2.
∴ a = 1, b = 2, c = -2.

n2 = n1 [M1/M2]a [L1/L2]b [T1/T2]c

= 1 [1000/1]¹ [100/1]² [1/1]-²
= 1 × 10³ × 10⁴ = 10⁷
∴ 1 joule = 10⁷ erg.

The above conversion technique is applicable to only absolute systems of units. The gravitational or
other practical units must be first converted into absolute units before using the above technique.

Find the value of 60 j per min on a system that has 100 g, 100 cm and 1 min as the base units.
Solution : P = 60 joule/min = 60 joule/60 s = 1 watt.
which is the SI unit of power.
Now [Power] = ML²T-³
∴ a = 1, b = 2, c = -3

n2 = n1 [M1/M2]a [L1/L2]b [T1/T2]c

= 1 [1000/100]¹ [100/100]² [1/60]-³
= 2.16 × 10⁶
∴ 60 j min-¹ = 2.16 × 10⁶ new units of power.

In CGS system, the value of Stefan’s constant is σ = 5.67 × 10-⁵ erg s-¹ cm-² K-⁴. Find its value in SI
units. Given 1 J = 10⁷ erg.
Solution : In CGS system, σ = 5.67 × 10-⁵ erg s-¹ cm-² K-⁴. The SI unit of work is joule. We have,
1 erg = 10-⁷ J and 1 cm = 10-² m
∴ The value of Stefan’s constant in SI units is
σ = 5.67 × 10-⁵[10-⁷J] s-¹ [10-²m]-²K-⁴
= 5.67 × 10-⁵ × 10-⁷ × 10⁴ Js-¹m-²K-⁴
= 5.67 × 10-⁸ Js-¹m-²K-⁴.

20
 If the unit of force is 1 kN, unit of length 1 km and the unit of time is 100 s, what will be the unit of
mass?
Solution : M = MLT-².T²/L = FT²/L
= 1000 N × 10⁴ s²/1000 m = 10⁴ Ns²/m
= 10⁴ kg m s-².s²/m = 10⁴ kg.

CHECKING THE DIMENSIONAL CONSISTENCY OF EQUATIONS

Principal of homogeneity of dimensions
 According to this principle, a physical equation will be dimensionally correct if the dimensions of
all the terms occurring on both the sides of the equation are the same.
 This principle is based on the fact that only the physical quantities of the same kind can be
added, subtracted or compared. Thus, velocity can be added to velocity but not to force.

To check the dimensional correctness of a physical equation

 If the dimensions of all the terms on the two sides of the equation are same, then the equation
is dimensionally correct.
 Example : Let us check, the dimensional accuracy of the equation of motion,
s = ut + 1at²/2
Dimensions of different terms are
[s] = [L]
[ut] = [LT-¹] [T] = [L]
[1at²/2] = [LT-²] [T²] = [L]
As all the terms on both sides of the equations have the same dimensions, so the given equation
is dimensionally correct.

 A dimensionally correct equation need not be actually a correct equation, but a dimensionally
inconsistent equation must be wrong. The equation of motion : s = ut + at² is dimensionally
correct but numerically it is wrong.

The distance x travelled by a body in time t which starts from the position x0 with initial velocity v0 and
has uniform acceleration a, is given by x = x0 + v0t + 1at²/2
Check the dimensionally consistency of this equation
Solution : The dimensions of the various terms are
[x] = [L]
[x0] = [L]
[v0t] = [LT-¹] [T] = [L]
[1at²/2] = [LT-²] [T²] = [L]
Since the dimensions of all the terms are same, hence, the given equation is dimensionally correct.

Check the dimensional consistency of the following equations :

I) de-Broglie wavelength, λ = h/mv
II) Escape velocity, v = √2GM/R
Solution : I) Given λ = h/mv

21
 As wavelength is a distance,
∴ [λ] = L
Also [h/mv] = Planck’s constant/(Mass × velocity) = ML²T-¹/(M × LT-¹) = L
∵ Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions of RHS
Hence the given equation is dimensionally consistent.
II) Given v = √2GM/R
[v] = LT-¹
[2GM/R]¹/² = [(M-¹L³T².M)/L]¹/² = [L²T-²]¹/² = LT-¹
∵ Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions of RHS
Hence the equation is dimensionally correct.

By the method of dimensions, test the accuracy of the equation :

δ = mgl³/4bd³γ
where δ is the depression produced in the middle of a bar of length l, breadth b and depth d, when it
is loaded in the middle with mass m. γ is the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar.
Solution : [LHS] = [δ] = depression = [L]
[RHS] = [mgl³/4bd³γ]
= (Mass × acceleration × length ³)/(4 × breadth × depth ³ × Young’s modulus)
= (M.LT-².L³)/(L.L³.MLT-¹T-²) = L
∴ [LHS] = [RHS], Hence the relation is correct.

