MEC 60704: Mechanical Vibration

Assessment : Group Assignment 1 Final Awarded Marks

Title : Forced Vibration
Total Marks : 50
Semester : September 2024
Due Date : 21st December 2024
Date submitted : 21st December 2024

NAME ID SIGNATURE

Choo Jun Wyng 0361766 cjw

Felicia Lau Yee Siew 0351148

Joel Han Guang Chou 0351059

Nathaniel Tabora Domingo 0365420

Signature:
Marker : Ir. Ts. Dr. Nagentrau Muniandy
Date:
Team Worksheet

Name ID Task Signature

- Experimental Design cjw

Choo Jun Wyng 0361766 - Procedure
- Conclusion

0351148 - Results
Felicia Lau
- Discussion

0351059 - Discussion
Joel Han
- Error Analysis

Nathaniel - Abstract
0365420
- Introduction
 Table of Contents

Abstract 4
1.0 Introduction 5
2.0 Experimental design 6
2.1 Materials and Apparatus 6
2.2 Variables 6
2.3 Methodology 6
2.4 Procedure 6
3.0 Results And Discussion 7
3.2 Sample Calculation 8
3.3 Discussion 8
4.0 Error Analysis 9
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations 10
Reference 11
Abstract

This experiment aims to explore the relationship between spring stiffness , distance of the load
from the pivot point, presence of damper and the loads mass. This study is divided into four
scenarios where each experiment analyzes a particular aspect of the system’s behavior. The first
experiment tests the different masses on a free vibration system. The weights used are 100g,
150g, 200g, 250g, where the constant values will be distance is at 60cm, spring stiffness is at
medium and the damping is on. The second experiment tests the vibrations depending on the
distance of the load from the pivot point. The distances used are 60cm, 55cm, 50cm, 45cm, where
the constant values will be mass at 200g, spring at medium stiffness and damping is on. On the
third experiment, we look into the effects of the system with no damping, where mass,spring
stiffness and distance is constant. The last experiment, we test the vibrations with changing
stiffness of the spring, where there is soft, medium and hard. Constant values are distance, mass
and damper which is on. The way we compare each experiment is by using a stopwatch and
checking how long each vibration reaches equilibrium.
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background

One of the apparent discomforts while driving is due to vibrations which are generated by
the vehicle. These vibrations have very impactful effects on a human, specifically physical health
which then affects the daily productivity. Research highlights a correlation between continuous
exposure to vibrations and fatigue. No matter how small the vibration is, moderate level of
vibrations can still pose great risks to the human body such as spinal strain, increase heart rate and
muscle tension, it can also affect digestive systems, peripheral veins and the female reproductive
organ. In some circumstances the vibrations can escalate to spinal fractures, which makes the
importance of reducing the vibrations greater.

Vibrations generated by vehicles don’t just produce physical discomfort, these vibrations
are able to do mechanical damage , physiological response and in some cases subjective responses
to humans. Some common causes of this disturbances include uneven roads, misaligned wheels
and the brake forces can be delivered to the wheels unequally. These can cause some parts of the
car to get worn down over a long period of time, which might let the connections loosen and
cause them to detach from the vehicle itself, therefore threatening the durability of the car. Many
solutions have been implemented and thought to counteract these issues, such as balancing the
tyres and alignment of the wheels, advanced suspensions systems which are specifically designed
to reduce vibrations, enhanced handling, all these can be used or applied to ensure a more
enjoyable riding experience.

Suspension systems contribute greatly to reducing vibrations. They help in maximising the
friction between the tires and the road, which as mentioned, increases the steering ability and
provides better handling. Suspension systems consist of various parts including shock absorbers,
tires, air pressure, springs, dampers, coil spring, strut, control arms and ball joints, all these
components play a big part in keeping the contact between the tyres with the road and increasing
passenger comfort. Tires are very important as it is the only form of contact that the vehicle has
with the road. Air pressure must be checked consistently as having a proper air pressure within
the tires is important in providing stability to the car. Dampers which are filled with hydraulic
fluid, are able to absorb the shocks to reduce the bouncing and the excessive and unnecessary
movements. Coil springs act as devices that absorb shocks from uneven terrain and convert that
energy into motion, which allows the vehicle to have a smoother ride. Struts are also critical
components because they support the suspensions and also keep the wheels properly aligned.
 There is another type of vibration which is Forced vibration. This can occur when the
disturbances on the vehicle are persistent , such as when a car repeatedly passes over an obstacle
or rough terrain. In such scenarios, despite having damping mechanisms designed to reduce the
oscillations, the vibrations are still able to continue and persist. Therefore, these vibrations can
accumulate over time, potentially reaching an undesirable and to the point it is harmful. This
continuous vibrations can lead to excessive wear and discomfort, it can even damage the system
and components involved. This makes it harder to dampen as its in a state of oscillation for a long
period of time.

Elastic components such as the springs store and release the mechanical energy received,
it converts the potential energy into kinetic energy as the springs flex. The springs are vital to the
suspension systems design, because their behaviour is governed by Hooke’s Law, this helps find
the force that is being generated. These components form a very complex system that reduces
vibrations and it ensures a safer and more comfortable driving experience, at the same time it still
preserves the integrities vehicle.

Formula for Hooke’s Law is:

𝐹 =− 𝑘𝑥 ……(1)
F= This is the Force applied on the spring and the unit is (N) Newton

𝑁
k= Spring Constant and the unit is ( 𝑚 ) Newton per metre

x= Spring displacement and the unit is in (m) metres

Figure. 1.1.1 2 DOF of an undamped system [6]

Figure 1.1.2 2 DOF of a damped system[7]

1.2 Theory

In automotive engineering, forced vibrations are caused by external forces acting on a

vehicle. Such as irregularities on the road surface, engine vibrations and aerodynamic impacts, all
these can induce oscillations on a vehicle. In luxury vehicles and high performance vehicles like
Formula 1 cars. Minor vibrations can easily influence the comfort and vehicle performance.
Damping mechanisms can reduce the intensity of these vibrations but it will not be able to resist
forced vibrations that are being received over a long period of time. These occurrences are most
common in motorsports and while driving on rough terrain. This can affect both the mechanical
integrity and the driving experience. This report aims to explore how the forced vibrations
impacts vehicle performance, it also looks into the role of the damping and how it controls these
effects and it highlights the importance of vibration management in high performance vehicles
like F1 cars.

Forced vibrations in automotive systems occur when an external force continuously acts
on a vehicle. These forces can come from many different sources such as road bumps,
irregularities in track surfaces and even vibrations that are generated from the engine. The focus
for luxury cars is to minimize the impact of the vibrations that are originating from the road, this
focuses on enhancing the comfort for the passengers. Still, vehicles like F1 cars can be influenced
critically by the forced vibrations, especially in the vehicle's dynamics. This includes handling,
stability and most importantly the safety of the vehicle at high speeds.

