Group p11 Binary Operation. ‘et A be a non-empty set. Then Ax A={(a,):a,b € A}. A mapping f :4xA—> A is called a binary operation or binar tomposition on the set A . In general a binary operation is nated by o or xete.. "The image of the ordered pair (a 6) “nder the binary operation is denoted by a+b. Thus ifs? is wignary operation, then gob ed Va,beAand A is said to be srosed under the binary operation ‘e’. Illustration. (i) The operation addition is a binary operation on the set of integers Z, as 2+5=7eZ, 9+(-I)=8eZ and in general a+ beZV abeZ (ii) The operation subtraction is not a binary operation on the set of all natural numbers N as 2,3€N but 2-3=-1¢N (iii) The operation ‘o’ defined by acb= 2 is a binary 7 operation on the set of all rational numbers Q, as 3x5_15 3o$=-- = €@ ete. Uniary Operation. Let A be a non-empty set. A mapping fA 4 is called a uniary operation on the set A. In general 2 uniary operation is denoted by ' or ~ or — ete. Illustration. (i) Let S be a set and P(S) be its power set. ie. P(S) is set of all subset of S. Let’ ()' be defined as 4’ = complement of A wart S. Now we see if AeP(S) 4’ €P(S) also. So *: P(S)—» P(S) is a mapping. So ' is an uniary operation. (ii) Let Djy ={,2.3,4,6,12} be the set of all factors of 12. 2 _ 12 . 1 Let be defined as 7=—-. We see if meDy: then eda also. So — is a mapping from Dj to Dy. So, is a uniary Operation. ° Commutative Operation. A binary operation ois said to be commutative on a set A if agb=boaNa,bed. The opertaion addition ig coshmutative on any set but the operation subtraction is not 80.I 5-2 ENGINEERIN THEMAT ICS f binary ope Associative Ope AtiON «6 is ani¢ 1 te associative on a set Vif ao(hoe)=(arb)oeVag hoe qe tb The operation multiplication is associative on the get natural numbers but not the operation subtraction ot 6.1.2 Algebraic Structure. A non-empty set A edMippe with one or more binary operations is called an alge! structure. We shall denote an algebraic structure with hinan, operation © as (4.°) or, (Ayo). 7 Illustration, (N,+).(Z, - ).(R. +.) are all algebraic Structirs where (R,4.°) is an algebraic structure equipped with two binary operation addition (4) and multiplie: ation (e). Groupoid. An algebraic structure in which a non-empty sey G is equipped with only one binary operation say o is cal a Groupoid and is denoted by (G, °) or (G, °). Thus (\,+).(Q,¢).(Z,-) and (Z,+) are groupoid. Composition table. The binary operation o defined on; non-empty finite set A can be described by a table, called the composition table. 1f the number of elements of A be n ther the table has n rows and n columns. All elements of A ar placed in a row at the top and in a column at the left of th table in the same order. Now, if x,y ¢A and x lie at the i-th position in the left column of the table, y lie at the j-1! position in the top row of the table, then the element x°} lie in the table at the intersection of i-th row and j-th columr of the table. Illustration. A composition table of the groupoid (4,2 led where A= {a,b,c} is given below: < top row left column Table -1 . It follows from Table-1 that woa=a, aob=b, aec=%GROUP 5-3 b, bob=e, boc=a, C°da=c, Cob=a, coc=h Identity element : An element e , identity “element — in the ave=eoa=a VaeG, I ace=aVaeG then e is said to be right identity in the evoupoid (Gi). Heoa=a¥ aeG then e is suid to let Wentite in the groupoid (G, °). in G is said to be an Broupoid (Gye) if Illustration. In the groupoid (Q, +),0 is the identity element since a+0=a VaeQ and in the groupoid (Q, ), 1 is the identity element since @-1=@ VaeQd. 