Department of Chemistry Sambhram IT, Bengaluru-5600 97

D
e ENERGY SYSTEM
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Batteries:
a “A battery is device that consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel or both”. which
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converts chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions.
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Example:
m Lead-acid battery Ni-MH2 battery Zn-Air battery, Li-ion battery, Na-ion battery etc…
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Principle
n components of a battery:
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A battery consists of four major components.
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1. Anode
f or Negative electrode: At anode oxidation will be take place and it releases electrons in to the external
circuit.
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h M Mn+ + ne-
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2. Cathode or Positive electrode: At the cathode reduction of active species take place thereby accepts electrons
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from the external circuit.
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Mn+ + ne- M
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3. Electrolyte: It provides the medium for transfer of ions inside the cell between the anode and cathode. A
electrolyte
S is solution of an acid, alkali or salt having high ionic conductivity.
a
4. mSeparator: It is used to separate anode and cathode compartments in a battery to prevent internal short
circuiting.
b The main function of the separator is to transport ions from anode to cathode and vice versa to maintain
h
the electrical neutrality.
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a
Example: Cellulose, cellophane, Nafion membranes, polyolefin etc…
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In addition, cathode current collector, anode current collector, terminals, seal and container make a battery
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complete.
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CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES WITH EXAMPLES
Batteries
S are classified into three types.
(1) aPrimary [Irreversible] batteries
(2) mSecondary [Reversible] batteries
b
(3) hReserve batteries
(1)rPrimary [Irreversible] batteries: “Primary batteries are not rechargeable batteries the electrode reactions are
notareversible and once it can be discharge have no further electrical use”.
Eg:-mZn-MnO2 battery, Zn-Air battery and Li-MnO2 battery

(2)ISecondary [Reversible] batteries: : “Secondary batteries are rechargeable batteries the electrode reactions are
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reversible
, on passing electric current or by addition of electrolyte”.
Eg:- Lead-Acid battery, Ni-Cd battery, Ni-MH2 battery and Li-ion battery , Na-ion battery, Vanadium redox flow
B
battery etc.
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(3) Reserve batteries: “The batteries which may be stored in an inactive state and ready for use by activating them
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prior
g to the application are referred to as reserve batteries”. The activation involves by adding electrolyte or
connects
a another cell component.
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Eg: Mg- H2O activated battery, and Zn-Ag2O battery.
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Department of Chemistry Sambhram IT, Bengaluru-5600 97

D
Advantages of Lithium Batteries
e They are less weight (Light weight)
p Low cost
a
 They have high energy density than other rechargeable batteries
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t  They have High power density
m They produce high voltage out about 4 V as compared with other batteries.
e It is operated in wide range of temperature (- 50 C to 500 C)
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n They have improved safety, i.e. more resistance to overcharge.

t  No liquid electrolyte means they are immune from leaking.
 The rate charging and discharging is very high
o Long cycle life
f  Low self discharge
Lithium-Polymer
C
battery:
h Lithium polymer batteries work on the principle of intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium ions
between
e positive and negative electrode materials with polymer electrolyte instead of a liquid electrolyte.
m
Lithium polymer batteries is a type of rechargeable battery. It employs Lithium ions as charge carriers.
Construction:
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 Department of Chemistry Sambhram IT, Bengaluru-5600 97

DDuring charging processes the electrons and Li-ion flows reversibly. Li-ion battery has a four-layer structure
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Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite/carbon, metal matrix, or polymer. A negative electrode made with specialty carbon.
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aAnode current collector: Copper foil
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Cathode: partially lithiated oxides like Ni or Co or Mn such as LiyNiO2 or LiyCoO2 or LiyMn2O4
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mCathode current collector: Aluminum foil
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An electrolyte: Solid polymer electrolyte like Polyacrylonitrile(PAN) or PMMA or propylene carbonate or dimethyl CO3 or
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t 1,2 –dimethoxymethane gelled with lithium salt such as LiPF6 or LiAsF6 or LiClO4 or LiBF4.
A separator: Fine porous polymer film like Polyethylene or polypropylene.
o
f Binder: poly vinylidene fluoride

C Battery Representation: LixC6 / Li+. C / LiPF6 in PAN / LiCoO2

h
e
mThe chemical reaction that takes place inside the battery is as follows, during charge and discharge operations are;
i Reactions
s
t Discharging
rAt Anode: LiXC6 xLi+ + 6C + Xe -
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Charging
S Discharging
a
At Cathode: Li (1-X)CoO2 + xLi + + xe- LiCoO2
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b Charging
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r
a
m Discharging
I The net cell reaction: LiXC6 + Li (1-X) CoO2 LiCoO2 + 6C
T Charging
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Applications:
1. BIt is used in laptop, computers and mobile phones and aerospace application.
2. eIt is used in portable CD player, Semiconductor driven audio etc…
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3. gIt is used in telecommunication equipment, instruments, portable radios and TVs, pagers.
4. aIt is used in cardiac pacemakers and other implantable device.
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5. uThe Li-ion batteries are used in cameras, calculators.
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Department of Chemistry Sambhram IT, Bengaluru-5600 97