Forced vibrations are able to reach resonance in vehicle components, this amplifies the
oscillation and therefore affects the overall stability. Suspension systems are highly insensitive to
forced vibrations, because they are responsible for absorbing energy, their purpose is to also to
dissipate the energy from the road surface. This makes the control of the vibration to be very
essential and important, vibrations must be kept at a specific frequency range to ensure comfort
for the rider and enhance vehicle control.

Damping is an important process used in automotive engineering, it is used to reduce the

amplitude of the vibrations. It’s able to do this by dissipating the energy generated by external
forces. Most vehicles, like high performance vehicles, rely on refined damping systems which are
integrated into the suspension components. These include passive damping such as shock
absorbers and active and semi-active suspension systems that allow adjustments on the level of
damping in real time based on the driving condition.

Luxury cars aim to provide a smooth and increase the comfortable ride, on the other hand
F1 cars require damping systems that can handle extreme dynamic loads which are experienced
during races. These are designed with the intention to maintain ideal contact between the tires and
the track, this ensures the precise handling and stability. Semi- active suspension systems are able
to adjust based on real time data, this helps improve vehicle control by actively altering the
damping characteristics during a high speed performance or even when driving over rough
patches of track.

Advancements in simulation technology have allowed engineers to model and control the
forced vibration in vehicle systems. Tools such as the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and
Multi-Body Dynamics (MBD), these simulations are commonly used to help model the impact of
the external forces on vehicle components. It allows engineers to optimize damping systems and
suspension designs before even producing the physical prototypes.

Figure 1.2.1 Example of a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) [8]

In Formula 1, every millisecond counts. Simulation tools as mentioned before play a big
part in fine tuning the suspension systems. They allow engineers to see how a vehicle will
respond to dynamic forces, this allows them to adjust the parameters based on the valuable
insights, such as suspension stiffness, damping rate and even the tire characteristics, these will
help in minimizing the vibrations. Simulations help F1 cars handle extreme track conditions
without compromising stability or performance.
 Figure 1.2.2 Example of Multi-Body Dynamics (MBD)[9]

One of the fundamental principles in physics is Newton’s second Law of motion. This law
describes the relationship between the motion and the force that is acting on the object . Newton's
second Law of motion states “ the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net
force acting on it and at the same time it’s inversely proportional to its mass”. This law proves
that an object's motion changes in response to outside forces.

Formula for Newton's second Law,

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ……(2)

𝐹 = is the net force which is acting on the object, unit is in Newton (N)

𝑚 = is the mass of the object, unit is in kilograms (Kg)

2
𝑎 = is the acceleration of the object, unit is in meters per second squared (𝑚 )

According to Hooke's Law, the force that is exerted by the spring is directly proportional to the
displacement (𝑥) and it acts in the opposite direction.

Formula for Hooke’s Law is:

𝐹 =− 𝑘𝑥 ……(3)

𝑘 = is the spring constant

− = the negative sign shows that the force is acting on the opposite direction

If we combine Newton's Law of motion and Hooke's Law, the force can be expressed as the
product of mass and acceleration.
 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 ……(4)

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ……(5)

𝑚 = is the mass

𝑥 = is the acceleration

𝑘 = Spring constant

𝑥 = Displacement/ Deformation of the spring

Using this formula we are able to fabricate the Homogeneous Ordinary Differential Equation
(ODE), which is used for a second order undamped system.

2
𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ……(6)
𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑𝑥
In this equation the 2 represents the second derivative of the deformation in terms of time, and
𝑑𝑡

it represents the acceleration of the system.

This equation is set to zero because there is no damping and outside force. By solving this ODE it
provides the general motion for an undamped system. The results will be harmonics or sinusoidal
motion and this shows the system's natural oscillatory behavior.

By using the formula for angular velocity and by rearranging the previous formula,

2 𝑘
𝑤𝑛 = 𝑚
……(7)

By rearranging the previous formula we are able to create an equation that focuses on the angular
frequency which is an important aspect in controlling the systems oscillation.

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
2 + 𝑚
𝑥 = 0 ……(8)
𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑𝑥 2
2 + 𝑤𝑛𝑥 = 0 ……(9)
𝑑𝑡

Now to solve this second order linear homogeneous differential equation, we can use this general
solution, which is commonly used for an undamped harmonic oscillation,
 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑛𝑡) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑛𝑡) ……(10)

A & B = these determine the amplitude and phase of the oscillation

𝑤𝑛 = determines how fast the system oscillates, angular frequency

A = initial displacement

B = initial velocity

This is used for systems without damping as the system oscillates sinusoidally, which is expected
for an undamped system.

On the other hand the equation for a damped system can also be obtained by using Newton's
second Law of motion.

The total forces acting on the system is the combination of the mass, damping and the spring
which are acting on the system.

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑐 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ……(11)
𝑑𝑡

𝑐 =Damping coefficient

2
𝑑𝑥
2 = this represents the systems velocity
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= this represents the acceleration of the system

𝑥 = is the mass displacement

The critical damping in a damped system represents the ideal damping level for a system, which
allows minimization to the time it takes to reach equilibrium and prevents overshooting. Critical
damping is a very important factor, especially for the designs of suspension systems. The main
purpose is to have a good and optimal balance between quick and smooth response to bumps and
even shocks, all this while controlling the vibrations without using too much damping.

A linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients has a standard form
solution. By differentiating this equation

𝑟𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑒 ……(12)
you are able to find the roots, which can then be substituted into the general solution to describe
the motion of the system.

𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ……(13)

2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑟𝑡
2 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 ……(14)
𝑑𝑡

Then substitute in the motion equation,

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑐 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ……(15)
𝑑𝑡

2 𝑟𝑡 𝑟𝑡 𝑟𝑡
𝑚 × 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 + 𝑐 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 𝑘 × 𝑎𝑒 = 0 ……(16)

𝑟𝑡
Next we can factor out the 𝑎𝑒 ,

𝑟𝑡 2
𝑎𝑒 (𝑚𝑟 + 𝑐𝑟 + 𝑘) = 0 ……(17)

2
𝑚𝑟 + 𝑐𝑟 + 𝑘 = 0 ……(18)

Now to find the roots, we can use the quadratic formula to find the roots. The roots will indicate
the characteristics of the oscillation, which could be critical damping or underdamped, that's only
if the roots are distinct and real. But if the roots are complex then the system can not be critical or
underdamped.

2
−𝑐± 𝑐 −4𝑚𝑘
𝑟= 2𝑚
……(19)

𝑐 =Damping coefficient

Next is the damping ratio, it’s a dimensionless parameter which is used to quantify the damping in
a system. It’s defined as the ratio of the system’s actual damping coefficient to the critical
damping coefficient, this represents the value that is required for critical damping.