7 Inv rse element: Let ¢ bean identity element of a groupoid (G.e) and aoh=hoa=e, then b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by q@!. If aob=e, then 6 is called the right inverse of a. Again, if bca=e then b is called left inverse of a, Illustration. In.the groupoid (Z,+), the inverse of any element xeZ is —x, as x+(-x)=(-x)+x=O(the identity element) 5.1.3 Semi-Group : A groupoid (G,°) is said to be a semi- group if the binary operation o is associative, i.e. if ao(boc)=(acb)ocVa,b,ceG. . Illustration. The groupoid (N, +) is a semi-group as at+(b+c) =(a+b)+c holds Va,b,ceN. But the groupoid (N,-) is not a semi-group, as a-(b-c)#(a-b)-c. 5.1.4 Monoid : A semi-group with an identity element is called a monoid. Thus a groupoid (G,) is said to be monoid if if ao(boc)=(aeb)ocWa,b,ceG . Sithere exist an element e in G called identity element such that aoce=eou=aVaeG. Illustration. (i) The groupoid (Z,-) is a monoid, as a-(b-c)=(a-b)-c holds Va,b,ceZ and 1 is the identity element belonging to Z. Gi) The groupoid (£,-) where E£ is set of all even integers is a semi-group but not a monoid because 1 ¢E. 5.1.5 Group : A non-empty set.G is said to form a group with respect to a operation o, if \& ENGINEERING MATHEMATICg “ty 5-4 1c. dObEG Va beg (i) Gis closed under the operation ao(boc)=(aeh)ocWabeeg, ’ clement e in G such that (ii) © is associative ie., (iii) there exist an identity ace=a WaeG. Gv) for each element a in G, there exist an inverse eleme, a”! in Gsuch that aoa This group is denoted by (G,e) or (G, ). Abelian Group or Commutative Group. A group (G. said to be abelian or commutative if 5 al commutative ie. ach=beaVahbeG e the group is said to be non-abelian. 1 =e Otherwist Finite Group & Its Order. Ifin a group (G,°), the underlying set G consists of a finit, number of distinct elements, then the group is called a finit, group or otherwise an infinite group. The number of elements in a finite group is called the order of the group and is denoted by 0(G) or |G|. Illustrative Examples. x. 1. Show that the set of all rational numbers is an ‘abelian group w.r.t addition. Let us consider the set of all rational numbers Q with the binary operation addition. Then for any a,b,c €Q we have, () a+beQ, as the sum of two rational number is rational (i) a+(b+0)=(a+5) +c, as the operation addition is associative for all numbers. (ii) a+ 0=0+a=a VaeQ. So, 0€Q is the identity element. (iv) a+(-a)=(-a)+a=0 VaeQ. So the inverse element (-a) exist for each element aeQ. Hence the set of all rational numbers form a gro respect to addition i.e., (Q, +) is a group. Again at+b=b+a Va,beQ. So (Q,+) is an abelian group Ex. 2. Show that the set of all natural numbers is not? group w.r.t multiplication. f wap withLet us consider the set of all natural numbers N on which operation multipli tion is defined. Obviously N is closed with respect to mult iplication and the operation multiplication of natural numbers is associative. Also |¢N is an identity element, as lea=a-l=aVaeNn. Again I ee . 1 jcq-talVaeN. So, ~ isthe inverse of abut Le for a a a a#1.Thus inverse element 7 does not exist for each element aeN. Hence (N,-) is not a group. 5.1.6 Elementary Properties of Groups. Property 1. Ifa, b, c are any element of a group (G, °), then 4 qob=acc=b=e (left cancellation law) and bea=coa=>b=ce (right cancellation law) Proof. Now aeG=a™' eG such that aca =a” ca=e, identity element. E geb=aec= a o(ae b)=a™ (ae) [operating a” on left of both sides] => (a ca)o b= (a" oa) oc [+ © is associative] = ecb=ecc[ -: a” is inverse of a] bse Similarly hoa=coa=>b=c- Property 2. In a group (G, c), the left (right) identity is — also the right (left) identity . . Proof. Let e be the left identity in a group (G, ©). Then eca=aWaeG, Also let a”! be the left inverse of a. * qioaz=e Now a7! o(a e=(a" ° a) oe (4: 0 is associative) =ec0e=e=a oa: . a! e(ace)= avloa or, ave=a by left cancellation law. Hence ¢ is the right identity. Similarly we can prove the alternative statement. Property 3. Ina group (G,°), the left (right) inverse of an element is also its right (left) inverse.5-6 ENGINEERING MATHEMATIcg . 7 Proof, Let a€G and e be the identity element. Also let the left inverse of a. Then a’! ea=e- be - 1 aa Now a ‘o(aca ')=(a ‘oa)oa («2 0 is associative) =eoa'=a' oe (by Theorem 2) -1 “1 1 ea’ . aielaca j=a ce or, aed : v, by left cancellatig, law. : Hence q7 is the right inverse of a. Similarly we can prove the alternative statement. An important Note. In view of Property 1 and 2,3, leg identity, right identity are same and left inverse of an element is equal to right inverse. Henceforth we shall use only ‘identity element’ and ‘inverse element’ in every discussion. “ Property 4. The identity element and the inverse of an