Find the dimensions of a/b in the equation :

F = a√x + bt², where F is force, x is distance and t is time.
Solution : [a√x] = [F]
∴ [a] = [F]/[√x] = MLT-²/L¹/² = ML¹/²T-²
[bt²] = [F]
∴ [b] = [F]/[t²] = MLT-²/T² = MLT-⁴
[a/b] = ML¹/²T-²/MLT-⁴ = L-¹/²T².

When white light travels through glass, the refractive index of glass (µ = velocity of light in air/velocity
of light in glass) is found to vary with wavelength as µ = A + B/λ² . Using the principle of homogeneity
of dimensions, find the SI units in which the constants A and B must be expressed.
Solution : Here µ = (velocity of light in air)/(velocity of light in glass)
= a dimensionless number
∴ [A] = [µ] = a dimensionless number
As [B/λ²] = [µ]
∴ [B] = [µ][λ²] = 1.L² = L²
Hence A, being dimensionless, has no units and SI unit of B is m².

In the equation : y = a sin (ωt – kx), t and x stand for time and distance respectively. Obtain the
dimensional formula for ω and k.
Solution : An angle is a dimensionless quantity,
∴ [ωt] = 1 or [ω] = 1/[t] = 1/T = T-1
[kx] = 1 or [k] = 1/[x] = 1/L = L-¹.

22
DEDUCING RELATION AMONG THE PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
 By making use of the homogeneity of dimensions, we can derive an expression for a physical
quantity if we know the various factors on which it depends.
Example : Let us derive an expression for the centripetal force F acting on a particle of mass m
moving with velocity v in a circle of radius r.
Let F ∝ ma vb rc or F = K ma vb rc …(1)
where K is a dimensionless constant. Writing the dimensions of various quantities in equation
(1), we get
[MLT-²] = 1[M]a [LT-¹]b [L]c
or M¹L¹T-² = MaLb+cT-b
Comparing the dimensions of similar quantities on both sides, we get
a=1
b + c = 1 or c = 1 – b = 1 – 2 = – 1
– 2 = – b or b = 2
From equation (1), we get
F = Kmv²r-¹ = Kmv²/r
This is the required expression for the centripetal force.

LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

 The method does not give any information about the dimensionless constant K.
 It fails when a physical quantity depends on more than three physical quantities.
 It fails when a physical quantity (e.g., s = ut + 1at²/2) is the sum or difference of two or more
quantities.
 It fails to derive relationships which involve trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential functions.
 Sometimes, it is difficult to identify the factors on which the physical quantity depends. The
method becomes more complicated when dimensional constants like G, h, etc. are involved.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

 The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which are known reliably
or about which we have confidence in our measurement plus one additional digit that is
uncertain.
 The larger the number of significant figures in a measurement, the higher is the accuracy of the
measurement.
 Suppose the time period of a simple pendulum is 1.62 s. This digit 1 and 6 are reliable and
certain, while the digit 2 is uncertain. So the time period has three significant figures.
 Again, suppose the length of an object is measured as 273.6 cm. It has four significant figures.
The digits 2, 7 and 3 are reliable while the digit 6 is uncertain.

Rules for determining the number of significant figures :

i) All non-zero digits are significant. So 13.75 has four significant figures.

ii) All zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus 100.05 km has five significant figures.

23
iii) All zeroes to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are not
significant. For example, 86400 has three significant figures. But such zeroes are significant if they come
from a measurement. For example, 86400 s has five significant figures.

iv) All zeroes to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant. For
example, 648700. has six significant figure.

v) All zeroes to the right of a decimal point are significant. So 161 cm, 161.0 cm and 161.00 cm have
three, four and five significant figures respectively.

vi) All zeroes to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant. So 0.161
cm and 0.0161 cm, both have three significant figures. Moreover, zero conventionally placed to the left
of the decimal point is not significant.

vii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units. So 16.4 cm, 0.164 m and
0.000164 km, all have three significant figures.

Rules for rounding off a measurement

i) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.

ii) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1.

iii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by non-zero digits, then the preceding digit is increased by 1.

iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged if it is even.

v) If the digit to be dropped is 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1 if it is odd.

Arithmetic operations with significant figures

 The result of an arithmetic operation involving measured values of quantities cannot be more
accurate than the measured values themselves.

Significant figures in the sum or difference of two numbers

 In addition or subtraction, the final result should be reported to the same number of decimal
places as that of the original number with minimum number of decimal places.