𝐶
ζ= 𝐶𝑐
……(20)

Critical damping is,

𝐶𝑐 = 2 𝑚𝑘 ……(21)

Next we must combine the damping ratio equation and the motion equation
 2
𝑚𝑟 + 𝑐𝑟 + 𝑘 = 0 ……(22)

Which will give the equation in terms of damping ratio, this is a very common approach which is
used in analyzing second order linear dynamic systems, specifically those that exhibit damping
behavior.

Firstly we must rearrange the equation

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑐 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ……(23)
𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
2 + 𝑚
× 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑚
× 𝑥 = 0 ……(24)
𝑑𝑡

And then we must sub in the critical damping in to damping ratio,

𝐶
ζ= 𝐶𝑐
……(25)

𝐶
ζ= ……(26)
2 𝑚𝑘

𝐶
ζ= 2𝑚𝑤𝑛
……(27)

𝐶 = ζ × 2𝑚𝑤𝑛 ……(28)

Another parameter that is important is the angular frequency, now we must sub in the damping
ratio and the angular frequency,

𝑘
𝑤𝑛 = 𝑚
……(29)

2
𝑑𝑥 ζ×2𝑚𝑤𝑛 𝑑𝑥 2
2 + 𝑚
× 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑤𝑛 × 𝑥 = 0……(30)
𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2 + 2ζ𝑤𝑛 × 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑤𝑛 × 𝑥 = 0……(31)
𝑑𝑡

This version of the equation is commonly utilized for damped harmonic oscillators. By
incorporating the damping ratio and the natural angular frequency it is able to provide a clearer
understanding about the systems behavior. It helps analyze the system's responses to the external
forces and it finds out whether its overdamped , underdamped or critically damped motion.
2.0 Experimental design

This section explains the methods used to execute the experiment in detail. It describes the materials
and apparatus used in the experiment and highlights the factors taken into account before moving on
to the methodology and experimental process. The purpose of this section is to provide the reader
with a clear understanding of the experiment’s methodology as well as the variables that affected the
data collection, analysis, and evaluation.

Figure 2.0.1 Experimental Setup

Figure 2.0.2 Algodoo Simulation Setup

2.1 Materials and Apparatus

This section provides an insight into the material and apparatus that were utilized when the
experiment was conducted

Figure 2.1.1 Setup of TM155 Universal Vibration System

Figure 2.1.2 Calibration Equipment, Masses and Springs

 No. Material/Apparatus

1 Damper

2 Pivot

3 Spring attachment

4 Beam

5 Motorized spool

6 Pen holder

7 Hanger and masses

8 Spirit level

9 Spooled graph paper

10 Stopwatch

11 Pen

12 Springs of varying Young’s modulus

Figure 2.1.3 Generated sinusoidal pattern on graph paper

2.2 Variables

This section shows various types of variables that were collected during the initiation of the
experiment to determine the goal of the overall report.

Experiment 1
Table 2.2.1 Variables of Experiment 1

Types of Variable Variable

Independent Variable - Mass of the hanger

Dependent Variable - Time taken for vibration to stabilize

- Presence of damping
Constant Variable - Stiffness of spring
- Distance of spring from pivot

Experiment 2
Table 2.2.2 Variables of Experiment 2

Types of Variable Variable

Independent Variable - Distance of spring from pivot

Dependent Variable - Time taken for vibration to stabilize

- Presence of damping
Constant Variable - Stiffness of spring
- Mass of the hanger

Experiment 3
Table 2.2.3 Variables of Experiment 3

Types of Variable Variable

Independent Variable - Presence of damping

Dependent Variable - Time taken for vibration to stabilize

Constant Variable - Mass of the hanger

- Stiffness of spring
- Distance of spring from pivot
Experiment 4
Table 2.2.4 Variables of Experiment 4

Types of Variable Variable

Independent Variable - Stiffness of spring

Dependent Variable - Time taken for vibration to stabilize

Constant Variable - Mass of the hanger

- Presence of damping
- Distance of spring from pivot
2.3 Methodology

This section outlines the steps taken to observe the different relationships of variables presented
during the experiment. The methodology follows a standard procedure for analyzing and describing
detailed steps during the experiment.

For all the experiments, various variables are altered to determine its effect on the time taken for the
vibration to stabilize. The setup for all experiments are similar to the experimental setup shown in
Figure 2.0.1. In order to test for all 4 variables that could potentially affect the time of vibration,
each variable has to be changed while the other 4 remain constant as shown in the variables tables.

In experiment 1, the hanger of the mass is changed to attempt to find the relationship between the
mass and the intensity of vibration. The damper was connected to the beam in order to lessen the
time taken for the duration of vibration, which will be constant across all repetitions of the
experiment to maintain consistency. The time taken for the vibration of the pivot arm is measured
using the pen holder and motorized spool that spins the roll of graph paper, generating a sinusoidal
pattern. As the mass of the hanger is increased, the The data is then compiled into a table and the
theoretical and experimental natural frequencies calculated to be analyzed.

In experiment 2, the distance of the hanger mass from the pivot point is changed in order to find the
relationship between the moment arm generated by the hanger with the duration of vibration. The
damper was connected to the beam in order to lessen the time taken for the duration of vibration,
which will be constant across all repetitions of the experiment to maintain consistency. The time
taken for the vibration of the pivot arm is measured using the pen holder and motorized spool that
spins the roll of graph paper, generating a sinusoidal pattern. As the distance of the hanger mass
from the pivot point is decreased, the data is then compiled into a table and the theoretical and
experimental natural frequencies calculated to be analyzed.

In experiment 3, the presence of damping is changed to attempt to find the relationship between the
damping constant and the intensity of vibration. The damper is connected and re-connected with all
other variables like hanger mass, spring stiffness, and distance of hanger from pivot point kept
constant to analyze the independent effect of the damper on the duration of vibration. The time taken
for the vibration of the pivot arm is measured using the pen holder and motorized spool that spins
the roll of graph paper, generating a sinusoidal pattern. When both repetitions of the experiment with
and without the damper connection is performed, the data is then compiled into a table and the
theoretical and experimental natural frequencies calculated to be analyzed.
In experiment 4, the type of spring attached to the beam is changed in order to find the relationship
between the restoring spring force generated by the spring with the duration of vibration. The
damper was connected to the beam in order to lessen the time taken for the duration of vibration,
which will be constant across all repetitions of the experiment to maintain consistency. The time
taken for the vibration of the pivot arm is measured using the pen holder and motorized spool that
spins the roll of graph paper, generating a sinusoidal pattern. As the springs of varying stiffness are
swapped out with each repetition of the experiment, the data is then compiled into a table and the
theoretical and experimental natural frequencies calculated to be analyzed.