element in a group (G,) are unique. [W.B.U.T. 2003, Proof. Lete and e' be two identity elements of (G,¢). Then eoe'=eloe=ce’ [‘" @ is an identity element and e’«G] wand e'ce=ece’=e [ -- ef is an identity element and eG] _- Hence e=e’ ie. the identity element is unique. Let a’ and a” be two inverse of an element a in G ande be the identity element. Then qoa'=a'oa=e and aca" =a"'ca=e *. aoa'=aca"=>a' =a" by left cancellation law. Thus the inverse of an element is unique. Property 5. Ina group (G,°), (a) =aVaeG Proof. Let e be the identity element of (G,). Then aoa =aoa™' =e [-- a7! is the inverse of a J. Again, since a”! €G and (a ) is the inverse of a” 80, (an on =e (2) Thus we have a”! o(ary" =a™'oa, by (1) and (2) wv hte (a ‘) =a by left cancellation law. Note. e' =e, e being the identity elementGROUP. 5-7 Cr Zoperty 6. In group (G, °), (40h)! =h oa" VabeG ie, the inverse of the product of two elements of a group G is the product of the inverse taken in the reverse order, [ W.B.U.T. 2008 | Proof. We have (aoh)o(nt oa ‘') - = [lao d)e b']oa™' (v © is associative) tivity) =[ae(o ° oy oa” (again by ass =(aee)oa™' where e is the identity element. =aca! =e Also we have (o" ° a’) e(acb) =b to [a" e(ae »)| , by associativity =b" of oa)ed] =b (eos) =bob=e , (a2b)o{b"' oa") =e=(6" oa o(aed) Hence, by definition of inverse, we have (a0b)" =b oa. Pyoperty 7. Ina group (G, °) for all a,b eG the equations ox=b and yoa=6 have unique solutions which are x=a'ob and y=bhoa” [W.B.U.T. 2005] Proof. Since a,b eG=>a'eG and beG>a'obeG. “We have ao(a" ob) =(aca)ob [© is associative ] =¢ob, where e is the identity element =b which shows that xy=a™'od is a solution in G of the equation aox=b To prove the uniqueness let x=x, and x=x, be two solutions of the equation aox=bh. Then aox,=6b and Gox,=b + 40x, =a0x, => XxX, =X, by left cancellation law. Therefore the solution of the equation aox. =b is unique. Similarly we can prove that ye boa” is a unique solution of the equation yoa=b.* ENGINEERING MATHEMATIcg ty Lo roperty 8. Let (G,») each of the equations gox G. Then (G, °) is a group. Proof, Since (G, ») is a semi-group, G is closed under ¢p, binary operation » and o is associative. So, in order to prov, that (G, »)is a group, we should show that the identig, clement exist and each element of G has inverse element, Since the equation aox=b has a solution V a,b, 80 th. equation qox=a has a solution say e. Then aee=a. Ney let c be the solution of yoa=6. Then coa=b " and yoa=6 has a solution @ th ie, bee=(coa)oe=ce(ace)=coa=b - boe=bVbEG Therefore eis the right identity and hence ¢ is the identity element, Again since aox=b has a solution Vb inG, so let a’ te __ the solution of the equation qox=e where e is the identity element. Then aca'=e so that a’ becomes right inverse of a. Since a is an arbitrary element of G, so right inverse of each element of G exist and hence inverse element of each element of G exist. Thus (G, ©) is a group. Property 9. Let (G, °) be a finite semi-group in which both the two cancellation laws hold. Then (G, °) is a group. Proof. Let the set G contains n elements a), 42, °"+4n anda be an arbitrary element of G. Then the elements aea,, a°a,, -,4°4, belong to G, as Gis closed. They are distinct because if they are not distinct, thet aca, =a0a,,i# j= a, =a; by left cancellation law. Hen ao a,=a (i,k =1,2,--,n). which shows that the equatio® ae x=b, a,b eG hasa solution in G. Similarly considering the elements a, 0a, 42 °4, and using the right cancellation law it can be shown equation yoa=b has a solution in G. Thus (G, ¢) is a semi-group in which each of the equal aox=b and yoa=b have a solution in G for all a,beG- Hence (G, °) is a group by Theorem 8. 14404 that the tio?GROUP 5-9 ee Note. The above theorem is not true if G is infinite. For example, (N.