Significant figures in the product or quotient of two numbers

 In multiplication or division, the final result should be reported to the same number of
significant figures as that of the original number with minimum number of significant figures.

Add 7.21, 12.141 and 0.0028, and express the result to an appropriate number of significant figures.
Solution : 7.21 + 12.141 + 0.0028 = 19.3538
Corrected sum = 19.35 [Rounded off upto 2nd decimal place]
Here 7.21 has minimum number of decimal places (two), so result is rounded off upto second place of
decimal point.

The radius of a sphere is 1.41 cm. Express its volume to an appropriate number of significant figures.
Solution : Radius of the sphere, r = 1.41 cm (3 significant figures)

24
 Volume of the sphere = 4πr³/3
= (4/3) × 3.14 × (1.41)³ cm³ = 11.736 cm³
= 11.7 cm³ [Rounded off upto 3 significant figures]

5.74 g of a substance occupies 1.2 cm³. Express its density keeping significant figures in view.
Solution : Density = Mass/Volume = 5.74 g/1.2 cm³ = 4.783 gcm-³
= 4.8 g cm-³ [Rounded off upto 2 significant figures.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy

 It refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the physical quantity.
 It indicates the relative freedom from errors. As we reduce the errors, the measurement
becomes more accurate.

Precision

 It refers to the resolution or the limit to which the quantity is measured.

 Precision is determined by the least count of the measuring instrument. The smaller the least
count, greater is the precision.
 If we repeat a particular measurement of a quantity a number of times, then the precision refers
to the closeness of the set of values so obtained.

We can illustrate the difference between accuracy and precision with the help of an example. Suppose
three students are asked to find the mass of a piece of metal whose mass is known to be 0.520 g. They
obtain the data given below -

Data to illustrate accuracy and precision

Student Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3 Measurement 4

A 0.52 g 0.51 g 0.50 g 0.51 g
B 0.516 g 0.515 g 0.514 g 0.515 g
C 0.521 g 0.520 g 0.520 g 0.520 g

 The data obtained by the student A are neither very precise nor accurate, the individual values
differ widely and also the average value is not accurate.
 The data for student B are more precise, as they vary slightly from one another but the average
mass is not accurate.
 The data for student C are both precise and accurate. The resolution for A is 0.01 g and that for
B or C is 0.001 g.

ERRORS IN A MEASUREMENT

 The error in a measurement is equal to the difference between the true value and the measured
value of the quantity.
 Error = True value – Measured value

25
  An error gives an indication of the limits within which the true value may lie. Every
measurement has an error. Every calculated value which is based on measured values has an
error.

ABSOLUTE ERROR, RELATIVE ERROR AND PERCENTAGE ERROR

Elimination of error

 Normal or Gaussian law of random errors shows that the probability of occurrence of positive
and negative errors is same, so random error can be minimised by repeating measurements a
large number of times.
 Then the arithmetic mean of all measurements can be taken as the true value of the measured
quantity.
 If a1, a2, a3, …an be the n measured values of a physical quantity, then it’s true value, ā is given by
the arithmetic mean,
ā or amean = (a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an)/n = 1/n

Absolute error

 The magnitude of the difference between the true value of the quantity measured and the
individual measured value is called absolute error.
 If we take arithmetic mean ā as the true value, then the absolute errors in the individual
measured values will be
∆a1 = ā – a1
∆a2 = ā – a2
∆a3 = ā – a3
∆an = ā – an

Mean or final absolute error

 The arithmetic mean of the positive magnitudes of all the absolute errors is called mean
absolute error. It is given by –
∆ā = (|∆a1| + |∆a2| + … + |∆an|)/n
Thus the final result of the measure of a physical quantity can be expressed as a = ā ± ∆ā.
Clearly, any measured value of a will be such that
ā - ∆ā ≤ a ≤ ā + ∆ā

Relative error

 The ratio of the mean absolute error to the true value of the measured quantity is called relative
error.
Relative error, δa = ∆ā/ā

Percentage error

 The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.

Percentage error = (∆ā/ā) × 100%

 The unit of absolute error is same as that of the quantity being measured.

26
  It is the relative error or the percentage error and not the absolute error which truly indicates
the accuracy of a measurement.