2.4 Procedure

Experiment 1 :

1. The medium stiffness spring is installed into the spring holder and attached to the beam.
2. The damper is connected to the beam.
3. The nut above the spring attachment point is adjusted with a spirit level to ensure the
beam is parallel to the workbench.
4. The 100g hanger mass is hung 60cm away from the pivot point.
5. The graph paper is inserted into the motorized spool, and the pen is inserted into the pen
holder.
6. The motorized spool is advanced forward to ensure a clean sinusoidal graph pattern is
produced.
7. The beam is held down where the pen is displaced by 40mm on the graph paper and let go.
8. At the same time, the spool is turned on and the stopwatch is used to time the duration of
vibration.
9. The time taken is recorded after the pattern shown on the moving graph paper is flat.
10. Steps 4 to 9 are repeated for hanger masses of 150g, 200g, and 250g.

Experiment 2 :

1. The medium stiffness spring is installed into the spring holder and attached to the beam.
2. The damper is connected to the beam.
3. The nut above the spring attachment point is adjusted with a spirit level to ensure the
beam is parallel to the workbench.
4. The 200g hanger mass is hung 60cm away from the pivot point.
 5. The graph paper is inserted into the motorized spool, and a pen is inserted into the pen
holder.
6. The motorized spool is advanced forward to ensure a clean sinusoidal graph pattern is
produced.
7. The beam is held down where the pen is displaced by 40mm on the graph paper and let go.
8. At the same time, the spool is turned on and the stopwatch is used to time the duration of
vibration.
9. The time taken is recorded after the pattern shown on the moving graph paper is flat.
10. Steps 4 to 9 are repeated where the distance of the hanger mass from the pivot is changed
to 55cm, 50cm, and 45cm.

Experiment 3 :

1. The medium stiffness spring is installed into the spring holder and attached to the beam.
2. The damper is connected to the beam.
3. The nut above the spring attachment point is adjusted with a spirit level to ensure the
beam is parallel to the workbench.
4. The 200g hanger mass is hung 60cm away from the pivot point.
5. The graph paper is inserted into the motorized spool, and a pen is inserted into the pen
holder.
6. The motorized spool is advanced forward to ensure a clean sinusoidal graph pattern is
produced.
7. The beam is held down where the pen is displaced by 40mm on the graph paper and let go.
8. At the same time, the spool is turned on and the stopwatch is used to time the duration of
vibration.
9. The time taken is recorded after the pattern shown on the moving graph paper is flat.
10. Steps 2 to 9 are repeated where the damper is disconnected from the beam.

Experiment 4 :

1. The medium stiffness spring is installed into the spring holder and attached to the beam.
2. The damper is connected to the beam.
3. The nut above the spring attachment point is adjusted with a spirit level to ensure the
beam is parallel to the workbench.
4. The 200g hanger mass is hung 60cm away from the pivot point.
5. The graph paper is inserted into the motorized spool, and a pen is inserted into the pen
holder.
6. The motorized spool is advanced forward to ensure a clean sinusoidal graph pattern is
produced.
7. The beam is held down where the pen is displaced by 40mm on the graph paper and let go.
8. At the same time, the spool is turned on and the stopwatch is used to time the duration of
vibration.
9. The time taken is recorded after the pattern shown on the moving graph paper is flat.
10. Steps 1 to 9 are repeated where the spring is swapped out for the soft and hard stiffness
springs.
3.0 Results And Discussion
Following section shows the experiment data and simulation data of experiments 1, 2, 3 and 4.

3.1 Results
Experiment 1:
Table 3.1.1 shows the experimental results of different masses being placed on the hanger at a
uniform distance of 0.6 m, with calculated experimental parameters (Period, Frequency, and Natural
Frequency) tabulated in Table 3.1.2. Theoretical data derived from the Algodoo simulations are
tabulated in Table 3.1.3 and the graphical outputs for both experimental and simulations are shown
in Table 3.1.4 below.

Table 3.1.1 Effect of Mass on Vibration (Experiment 1)

Additional Mass, Distance between Stabilization
Spring Stiffness Damping
weight (kg) Pivot Point (m) Time (s)

0.10 3.88

0.15 4.61
Medium 0.60 Yes
0.20 5.12

0.25 5.41

Table 3.1.2 Calculated Experimental Parameters (Experiment 1)

Number of Units Natural
Additional Mass, between 2 Frequenc Frequency,
Period, T (s)
weight (kg) Consecutive y, f (Hz) 𝛚𝑛 (Hz)
Peaks (n)

0.10 4.40 0.22 4.55 28.56

0.15 4.60 0.23 4.35 27.32

0.20 5.60 0.28 3.57 22.44

0.25 5.90 0.30 3.40 21.30

 Table 3.1.3 Calculated Simulation Parameters (Experiment 1)
Natural
Additional Mass, Stabilization Frequency, f Frequency, 𝛚ｎ
Period, T (s)
weight (kg) Time (s) (Hz)
(Hz)

0.10 5.62 0.33 3.03 19.04

0.15 6.38 0.35 2.86 17.95

0.20 6.74 0.38 2.63 16.54

0.25 7.01 0.40 2.50 15.71

Table 3.1.4 Graphical Output of Experimental and Simulation (Experiment 1)

Additional
Mass, Experimental Simulation
weight (kg)

0.10

Figure 3.1.1
Figure 3.1.2

0.15

Figure 3.1.3
Figure 3.1.4
 0.20

’
Figure 3.1.5

Figure 3.1.6

0.25

Figure 3.1.7
Figure 3.1.8

Experiment 2:

Table 3.1.5 shows the result of different distances between the pivot point and the hanger, with
Table 3.1.6 displaying calculated experimental parameters. Table 3.1.7 illustrates theoretical data
from the Algodoo simulation and Table 3.1.8 represents the comparison between experimental and
simulation graphical outputs.

Table 3.1.5 Effect of Distance between Pivot Point on Vibration (Experiment 2)

Distance between Additional Mass, Stabilization

Spring Stiffness Damping
Pivot Point (m) weight (kg) Time (s)

0.60 5.19

0.55 5.10
Medium 0.20 Yes
0.50 4.88

0.45 4.34
 Table 3.1.6 Calculated Experimental Parameters (Experiment 2)

Number of Natural
Distance between Units between 2 Frequency, f Frequency, 𝛚ｎ
Period, T (s)
Pivot Point (m) Consecutive (Hz)
Peaks (n) (Hz)

0.60 5.20 0.26 3.85 24.17

0.55 5.00 0.25 4.00 25.13

0.50 4.70 0.24 4.26 26.74

0.45 5.80 0.29 3.45 21.67

Table 3.1.7 Calculated Theoretical Parameters (Experiment 2)

Distance Natural
Stabilization Frequency, f Frequency, 𝛚ｎ
between Pivot Period, T (s)
Time (s) (Hz)
Point (m) (Hz)

0.60 6.79 0.37 2.70 16.54

0.55 6.70 0.33 3.03 19.04

0.50 6.42 0.28 3.57 22.44

0.45 6.24 0.26 3.85 24.17

Table 3.1.8 Graphical Output of Experimental and Simulation (Experiment 2)

Distance
between
Experimental Simulation
Pivot
Point (m)

0.60

Figure 3.1.9 Figure 3.2.1

0.55

Figure 3.2.2 Figure 3.2.3

0.50

Figure 3.2.4 Figure 3.2.5

0.45

Figure 3.2.6
Figure 3.2.7
Experiment 3:

Table 3.1.9 shows the result of damper/damperless utilization, with Table 3.2.1 displaying
calculated experimental parameters. Table 3.2.2 illustrates theoretical data from the Algodoo
simulation and Table 3.2.3 represents the comparison between experimental and simulation
graphical outputs.