-) is a semi-group in which both cancellation laws hold but (N,-) is not a group. Illustrative Examples. Ex. 1. Prove that the set of even integers forms an additive “abelian group. Let E be the set of all even integers. Then E={0, £2,44,46,--} Now for any a,b,c €E, we have (i) a+b €E, as the sum of any two even integers is aneven integer. (ii) a+(b+c)=(a+b)+e, as the operation addition is associative for all numbers. * Gii) since Q€E and a+0=0+a=aVacE, so 0 is the identity element. , Gv) If ae£, then -aeEk and a+(-a)=(-a)+a=0. So -a is the inverse of a . Thus inverse of every element exists. (v) Again a+b=b+a Va,beE. Hence E is an abelian group w.r.t the binary operation addition. Ex. 2. Show that the set of all odd integers does not forma group w.r.t the composition addition. As the sum of any two odd integers is an even integer, so the set of all odd integers is not closed w.r.t the composition addition. Hence the set of all odd integers does not form a group w.r.t the composition addition. al 3. Show that all roots of the equation x*=1 forms a commutative group under the operation multiplication. [W.B.U.Tech 2005, 2007] =1 are+l, +i. So we now 4 All the roots of the equation + show that the set G={-1,1,-i,/} forms a group under the operation multiplication. Let us form the following composition table :5-10 ENGINEERING MATHEMAry¢, i () From the above table, it is clear that the product ¢ any two elements of G is an element of G. So Gis closed. — (i) Again (i-1)-(-i)=i-(-i)=1 and i-(I-(-#))=7-(-A)=1 . (i-1)-(-4) =i-(1-(-2)) and so on. Hence the operation multiplication is associative. Gi) Since 1-=i-1=i, 1-(-1)=(-1)-1=-I ete. so 1 is the identity element in G. (iv) From the above table, it is obvious that the inverse of ~ 1,-1,i,-i are L-L-ii respectively. Hence inverse of every element of G exists. (v) As i-(-i)=(-i)-i ete, so the multiplication is commutative. Hence (G,-) forms a commutative group. Ex. 4. Show that the set of rational numbers other than 1,0’ forms a group under the binary operation * defined by azb=at+b-ab; a,beQ Let O’=Q-{I}. Then for a,b,c€Q' we have () a*b=at+b-ab €Q' So Q! is closed under the operation *. (ii) Also a *(b*c) =a *(b+¢-bc) =at(b+c-be)-a(b+e-be) =a+b+e-ab—be-ca+abe and (a*b)*c=(a+b-ab)*c =(a+b-ab)+e-(a+b-ab)¢ =a+b+c-ab-be-catabe . a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c So, the operation « is associative. (iii) Let e be an identity element in G. ThenGROUP sat Rot georaVae(’ =ate~aeza Se(l-a)=0 =e=0 [+ axl]. We also see 060". So 0 is the identity element (iv) Let a" be an element in Q’ such that a*a'=0. Then aa'=0 a'=——eQ' val. +a'~ a a-l $0, <2 is the inverse of a, Thus inverse of every element in Q" exist. Hence Q-{I} forms a group under the operation «. - 5. Show that the set G of all ordered pairs (a,h) with az0, of real numbers a, 6 forms a group with operation © * defined by (a,b) > (c,d) = (ac, be + d) , [ W.B.U.T. 2007| (i) Let (a,), (c,d) €G, Then a#0, c#0 -. ac#0. Therefore (a.b)o(c,d)=(ae.be+d)eG, as ac#0 and ac.be+d are real numbers. So, G is closed under the operation o. (ii) Next let (a,b), (c.d),(e, f) €G@- Then {(a,b)o(c, d)} o(e, F} (ac. be + d) ole N= face, (be + de +f} =(ace, bee+de+ f) and (a,b)o{(c, dole, f)} = (a, 6) (ce, de+ f) = (ace, bee + de + f) 1 {{a.b)o(c.d)}0(e, f) = (4-8) 2{(d) oe} So the operation o is associative. (iii) Let (x, y) be the identity element in G. Then (x, y)o(a,b)=(a,b) V (a,b) EG = (xa, ya +b) = (a,b) >xa=a,ya+b=b=>x=1, y=0 [a #0] So (1,0) eG is the identity element. (iv) Let (a’, b’) be the inverse of (a,b) G. Then (a’,b') o(a,6) = (1, 0) E.M-IV-335-12 ENGINEERING MATHEMA Ty, t => (aa', b'a +b) = (1,0) => aa! =1,b'a+b=0 C 6 , ye? fe 0) =a’ 18 a [- #0] 1 b So, (2. -*) is the inverse of (a, )-Thus the inverg, ey every element in G exist. Hence (G, ») forms a group. Note. Since (a,b) o(c,d) = (ae, be +d) and (c,d) (a,b) =(ca,da+b), 80. (a,6)e(crd) # (c,d) (a,b) Thus, (G,e) is a non-abelian group. Ex. 6. Determine as to whether the set P(X) of all subsey of a non-empty set X, under the composition » defined by th relation A*B=AUB, A,BeEP(X) constitute group. (@) Let 4,BeP(X).ThenA GX, BOX AUBS XUX=KX «+ AUBE P(X) Hence A4*B=AUBeEP(X). So P(X) is closed w.r.t the given composition. (ii) We know that the union of sets is an associative operation. So AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC V A,B,C eP(X) ani hence A*(B*T)=(A*B)*C Therefore the composition » is associative. (ii) The empty set $ is a subset of X. So > € P(X) Now AU$=6U A=AVA P(X) * A*b=o¥A=A