Working:
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e  During discharging, Li+ ions generate at anode by oxidation diffuse to cathode, convert into
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atoms and insert into the layers of metal oxide.
a
 During charging, Li+ ions generate at cathode diffuse to anode, convert into atoms and insert into
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t the layers of graphite.
m  Thus in lithium ion battery, the cell reaction is merely the transfer of Li+ ions between the
e electrodes through polymer electrolyte.
n  The movement of free electrons from anode to cathode via external circuit creates a charge at
t the positive current collector (cathode). The electrical current then flows through a device being
powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector (anode).
o  Each cell produces a potential of 3.6 – 3.7 v.
f
Sodium-ion battery (SIB):
Sodium-ion
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battery (SIB) is a type of rechargeable battery analogous to the lithium-ion battery (LIB), but uses
sodium
h ions (Na+) as the charge carriers. Its working principle and cell constructions are almost identical with
those
e of commercially well-known lithium-ion battery types. SIBs are currently evolving as a viable substitute
formLIBs because of the abundant availability and reasonable cost of sodium.
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In SIBs, graphite electrodes cannot be used due to the bigger ionic radius of sodium ions compared with that
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of lithium ions. Hence, suitable anode must be used for better performance. Usually, HC electrodes are being
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used
r for that purpose.
Construction:
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Anode:
S Sodium intercalated disordered carbon material consisting of amorphous structure (hard
carbon) with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
a
m
Anode current collector: Aluminium
b
Cathode:
h Sodium incorporated transition metal oxide like NaMnO2 with conductive material and binder,
coated
r on aluminium current collector.
Electrolyte:
a Non-aqueous/aqueous solvents (ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate) with sodium salt
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(NaPF6).
Separator: Fiber-based separators such as glass fiber.
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Department of Chemistry Sambhram IT, Bengaluru-5600 97

DReactions
e Battery Representation: NaxC6 / Na+. C / NaPF6 in PC/EC / NaMnO2
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a Discharging
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t At Anode: NaXC6 xNa+ + 6C + Xe -
m Charging
e
n Discharging
t At Cathode: Na (1-X) MnO2 + xNa + + xe- NaMnO2

o Charging
f Discharging
The net cell reaction: NaXC6 + Na (1-X) MnO2 NaMnO2 + 6C
C
Charging
h
e
mWorking:
i  During discharging, Na+ ions generate at anode by oxidation and diffuse to cathode, wherethey
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convert into atoms and insert into the layers of metal oxide.
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r  During charging, Na+ ions generate at cathode and diffuse to anode, where they convert into
y atoms and insert into the layers of hard carbon.
 Thus, in sodium ion battery, the cell reaction is merely the transfer of Na+ ions between the
S
a
electrodes through the electrolyte.
m  The movement of free electrons from anode to cathode via external circuit creates a charge at
b the positive current collector (cathode). The electrical current then flows through a device being
h powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector (anode).
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 Each cell produces a potential of 1.85 – 3.45 v.
a
m
Applications:
1. The Na – ion battery can be used in cellular phones,
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2. The Na – ion battery can be used in laptops
, 3. The Na – ion battery can be used in electric vehicles
4. The Na – ion battery can be used in power tools.
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Department of Chemistry Sambhram IT, Bengaluru-5600 97

D
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a
Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs)
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QDSCs is a semiconductor device which convert solar energy (sunlight) into Electrical energy (Direct current)
t A quantum dot solar cell (QDSSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the absorbing photovoltaic
m material.
e Describe Construction, working and applications of QDSSC- Quantum Dot Sensitized
n Solar Cell
t Construction of Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell:
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Anode OR Working Electrode:
a
m Fluorinated Tin Oxide substrate is taken and coated with mesoporous wide band gap semiconducting TiO2.
TiO2 is coated with quantum dots such as CdS by CBD(Chemical bath deposition) method. TiO2 act as
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T electron conductors (or acceptors) and transport layers. CdS facilitates the charge separation
,
Cathode OR Counter Electrode:
B A platinum and carbon based materials are coated on a brass substrate. Counter electrode is acting as cathode
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n and it transfers electrons from external circuit to electrolyte and catalyzes the reduction reaction of the oxidised
g electrolyte at the electrolyte/ counter electrode interface.
a
l Electrolyte:
u Polysulfide is used as redox electrolyte. or hole conductor which can effectively taken up the holes from
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u quantum dots.
- Sensitizer: CdS is a sensitizer, it is a Quantum dot nanocrystal made as semiconductor
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Working:
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 Upon absorption of photon a quantum dot excited from ground state to higher energy state.
a
m Excitation: 𝑄𝐷𝑠 + ℎ𝜈 ⟶ 𝑄𝐷𝑠∗
b
h The absorption process results in creation of electron – hole pair.
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a
m
 The excited electron injected to conduction band of TiO2 semiconductor leaving holes on the
I surface of quantum dots.
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B
e Injected electrons transported between the TiO2 nano particles and then it moves to photo
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g anode, from photoanode it moves to cathode electrode (CE) through external circuit by
a generating electricity.
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u Holes will be taken up by electrolyte and it gets reduced and regenerat

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