Table 3.1.9 Effect of Damping on Vibration (Experiment 3)

Distance
Additional Mass, between Pivot Stabilization
Damping Spring Stiffness
weight (kg) Point (m) Time (s)

Yes 4.54
Medium 0.20 0.6
No 16.28

Table 3.2.1 Calculated Experimental Parameters (Experiment 3)

Number of Natural
Units between 2 Frequency, f Frequency, 𝛚ｎ
Damping Period, T (s)
Consecutive (Hz)
Peaks (n) (Hz)

Yes 5.65 0.28 3.54 22.24

No 5.90 0.30 3.39 21.30

Table 3.2.2 Calculated Theoretical Parameters (Experiment 3)

Natural
Stabilization Frequency, f Frequency, 𝛚ｎ
Damper Period, T (s)
Time (s) (Hz)
(Hz)

Yes 6.78 0.38 2.63 16.54

No 27.29 0.50 2.00 12.57

 Table 3.2.3 Graphical Output of Experimental and Simulation (Experiment 3)

Damper Experimental Simulation

Yes

Figure 3.2.9
Figure 3.2.8

No

Figure 3.3.1

Figure 3.3.2
Experiment 4:

Table 3.2.4 shows the result of utilizing springs with different spring constants consisting of soft,
medium and hard springs, with Table 3.2.5 displaying calculated experimental parameters. Table
3.2.6 illustrates theoretical data from the Algodoo simulation and Table 3.2.7 represents the
comparison between experimental and simulation graphical outputs.

Table 3.2.4 Effect of Different Stiffness of Spring on Vibration (Experiment 4)

Distance
Spring Stiffness Additional Mass, between Pivot Stabilization
Damping
weight (kg) Point (m) Time (s)

Soft 3.19

Medium Yes 0.20 0.6 3.85

Hard 4.56

Table 3.2.5 Calculated Experimental Parameters (Experiment 4)

Number of
Spring Units Natural
Spring Frequency, Frequency,
Constant between 2 Period, T (s)
Stiffness f (Hz) 𝛚ｎ (Hz)
(N/m) Consecutive
Peaks (n)

Soft 732.62 7.80 0.39 2.56 16.11

Medium 1727.00 5.20 0.26 3.85 24.17

Hard 3091.01 3.90 0.20 5.13 32.22

Table 3.2.6 Calculated Theoretical Parameters (Experiment 4)

Natural
Stabilization Frequency, f Frequency, 𝛚ｎ
Spring Stiffness Period, T (s)
Time (s) (Hz)
(Hz)

Soft 5.28 0.48 2.08 13.09

Medium 5.94 0.38 2.63 16.54

Hard 6.89 0.33 3.03 19.04

 Table 3.2.7 Graphical Output of Experimental and Simulation (Experiment 4)

Spring
Experimental Simulation
Stiffness

Soft

Figure 3.3.4
Figure 3.3.3

Medium

Figure 3.3.6

Figure 3.3.5

Hard

Figure 3.3.7 Figure 3.3.8

3.2 Sample Calculations
Following assumptions were made to do the calculations:

- Mass of beam = 1.68 kg

- Length of beam = 0.70 m
- Distance between pivot and spring = 0.55 m
- Distance between pivot and damper = 0.10 m
- Effects of air resistance and friction are neglected
- 1 units on the graph equivalent to 0.05 seconds

Sample Calculation for Experiment 1 of 0.1kg Additional Mass (Medium Spring Stiffness)

Experimental Calculation

The period was determined by calculating the distance in units between 2 consecutive peaks within
the graph as illustrated in Figure 3.3.9 below.

Figure 3.3.9 Calculation for Experimental Period for Experiment 1

1. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠 × 0. 05
= 4. 40 × 0. 05
= 0. 22 𝑠

1
2. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓𝐸 = 𝑇

1
= 0.22

= 4. 55 𝐻𝑧

3. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝛚𝐸 = 2π𝑓𝐸

= 2π(4. 55)
= 28. 56 𝐻𝑧

4. 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑘

The spring constant for each respective spring used in Experiment 4 is calculated below, utilizing the
period of oscillation for the system under no load conditions.

● Soft Spring

2
𝑚𝐿
𝑇 = 2π 2
3𝑘𝑎

2
(1.68)(0.7 )
0. 304 = 2π 2
3𝑘(0.4 )

𝑘 = 732. 62 𝑁/𝑚

● Medium Spring

2
𝑚𝐿
𝑇 = 2π 2
3𝑘𝑎

2
(1.68)(0.7 )
0. 198 = 2π 2
3𝑘(0.4 )

𝑘 = 1727. 00 𝑁/𝑚
 ● Hard Spring

2
𝑚𝐿
𝑇 = 2π 2
3𝑘𝑎

2
(1.68)(0.7 )
0. 148 = 2π 2
3𝑘(0.4 )

𝑘 = 3091. 01 𝑁/𝑚
Simulation Calculation for Hard spring trial

Period of the simulation can be determined by identifying the distance between 2 consecutive crests.
The data points were obtained from the Algodoo simulation software. The coordinates of two
consecutive crests are shown in Figure 3.4.1.

Figure 3.4.1 Determination of Crest coordinates

1. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑇 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 − 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡

= 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
= 6. 89 − 4. 56
= 0. 33 𝑠

1
2. 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓𝑆 = 𝑇

1
= 0.33

= 3. 03𝐻𝑧

3. 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝛚𝑆 = 2π𝑓𝑆

= 2π(3. 03)
= 19. 04 𝐻𝑧
Experiment 1 Graphical Analysis :

Figure 3.4.2 Graph of Stabilization time against Mass (Experimental vs Theoretical)

Figure 3.4.2 illustrates the relationship between the stabilization time of the system to
reach equilibrium and the added mass to the system. Both experimental and theoretical datasets
exhibit the same trend in which the stabilization time increases as mass increases. For the
experimental dataset, the stabilization time increases a total of 1.53s from an initial value of 3.88s
while the theoretical dataset experiences a smaller total increase in stabilization time of 1.39s
from 5.62s across all mass increments. The stabilization time is directly proportional to the added
mass to the oscillating system.