VAEP(X) Therefore is the identity element of P(X) (iv) Let A be any non-empty element of P(X) ie, let Ac X and A#4.Then for every element 4’ d P(X), we have A'*A=4'UA#4 So inverse element of 4 does not exist. a Hence P(X) is not a group under the given compositio”GROUP 5 gx. 7. Show that the set G pra. addition (i) Let xeatby2 6G and y=ctdJleG Then a,b.c,d€O>at+ce,btde Q pxty=(ate)+(b+dv2 eG VxyeG . Gis closed w.r.t addition. (ii) The elements of G are all real numbers iti of real numbers is associative. ana the addition (iii) As 0€Q so, 0=0+0V2 €G. Now if a+hy2 eG, then o+(a+ by2) = (a +bv2). Therefore 0 is the identity element. (iv) Since a,b €O=>-a,-b €Q, so a+bV2 eG = (-a)+(-b)V2 eG. Now, [(-2) +(-8)V2]+(a+bv2) =(-a-+0)+(-b+ 83 =0+ 03 =0 So, (-a)+(-b)V2_ is the inverse of a+bV2 . Hence inverse of every element of G exists. Therefore G is a group w.r-t. addition. Ex. 8. Show that the set of all nxn non-singular real matrices forms a non-abelian group under matrix multiplication. . Let M be the set of all non-singular 7» real matrices. @ Let 4,BeM. Then | 4|#0,| B|#0 Now | 4B|=| 4||B| andso|4B|#0 “. ABEM . M ig closed under matrix multiplication. Gi) Matrix multiplication is associative on M, as it is defined between any two nxn real matrices. (iii) Let Ibe the unit matrix. So J alte #0 2ae 2ae|"|a a erases + a#0] Thus £= Nisevl|— 1 i eM and is such that EA=4 V de} 2, Therefore £ = is the identity element ———— at NIl=—Vl— iu z a 2 Next let B= i Sever _faa Jem be the inverse of 4-|f alew — 5 b Then B4=E = [6 $][2 2]- Nl—NIe ul 2 uw 2GROUP —_——oooo eS 5-15 1d 2ab 2ab)_}2 2 2 [3e 3a] 4 3) 2up=1 ! ae 7 b= 7 [v ae] 22 4a | an pal de dal . Then B=] ji! |e A is the inverse of a-(4 «| da 4a ae Ex. 10. Let S be set ofall real matrices }( 4. >). 24% ee Nb 4) ta +b =}. Show that S forms a commutati By ative a multiplication. group under matrix (@) Let a-(4 byes, a-( mes -by a ah +b? =land a; +b} =1 Now AB= ( a by \ a, by ) _( 142 — bb aby + bay ba by a) > (lab, tah) (aan ~ 462) = a ¢ -(4 2) say) Since of +c} = (mar = bby) + (aby +ayh) = (ai +07) +02) = 1 1=1- So AB eS. Gi) Matrix multiplication is associative on S, as it is hold for all nx n real matrices. Git) Now 1=(6 9)eS and ar=4 V Aes ol Therefore / =(6 *) is the identity element in S. (iv) Next let B -( ZI a) be the inverse of 4 (4, a) Mv * c v a, o\_(1 0 ren pace = (2, 2) a) 9) = xa, — yh wae ‘} (ayy thy) 1% — 3b o!5-16 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS .1y maa xh be => xa, - bi S a-(5 shes. as at+b? =! -b ’ : (4 b Be (3 ) €5 is the inverse of A -(4, eS. Thuy inverse of each element of S exist. (v) It is obvious by () that AB= BAY A, B eS .So matrix multiplication js commutative In Ss. Hence S forms & commutative group under matrix multiplication. Ex. 11. Show that if evel then it isan abelian grou ry element of a group (G,°) be its own inverse, up. Is the converse true? Let a,beG. Then a'=a, b'=b Also, aeb €G, as G is closed under operation °. 2. (acby =aeb ploat=acb of bea=aeb Thus, acb=boaVabeG -. (G, ¢) is an abelian group. But the converse is not true. For example (R, +) where R is the set of all real numbers, is an abelian group but no element except 0 is its own inverse. Ex. 12. Prove that a group (G,°) is abelian if and only if (aoby'=aleb! VabeG Let (aob)' =a! ob! Va,beG (oto) son-(r)' (ey [¥6 =ach=bea -. aeb=bea Va, beG Then (@ ob)" y 3 -avac6| Hence (G,°) is an abelian group. Next let (G,°) is an abelian group. The aob=boa V a,beG = (a0b)"=(bea)" = (aeby =a ob"GROUP EEE EEE, o (aobytsalob" V abe. 5.1.7 Integral Power of an element of a Group Let (G,°) be a group and de€G. Then, if n is a positive integer, we define a" =aeaea+: ton factors. Obviously a” €G, as G is closed. Also we define u” =e, the . ity el "eG 0 ; identity element of G. As a" eG, so(a ) €G. So, we define -n ny! . : q”"= (a ) where n is a positive integer. Thus a™" =(a9aea-:: ton factors) ' —ateg <1 1)" =@ c@ ss 0a ton factors = (4 ) : Illustration In additive group (Z, +), ifn is a positive integer, a"=atatat ton terms =na we have identity element =0 and a™” =(-a)+ (-a)++--+( Theorem. Ina group (G, °) men, Gi) (a")" =a", VaeG and VmneZ @ a” ea" =u Proof. Obvious. 