In successive measurements, the readings of the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum were
found to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71 s and 2.80 s in an experiment.
Calculate — (I) mean value of the period of oscillation (II) absolute error in each measurement (III)
mean absolute error (IV) relative error (V) percentage error and (VI) express the result in proper form.
Solution : (I) Mean period of oscillation,
T = (2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80)/5
= 13.12/5 = 2.624 s
= 2.62 s [Rounded off to 2nd decimal place]
(II) Absolute errors in different measurements are
∆T1 = 2.62 – 2.63 = - 0.01 s
∆T2 = 2.62 – 2.56 = 0.06 s
∆T3 = 2.62 - 2.42 = 0.20 s
∆T4 = 2.62 – 2.71 = - 0.09 s
∆T5 = 2.62 – 2.80 = - 0.18 s
(III) Mean absolute error = Σ |∆Ti|/n
∆T = (0.01 + 0.06 + 0.20 + 0.09 + 0.18)/5
= 0.54/5 = 0.108 s = 0.11 s [Rounded off to 2nd decimal place]
(IV) Relative error,
δT = ∆T/T = 0.11/2.62 = 0.04198 = 0.04
(V) Percentage error in T = 0.04 × 100 = 4%
(VI) In terms of absolute error, T = (2.62 ± 0.11) s.
In terms of percentage error, T = (2.62 ± 4%) s.

COMBINATION OF ERRORS

Error in the sum of two quantities

 Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in the two quantities A and B respectively. Then
Measured value of A = A ± ∆A
Measured value of B = B ± ∆ B
Consider the sum, Z = A + B
The error ∆Z in Z is then given by Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B)
= (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)
= Z ± (∆A + ∆B)
or ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B
 The maximum possible error in the sum of two quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute
errors in the individual quantities.

Error in the difference of two quantities

 Consider the difference,

Z=A–B
The error ∆Z in Z is given by Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) – (B ± ∆B)
= (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)

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 = Z ± (∆A + ∆B)
For error ∆Z to be maximum, ∆A and ∆B must have the same sign, therefore ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B
 The maximum error in the difference of two quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute errors
in the individual quantities.

Error in the product of two quantities

 Consider the product,

Z = AB
The error ∆Z in Z is given by Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B)
= AB ± A∆B ± B∆A ± ∆A.∆B
Dividing L.H.S. by Z and R.H.S. by AB, we get
1 ± ∆Z/Z = 1 ± ∆B/B ± ∆A/A ± ∆A/A · ∆B/B
As ∆A/A and ∆B/B are small quantities, their product term can be neglected. The maximum
fractional error in Z is
∆Z/Z = ∆A/A + ∆B/B
 The maximum fractional error in the product of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional errors in the individual quantities.

Error in the division or quotient

 Consider the quotient,

Z = A/B
The error ∆Z in Z is given by
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A)/(B ± ∆B) = A(1 ± ∆A/A)/B(1 ± ∆B/B)
= A/B(1 ± ∆A/A)(1 ± ∆B/B)-1
or Z ± ∆Z = Z(1 ± ∆A/A)(1 ∓ ∆B/B) [∵ (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx, where x << 1]
Dividing both sides by Z, we get
1 ± ∆Z/Z = (1 ± ∆A/A)(1 ∓ ∆B/B)
= 1 ± ∆A/A ∓ ∆B/B ± ∆A/A · ∆B/B
As the term ∆A/A and ∆B/B are small, their product term can be neglected. The maximum
fractional error in Z is given by
∆Z/Z = ∆A/A + ∆B/B
 The maximum fractional error in the quotient of two quantities is equal to the sum of their
individual fractional errors.

Error in the power of a quantity

 If Z = (Ap Bq)/Cr, then maximum fractional error in Z is given by

∆Z/Z = p∆A/A + q∆B/B + r∆C/C
The percentage error in Z is given by
(∆Z/Z) × 100 = p(∆A/A) × 100 + q(∆B/B) × 100 + r(∆C/C) × 100
 The fractional error in the nth power of a quantity is n times the fractional error in that quantity.

Two resistances R1 = 100 ± 3 Ω and R2 = 200 ± 4 Ω are connected in series. What is their equivalent
resistance?
Solution : Equivalent resistance,
R = R1 + R2 = (100 ± 3) + (200 ± 4)

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 = (100 + 200) ± (3 + 4) = (300 ± 7) Ω

The resistance R = V/I , where V = 100 ± 5 V and I = 10 ± 0.2 A. Find the percentage error in R.
Solution : The percentage error in V is 5% and in I it is 2%.
The total percentage error in R is given by
(∆R/R) × 100 = (∆V/V) × 100 + (∆I/I) × 100
= 5% + 2% = 7%.

Find the relative error in Z, if Z = A⁴B¹/3/CD³/2

Solution : The relative error in Z is
∆Z/Z = 4 × (∆A/A) + 1/3 × (∆B/B) + (∆C/C) + 3/2 × (∆D/D).

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