Figure 3.4.3 Graph of Period against Mass (Experimental vs Theoretical)

From Figure 3.4.3, it is found that the relationship between the period of oscillation of the
system is directly proportional to the added mass in the system. Both experimental and theoretical
data exhibit a consistent trend in which when the mass is increased, the period of oscillation
increases. Specifically, for the experimental trial in which the 150g and 200g masses are used, the
period of oscillation was calculated to be 0.23s and 0.28s respectively. The simulated trial
provided a similar consensus, where the recorded periods were 0.35s and 0.38s respectively for
the same masses.

Figure 3.4.4 Graph of Frequency against Mass (Experimental vs Theoretical)

From Figure 3.4.4, the relationship between the frequency of oscillation and the mass is
inversely proportional. The trend displayed by the experimental and theoretical datasets both
display a mutual agreement whereby an increase in mass leads to a decrease in frequency. For the
experimental trial, a decrease from 4.35Hz to 3.57Hz is documented when the mass is increased
by 0.5kg from 0.15kg. The theoretical dataset presents an identical trend, where the frequency
decreases from 2.86Hz to 2.63Hz for the same mass increments. Frequency decreases when
period increases as a greater period signifies a larger wavelength.

Figure 3.4.5 Graph of Natural Frequency against Mass (Experimental vs Theoretical)

 Figure 3.4.5 displays the relationship between the natural frequency of the system and
mass is similar to that of the frequency, whereby both parameters are inversely correlated. When
mass is increased from 0.15kg to 0.25kg, the experimental system exhibits natural frequency
values of 27.32Hz to 21.30Hz. The theoretical system also experiences the same condition, in
which under identical weight increments, the natural frequency yields values of 17.95Hz to
16.54Hz. It is deduced that when the mass increases, the natural frequency for system oscillation
decreases.

Experiment 2 Graphical Analysis :

Figure 3.4.6 Graph of Stabilization time against Distance of Mass from Pivot Point
(Experimental vs Theoretical)

Figure 3.4.6 illustrates the common trend that is presented between the distance of mass
from the pivot point and stabilization time. For both experimental and theoretical datasets, the
stabilization time increases when the distance of mass from the pivot point is increased. For the
experimental trial, the total increase in stabilization time amounts to 0.85s from an initial value of
4.34s across all distance increments, with the theoretical trial experiencing a total increase of 0.55s
from an initial value of 6.24s. Similar to that of mass, the distance of the mass from the pivot point is
directly correlated with the stabilization time.
 Figure 3.4.7 Graph of Period against Distance of Mass from Pivot Point (Experimental vs
Theoretical)

According to Figure 3.4.7, a direct correlation between the distance of mass from the
pivot point and period of oscillation is deduced from the theoretical trial. However, the dataset
from the experimental trial encounters a decrease for when the distance of mass from the pivot
point increases from 0.45m to 0.50m. The initial period value is inconsistent with the latter period
values that follow the deduced trend. Specifically, for each 0.05m increment in distance from
0.45m to 0.60m, the period values are 0.29s, 0.24s, 0.25s and 0.26s respectively. The theoretical
dataset displays a more consistent trend in which the period increases when the distance is
increased, displaying period values of 0.38s, 0.33s, 0.28s and 0.26s under the same distance
increments. Therefore, when the distance of mass from the pivot point increases, the period
increases as a result.
 Figure 3.4.8 Graph of Frequency against Distance of Mass from Pivot Point (Experimental
vs Theoretical)

Similar to that of the relationship between the period and the distance of mass from the
pivot point, the experimental dataset has an initial value that deviates from the observed common
trend between both experimental and theoretical trials, in which for the increment of 0.45m to
0.50m mass distance, the frequency increases from 3.45Hz to 4.26Hz, with the latter increments
experiencing a decrease, formally with values of 4.00 Hz to 3.85Hz. The theoretical trial provides
a more consistent trend line, where the frequency consistently decreases from 24.16Hz to
16.54Hz for distance of mass from pivot point of 0.45m and 0.60m respectively.

Figure 3.4.9 Graph of Natural Frequency against Distance of Mass from Pivot Point
(Experimental vs Theoretical)

For the experimental dataset, an identical trend is observed to that of frequency in which
the natural frequency values deviate from the common trend. Natural frequency increases from
21.67Hz to 26.74Hz for increments of distance of mass from pivot point from 0.45m to 0.50m. In
the latter increments, the natural frequency experiences a decrease from 26.74Hz to the minimum
value of 24.12Hz for the final distance increment of 0.60m. The theoretical dataset illustrates a
consistent decrease across all distance increments with natural frequency values of 24.17Hz,
22.44Hz, 19.04Hz and 16.54Hz for each respective distance increment. Therefore the deduced
relationship between natural frequency and distance of mass from pivot point is inversely
proportional.
Experiment 3 Graphical Analysis :

Figure 3.5.1 Graph of Stabilization against Presence of Damper (Experimental vs

Theoretical)
Figure 3.5.1 illustrates the trend between the stabilization time and presence of damper in
which the stabilization time increases significantly when the damper is switched off. Both
experimental and theoretical trials yield a consensus where the damper greatly reduces the
stabilization time. Specifically, in the experimental dataset, the stabilization time decreases from
16.28s to 4.54s when the damper is switched on while the theoretical dataset documents a
decrease of greater magnitude from 27.29s to 6.78s.

Figure 3.5.2 Graph of Period against Presence of Damper (Experimental vs Theoretical)

From Figure 3.5.2, the presence of the damper is inversely correlated with the period.
Both experimental and theoretical datasets experience an increase in period when the damper is
switched off. The theoretical dataset experiences an increase of greater magnitude, from 0.38s to
0.50s when the damper is switched off. The experimental dataset also follows the same trend
nominally, with an increase in period from 0.28s to 0.30s.

Figure 3.5.3 Graph of Frequency against Presence of Damper (Experimental vs Theoretical)

The presence of a damper causes an inherent increase in frequency for the experimental
trial. The experimental dataset displays a decrease when the damper is switched off, with
frequency values of 3.54Hz to 3.40Hz. The theoretical dataset displays an inverse trend with
frequency decreasing from 2.63Hz to 2.00Hz when the damper is switched on. The presence of
damping ideally should reduce the frequency of the oscillating system as illustrated in the
theoretical dataset. The experimental dataset yields a directly proportional relationship between
the presence of the damper and the frequency of oscillation while the theoretical dataset yields an
inversely proportional relationship between damping presence and frequency.
 Figure 3.5.4 Graph of Natural Frequency against Presence of Damper (Experimental vs
Theoretical)
The natural frequency displays similar characteristics to that of frequency, in which the
experimental trial encounters a nominal increase in natural frequency from 21.30Hz to 22.24Hz
when the damper is switched on which does not follow the ideal trend displayed by the theoretical
dataset. Ideally, the natural frequency decreases from 16.54Hz to 12.57Hz when the damper is
switched on as displayed by the theoretical trial.