5.1.8 Order of an element of a Group Let (G, °) be a group and aeéG. Then the order of a is the least positive integer 7 such that a" =e, the identity element of G and is denoted by O(a) .Ifthere exists no positive integer 1 such that a” =e, then the order of a is said to be infinity or zero. For example, we consider the group (G, G={l,- 1,4,-i}. Here Lis the identity element. 2. Ol)=las '=1, O(-1)=2 as, (-1)" =2,0(/)=4, as i =1, 0(-i)=4 as (-i)'=1- Theorem 1. The order of every finite and is less than or equal to tl Proof. Beyond the scope of the book. Theorem 2. The order of an element a 0! as that ofits inverse a™ ie., (a) = ofa”) c) where element of a finite group is he order of the Group. fa group is the same“5-18 ENGINEERING MATHEMAT¢, Proof, Let n and m be the finite orders of a ana respectively. Then Q(a)=n=>a" =e , e being the idem, element. : = O(a!) Sn =m Sn A Also, 0(a°') =m => (a ie ~e- aay" re Sa" =e! =u" =e=90(a)Sm =nsm ii In virtue of (i) and (ii), we have, = n=m Le, Ma) = o(a"') Next let the order of a be infinite. Then the order of gq” ;, infinite. Because, if not, then a"')=m (finite =(a")"=e=(a") "ne, =a" =e=>0(a)=m= order of a is finite. Hence order ¢ a” is infinite. Theorem 3. Let a be an element of a group (G, °) of orde n. Then a” =e if and only if nis a divisor of m. Proof. Let n be a divisor of m. Then there exists an intege q such that "qg=m, (e"!= Conversely let a” =e. Since 0(a)=n, so n is the least positive integer such the a" =e. Again m is an integer. Then by division algorithm mr yng Now, @ =e [- O(a)=n=> a" =e] there exist integers g andr such that m=ng+r, O (a) -d’ =e => eta’ =e =a’ =e Now n is the least positive integer such that a” =e. Sint . s : is! r "* divisor of m. . Theorem 4. If O(a)=n, then a, a’,a°, elements of G. Proof. Left as an exercise. «, a"(= e) are distin™GROUP —_—_—_—_ 5. Le 2 Theorem 5 ec g abe an element of a group (G, ©) of ord nand p is prime ton. Then the order of a” is also Nie. E n ie. ryan: P a of Proof. Let oa") =m Then Aa)=7=> a" =e = = a")sn msn we i) Again, since p, are prime to each other, so there exist integers x and y such that px+ny=1 o aeal" sah a™ sal (ay =a" .e =a" ena La" =(u")" =[(er)"] =e" =e B ofa")=m=(0")" =e] Gi => Oa)sm => nsm In virtue of (i) and (ii) we get m=n. Illustrative Examples. Ex.1. If x. €(G.°), then show that Qy) and Oxoyex) are same. Hence or otherwise prove that (a°b) = (bea). Let O(y)=" yp’ =e, the identity element. opox') = (xoyox™)o(xo xox”) ' by associative property Now, =xoyo(x"!ox)ovex 1 -I 2 ad =xoyoyox =xoy ox =Noyoeoyox 1 3 7 Similarly (xoyox") yoylox a - -1 -1 =| In general (xeyox ‘) sxoy"ox =xoeoX =XoX If possible, let (x eyo xy" =e where m (x7 ° x) oy”e (x7 ° x) =e which is impos sible as 0(¥)=” Leop™oe=xtox=>y” and m O(boa) = ard). (G,»)and Cy) = 20, fing y is the least we Now ao(boa)oa . 0 (« (bou)oa ')=0(a ob) Ex. 2. Ify bean element of a Rou? the order of y*. Since 0(y) =20, y"" =¢ , the identity element. Let 0 (°° ay" : : an : ge : " ( ) =e ie y" =e where ns the least positive intege, Hence 20 is a divisor of 8n i.e. 5 isa divisor 2n | n=5, as nis the least positive integer o(y*)=5, Ex. 3. If in a group (&,°), aise and aba! =b' VabeG find the order of b. Now (aba-"y = (aba™' (aba) = ab{a'a)ba™ =abeba™ P= aba] = abba"! = aba" = alaba™' Ja" [- =a’ba™ « (aba)! = (aba) (aba) =(a°ba°*\a*ba-*) yp a DN ed pe Tee git 7 = a?b(a?a?\ba =a" ba’ ba [-a™-a" =a") =a'ba” = a (aba™')a? =a°ba” In this way (aba) =a'ba and (aba ye = (aba ay (aba y’ Ed (a*ba~*V{a*ba~) 4,2 - =a'ba™* a‘ba* =a'bba* =a'b'aGROUP 5-21 — za'(uba"')a* = aba = ee! [v at =e] che [- ee =e =b Thus (*) 3 or, Bene 6 =b or, b? =b or, BAR = hyo! or, b'! =e 0(b)=1 or 31, as 31 is a prime integer. So if b=e, then 0(4)=1 and if be, then 0(6)=31. EX%4. Let G be a group. If a,b eG such that a‘ =e, the identity Yiement of Gand ab = ba”, prove that a=e.{ W.B.U. Tech 2007} We have ab= ba” . bab = b"'ba? ie, bv'ab=ea" [-. ote=e] Ea blab =a ‘ (o"'ab) (b"ab) =a?-a? or, brta(bb" Jub =a’ or, baeab=e [- a’ =e, given] or, p'a°b=e , or, pba" = be or, ea*b=b or, ba?b = bb or, (a? )b = bb or, ab-b=b-b [° ab= ba*] or, ab=b, by right cancellation law or, ab=eb “. a=e, by right cancellation law.5-22 ENGINEERING MATHEMAT, sa group such that (aob)" =a" ob” for iy, re, Ex. 5. If ( ntegers n and for all a,beG then show that ¢ 6 consecutive is abelian According to the problem, we have (aob)" =a" ob" = i) (acb)"' =a" ob"! iy (a0b)"? =a"? oh"? ii Now (a0b)"* = (aob)"*! o(aob) =a"? ob"? =a"! ob"! o(aob) by (ii) and (iii) sac(a"!ob™)ob=ae(a" eh") o(boa)oh salons (2" ob") o(bea), by left and right canellation law = (a0b)""' =(a0b)" o(boa), by (i) and (i) = (a96)" o(aeb) =(22b)" o(boa) => aeb=boa, by left cancellation law acb=bea Va,beG Hence G is abelian. Ex. 6. Prove that a group with three elements is necessarily commutative. Let G={a,b,e}form a group under the operation ‘o’,e being the identity element. Then obviously e7! =e. Further, let a7! =a, b"' =b. So every element of G is its own inverse. Hence aebeG=>acb=(acb)" =acb=b'oa! =ach=bea Next let a7! #a, 6! #b. Then, obviously a‘ =e ora'=) and "=e or b'=a, But, a”! =e=(a') =e! >a=e [-e" =4 which is impossible. So a'=b, Similarly we have biza Now, ach=aea"'=e and boa=bob =e , acb=boaGROUP Also we have ae ea and hoe=h=eoh Thus every pair of elements commute. . abelian group. ec. Hence G how that a gr io) i now eee (G. ©) is abelian if and only if =f [W.B.U.T. 2006} First let (G. °) be abelian. =(aeh)o(aob) forms an Then (ao o(bea)ob=ao(aeb)oh[ + G is abelian, aob=hoa] =(aca)o(hed)=a? ob? Next let (aby =u ob? V abeG Then (ach)" =a? ob” = (aeb)o(aeb)=(aea)o(bob) =ae(bea)2b=a0(a0b)ob = hboa=aebVa,beG [by left and right cancellation law] Hence (G, °) is abelian. 5.1.9. Congruent Modulo m. Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo m if a-b is divisible by the fixed positive integer m and then we write a=b(modm) which is read as “a is congruent to b modulo m For example, 18 = 3(mod 5) as 18-3 is divisible by 5. Similarly, 7 = 7(mod 7), —22=2 (mod 6) Theorem 1. The “congruence modulo m” is an e relation in the set of integers. Proof, Let Z be the set of all inte Then g-a=0 andO is divisible by m. + a=a(mod m) Va eZ So the congruence modulo m is reflexive. Again let a,b¢ Z and a=b(mod m) Then a—b is divisible by m > —(b-a)is divisible by ” quivalence gers and a eZ = (b—a)is divisible by m. = b= a (modm)5-24 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS», Thus the congruence modulo m is symmetric. Next let a,b.ceZ and a=h(modm),b=c(mod m), p,, (a-6) and (b—c) both are divisible by m=> {(a-b)+ (>~ef is divisible by => (ac) is divisible by m. => a = ¢(mod m) Therefore the congruence modulo m is transitive. Hence the congruence modulo m is an equivalence relation in the set of integers. Residue Classes modulo m. As the congruence modulo m is an equivalence relation in Zs it forms a partition Z into m disjoint equivalence classes which an, called residue classes modulo m or congruence classes modulo m , They are denoted by [0], [1].[2]---[--1] or, 0,1,2;---m=] where [al(or a) = {x: x € Z and x -a is divisible by m}. We denote the set of all residue classes modulo m in Zby Z,,- Thus Zp, = { [0},[1],---[m-1]}. The residue class [0] is called the zero residue class. For example Z, = { [0},[1], [2], [3]} where [0]={ 0,44, +8,---} []={1144,148,--} [2]={2,244,248,--} [3]={3,344,348,--} Theorem 2. The residue classes modulo m, (0). [1], (2],---[m-I]are all distinct and for n>m, [x] = [7] where r is the least non-negative remainder when n is divided by m. Proof. Beyond the scope of the book. Corollary: The class modulo m, [m] =(0]. Addition and Multiplication of Residue Classes. Let [a;], [a2] €Z,,. Then we define [a] +[a] =[4 +4] =[a] whe” a;is the least non-negative remainder when a, + a3 is divided bysROUP. GROU 5-25 eo we define [a] [ay] = - Also we (er) fer] = [ave] = [a4] where ay is the least non-negative remainder when dyryis divided by m Theorem 3- The sct of residue classes modulo m is an abelian group with respect to addition of residue classes Proof. Let Z,, be the set of all residue classes modulo m in Z. Zw = {COLL E2}---[0"— HI. (i) Let [ai} [er] €2Zm and [cy] + [ey] =[a) +a] = [as] where a, is the least non-negative remainder when a, +a, is divided by m a osacm + [a)eZ,, Then Zp is closed w.r.t addition of residue