Experiment 4 Graphical Analysis :

Figure 3.5.5 Graph of Stabilization time against Spring Stiffness (Experimental vs

Theoretical)

Based on Figure 3.5.5, the stabilization time increases as the spring stiffness increases for
both experimental and theoretical trials. The theoretical dataset is of greater magnitude than the
experimental, with the stabilization time increasing from 5.28s to 5.94s for the soft and medium
springs respectively. The hard spring has the greatest stabilization time of 6.89s. The experimental
dataset records stabilization time values of 3.19s, 3.85s and 4.56s for the soft, medium and hard
springs respectively.
 Figure 3.5.6 Graph of Period against Spring Stiffness (Experimental vs Theoretical)
Figure 3.5.6 illustrates the correlation between the period of oscillation and spring
stiffness, whereby increasing the stiffness leads to a decrease in period. Both experimental and
theoretical datasets adopt the aforementioned trend, with the experimental trial encountering a
decrease in period from 0.39s to 0.26s to 0.20s when the spring constant is increased from soft to
medium and to hard. Theoretical trial yields a decrease in period from 0.48s to 0.33s for the soft
and hard springs respectively. Therefore the relationship between period of oscillation and spring
stiffness is inversely proportional.

Figure 3.5.7 Graph of Frequency against Spring Stiffness (Experimental vs Theoretical)

For the aspect of frequency, both experimental and theoretical datasets display identical
characteristics to which frequency is increased when stiffness of spring is increased. Frequency
values increase from 2.56Hz to 5.13Hz for both soft and hard springs respectively in the
experimental trial. The theoretical dataset experiences an increase of lesser magnitude, with
frequency increasing from 13.10Hz to 19.04Hz for the same set of springs. The deduced
relationship between spring stiffness and frequency of oscillation is directly proportional.

Figure 3.5.8 Graph of Natural Frequency against Spring Stiffness (Experimental vs

Theoretical)
The natural frequency is similarly affected, with the natural frequency increasing when the
stiffness of spring increases. Both experimental and theoretical datasets adopt the same trend,
with the experimental trial encountering a total increase of 16.11Hz in natural frequency for the
soft and hard springs respectively. The theoretical trial experiences an increase in 5.94Hz in
natural frequency for the respective springs used. The same directly proportional relationship is
justified for natural frequency and spring stiffness.
3.3 Discussion

With regards to Experiment 1, the experimental and theoretical findings point to a directly
proportional relationship of the mass with several parameters, primarily the stabilization time and
period while an inversely proportional relationship is associated with the frequency and natural
frequency. Increasing the applied mass on the system increases the total momentum of the system,
leading to oscillations of greater wavelengths which signify greater periods as larger wavelengths
require greater durations of time to complete 1 cycle. The increase in both wavelength and period
signifies a reduction in the total amount of completed cycles, in turn reducing the oscillation
frequency. The natural frequency displays similar characteristics as the frequency in this case but
possesses significantly greater magnitudes as damping or other external forces are not considered.

In the context of Experiment 2, a directly proportional relationship is true for both

stabilization time and period while an inverse relationship is associated with frequency and
natural frequency. Increasing the distance of the mass from the pivot point effectively increases
the magnitude of the system’s moment arm, directly increasing the moment of inertia of the
system. Due to this, the oscillation wavelengths are considerably larger, leading to increased
stabilization time and period as the tendency for the oscillatory system to reject changes towards
its original trajectory of motion is greater. The subsequent oscillations occur at a slower rate,
reducing overall frequency and natural frequency. For the experimental trial illustrated in Figure
3.4.7, a deviation is discovered whereby the initial value disagrees with the common trend. A
slight decrease from 5.2s to 5.0s is detected in the first 2 period values before the latter values
experience a consistent increase. The same deviation is also present for both frequency and
natural frequency as shown in Figure 3.4.8 and Figure 3.4.9, whereby the initial value is
significantly lower than the latter values, resulting in an inverse relationship where the initial
value increases before all latter values experience a consistent decrease. Said deviations of the
experimental dataset to the theoretical dataset may have stemmed from systematic and random
errors when carrying out the experiment that are elaborated upon further in the error analysis.

For Experiment 3, the presence of damping invokes an inversely proportional relationship

for stabilization time, with the stabilization time reducing by a total of 11.74s and 20.51s for the
experimental and theoretical trials respectively. For the aspect of period, both experimental and
theoretical trials experience a decrease when the damper is switched on. However, the
experimental dataset displayed in Figure 3.5.3 and Figure 3.5.4 disagrees with the trend
displayed by the theoretical dataset in terms of frequency and natural frequency. The experimental
dataset suggests that the frequency and natural frequency increases after switching on the damper
while the theoretical dataset suggests the inverse. Ideally, the presence of a damper should reduce
 the period, frequency and natural frequency of an oscillating system as it absorbs/dissipates the
energy of the oscillating system through viscous damping. The wavelength and number of
oscillations is reduced by the damper system, leading to reductions to all mentioned parameters.
The deviation of the experimental and theoretical data in terms of frequency and natural
frequency may indicate an equipment fault rather than systematic errors conducted during the
experiment, as the experimental damper system may not be functioning effectively.

In Experiment 4, the experimental and theoretical findings are consistent in all aspects.
Increasing the spring stiffness leads to an increase in stabilization time, frequency and natural
frequency. The period of oscillation is decreased across both experimental and theoretical trials. A
stiffer spring greatly reduces the size of the oscillation wavelengths, leading to a decrease in
period. The greater restoring force of the spring leads to the oscillations occurring at a higher rate,
which results in increased frequency and natural frequency of the system. The increase in
stabilization time is attributed with underdamping, where the damping force is unable to
overcome the increased natural frequency of the system.

Case Study 1 :

Luxury car suspension systems are engineered and tuned with main emphasis being placed
on passenger comfort rather than performance [10]. From Experiment 4, it is evident that stiffer
springs result in greater rates of natural frequency, and frequency. A luxury car suspension system
uses larger and softer springs with significantly lower oscillation frequency and natural frequency
for a smoother ride profile [11]. The amplitude of oscillation is also greater, with the damping
profile of the shock absorbers assuming gentler damping forces and rebound rates, requiring a
greater time to settle upon reacting to bumps. The added mass of the system has a negative impact
on overall performance as evident in Experiment 1, increasing the mass further increases the
period while decreasing the frequency and natural frequency. This setup causes the vehicle to
experience larger magnitudes of body roll, reducing the car’s cornering ability. Modifying the
pre-existing system by using stiffer springs and or shock absorbers provides a noticeable
improvement towards handling, but the heavy weight of the system compared to a proprietary
lightweight race car setup diminishes the performance by a considerable margin.
Case Study 2 :

The shock absorbers implemented must have damping capabilities to greatly reduce the
stabilization time required for the system. As proven in Experiment 3, the presence of a damper
greatly reduces stabilization time and oscillation period while increasing natural frequency. If
damping is not implemented within the race car, the accrued bumps would oscillate the body of
the car for extended periods of time, reducing controllability, safety and speed. Undamped
oscillation of the body also wears down the chassis and other components of the vehicle such as
tie rods, sway bars and suspension linkage. Implementing a damped system is more sustainable,
economically and environmentally viable in this regard.
4.0 Error Analysis

There are significant differences between experimental value and theoretical data from section 3.1.
The percentage errors are tabulated below for the difference in respective experiments. It can be
determined by using the formula below.