classes. (i) Next let (a:}. a2 [as] € Zn. Then [a] + ({42] + [43]) =[a]+[a2 +a3)=[a, + (a + a;)] by definition of addition of residue classes =[(a +a,)+a3] =[a +42]+[a3] = ((a)] +[a2]) +[a3] So the composition is associative. Gi) We have [0]e Z,, and [0] +[a]=[0+a)]=[a] ¥[a]¢Zn- Therefore [0] is the identity element. (iv) Let [7] #[0]€Z,,.Then [m-r]eZ,, and [m-r]+{7] =["] =[0]. So, {m-r] is the inverse of [7]. Again [0]+[0]=[0]. So [0] is the inverse of [0] itself. Thus inverse of each element of Z, exist. . (v) Again[a,]+[a2]=[a + 42 ]= [a2 +4) =[42]+ [a] V [a ][a,] € Z,- So the composition is commutative. Hence (Z,,,+) is an abelian group. Theorem 4, The set of non-zero residue classes modulo P forms an abelian group with respect to multiplication of residue classes, where p is a prime integer.5-26 ENGINEERING MATHEMAT I Proof. Let Z, be the sct of all non-zero re} sidue classeg mo, dy, p, a prime integer, in Z. Then 7, = {(}.(2}--[e=1]} () Let [a] [a] eZ), and [ai] teed where ® 4 the least non-negative remainder when aya is divided ty D Isa, ] [as] = [(ava2)a3]=[a(a2a3)] [++ multiplication , integers is associative] =[ai][azas] = [er](l42]l20)) So the multiplication of residue classes is associative. (iii) Since [a,JeZ, and [I][a]=[1-4]=[a J=[a] [lt]. V[alez so fy] is the identity element in Z,. (iv) Let [ [a]eG. Then lsasp-], Now [I [i [2], [2] [a], ve [p- 1] [a ] €Z,,. We shall now show the they are distinct. For this, let [a ] [a2] eZ, and a> sut that {a;] [a] =[ [a] [a]. =>[aa]= [aa] => aa-aya is divisible i Dp => (a, -ap)a is divisible by p => a, — 4, is divisible by p, asa is not divisible by P But II1[4][5]=[0]. [ -[>]=[0]] =>[a] [4] ¢Z, Hence Z, is not closed under the multiplication of residue classes. Illustrative Examples. Ex. 1. Show that the set of residue classes modulo 5 forms a group of order 5 w.r.t addition of residue classes. Let Zs denote the set of all residue classes modulo 5. Then 25= {fo} 1} 2). 3) [4]}. We construct the following composition table : | -EM-Iv.34ENGINEERING MATHEMapy, be 8, 5-28 pon that From the above table it is re elements of the set Z;.So Z, ; -s 18, Gi) all the entries a w.r.t addition of residu eration addition of residue classes is agsog iy i ie classes. i) the op! for example (+B) += (4)+ 4] 2) and (1+ (2) +04) = 0+), Gii) Since [0] €Z, and [a] + [0]=[4] V [a] €Z,, 80 [9] Ay identity element in Zs. \ (iv) From the table, we see that the inverse , (o}.(1}.[2]. [3]. [4] axe [0]. [4] (3],{2].[1] respectively. For exam, [2]+[3]=[5]=[0], the identity element. So [2] is the inves, of [3]. Thus inverse of each element of Zp exist. Again thé number of elements in Zs is 6. Therefore Z; forms a group of order 6 w.r.t addition, residue classes. Note. It can be easily verified that [a]+[4]=[5+{q| Vid,[hel So addition of residue classes is commutative. Hence the above group (2s, +) is an abelian group. Ex. 2. Show that the set of non-zero residue classes modii 4 does not form a group w.r.t multiplication of residue class: Let Z, be the set of all non-zero residue classes. Th Z,={[1][2],[3]}. Omitting the brackets, we construct following composition table : 1 w oO wl ew whoGROUP 5-29 _— ooo From the above we see that P).2]=- [o]ez,. So Z; is not closed w.r.t multiplication of residue classes. Hence (Za. +) does not form a group, Ex. 3. Verify whether the set Z, of all residue classes modulo 5 form a Kroup w.r.1 multiplication of residue classes, Here we have Zs; = {0}. (1), (2].[3}. (4}} Omitting the bracket, we constract the composition table as given below: 1 From the above table, it is seen that 1 is the identity element in Z;. But the element 0 has no inverse, as 0-a#1 VaeZ;. Hence the set Z; does not form a group w.r.t multiplication of residue classes. EXERCISE I. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Show that the set S of all real numbers form a semi-group under the operation defined by g*b=a+b+2ab Wa,b, €R- 2. Construct a composition table of the groupoid (P,x4)where P={1,2,3}. 3. Show that the identity element of a group is the only ele ment whose order is 1. 4. Show that (Z*,o)where o is defined by aob=a Wa,b,eZ"is a Semi-group . Is it a monoid?