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (%) = || 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
× 100%|| ……()

Table 4.1 Percentage Error of Experiment 1

Natural Frequency, 𝛚𝑛 (Hz)

Additional Mass, Percentage Error
weight (kg) (%)
Experimental Theoretical

0.10 28.56 19.04 50.00

0.15 27.32 17.95 52.20

0.20 22.44 16.54 35.67

0.25 21.30 15.71 35.58

Table 4.1 shows the percentage error ranging from 35.58 % to 52.2 % when dealing with four
different mass conditions. This error occurred because upon releasing the bar, the mass hanger hit
the side of the machine causing the oscillation to be inconsistent. This unwanted contact disrupted
the natural vibration, causing irregularities in the data. To prevent this, the position of the hanger
should be shifted to avoid any obstacles blocking it, allowing it to oscillate freely without any
interference. Other than that, Algodoo simulation conducts the experiment under ideal conditions
such as material fatigue and external vibration are not considered. The material fatigue of spring is
affected due to the frequent usage, which will gradually weaken the spring’s elasticity and affect its
performance. To prevent this from happening, ensure that the spring is replaced from time to time
and remove it when not in use to minimize stress. On the other hand, external vibrations such as
touching the work bench and air conditioner might cause unexpected spikes to occur when data is
collected. To reduce these disturbances, the air conditioner should be turned off and no one should
lean or touch the workbench once the marker is released. These precautions help to ensure that the
recorded data reflects only the intended vibrations.
 Table 4.2 Percentage Error of Experiment 2

Natural Frequency, 𝛚𝑛 (Hz)

Distance between Percentage Error
Pivot Point (m) (%)
Experimental Theoretical

0.60 24.17 16.54 46.13

0.55 25.13 19.04 31.99

0.50 26.74 22.44 19.16

0.45 21.67 24.17 10.34

Table 4.2 shows the percentage error ranging from 10.34 % to 46.13 % when dealing with four
different distances between pivot points for the hanger placement. One reason for these
discrepancies was because the beam materials in experimental and Algodoo simulation are different,
with each material exhibiting its own natural frequency and resonance characteristics. Other than
that, the simulation assumes ideal conditions where no vibrations were absorbed by the beam
whereas, in real life experiment, some vibrations were naturally absorbed. These differences
contribute to the results obtained.
Table 4.3 Percentage Error of Experiment 3

Natural Frequency, 𝛚𝑛 (Hz)

Percentage Error
Damping
(%)
Experimental Theoretical

Yes 22.24 12.57 76.93

No 21.30 16.54 28.78

Based on Table 4.3 with damping shows the highest percentage error of 76.93 %. The theoretical
damping ratio is assumed to be 0.1. This significant error has proven that it is not possible to remove
all damping effects from the theoretical model as the machine would continue to oscillate
indefinitely if no damping force is present. Consequently, a direct comparison between conditions
with or without damping is not able to be conducted. Other than that, regardless of the presence of a
specified damping constant, the oscillation in the experimental setup would stop by itself due to the
frictional force produced by the machine’s frame and the beam which will naturally dissipate energy
and bring the system to stop.
 Table 4.4 Percentage Error of Experiment 4

Natural Frequency, 𝛚𝑛 (Hz)

Percentage Error
Spring Stiffness
(%)
Experimental Theoretical

Soft 16.11 13.09 23.07

Medium 24.17 16.54 46.13

Hard 32.22 19.04 69.22

Lastly, Table 4.4 shows the percentage error ranging from 23.07 % to 69.22 % when different
types of spring were used. This happens because the experimental spring constant is only labelled as
soft, medium and hard where the exact value is not given. Although the spring constant values for
each respective spring were calculated according to an external experimental trial conducted to
determine the oscillation period of the system under no loading, this representation differed from the
Algodoo simulation trial primarily due to material fatigue of the springs due to repeated use as
mentioned previously. Oxidation or rust was also present in the oscillating section of the system,
which may have interfered with the experimental values obtained. The damping aspect should also
be investigated, in Algodoo, it is not possible to situate a damper at the exact location as the
experimental setup, instead being located in the spring component itself. The applied force in the
experimental trial relied on using markers from the units on the graph paper while it was set to 100N
in the Algodoo simulation. For a more accurate representation of the applied force in both setups, the
stabilization time should be compared while adjusting the applied force in the experimental setup
according to the amount of units on the graph paper the beam is pushed below, fine tuning an
approximate force equal to that of 100N in the Algodoo simulation.
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

In conclusion, the report has investigated the effects of free vibration in mass-spring-damper
systems as well as the moment of lever arm. The results indicate that an increase in stabilization time
and period of oscillation generally results in a decrease in the frequency and natural frequencies of
the suspension system. This can be seen by the figures for varying mass, lever arm location, and the
presence of damping.

From this, it can be concluded that modifying these parameters can soften the ride intensity as
well as prolong the duration of vibration. However, increasing the spring stiffness results in an
inversely proportional relationship with stabilization time and period of oscillation. Therefore,
increasing the spring stiffness can increase ride intensity as well as decreasing the duration of
vibration. The ride quality has been assessed to find that the current F1 performance car can indeed
be modified to be used in the luxury car, by reducing spring stiffness and increasing shock absorber
damping coefficients. Since the increased weight of the luxury car increases vibration intensity, the
distance of the suspension components from the center pivot of the car can be increased to reduce
the vibration frequency, while not resulting in a significant increase in stabilization time.

The vibration reducing effect of the shock absorbers has been analyzed to be mandatory in the
suspension system of the luxury car. With a stabilization time reduction of over 300%, it will make
the ride comfort of the luxury cars much more comfortable. Therefore, the engineering director can
ultimately save costs in the design suspension system by modifying the spring, damper, and lever
arm characteristics of the racecar suspension system to suit the luxury car needs. This decision
upholds the 3 pillars of sustainability by saving costs on research and development and
manufacturing of new suspension parts, making economic sense. This also prolongs the lifespan of
the usage of the suspension components, creating a more environmentally friendly component.
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