Digital logic anD arithmetic

1. Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra is the mathematical foundation for digital
logic. It deals with variables that can take only two values:
true (1) and false (0). Boolean algebra provides a formal
system for analysing and designing digital circuits.
a) Basic Operations in Boolean Algebra
There are three fundamental operations in Boolean algebra:
• AND (•): The AND operation returns true (1) only when
both operands are true. It can be thought of as a gate
where both inputs must be present for an output.
• OR (+): The OR operation returns true (1) if at least one
of the operands is true. It’s like a gate that will output a
1 if any of its inputs are 1.
• NOT (¬): The NOT operation, or negation, inverts the
value of its operand. If the input is 1, the output will be
0, and if the input is 0, the output will be 1.
These operations are the building blocks of digital logic
circuits.
b) Boolean Algebra Simplification Techniques
Simplifying Boolean expressions is an essential technique for
optimizing digital circuits. Various laws and rules in Boolean
algebra are used for simplification:
 • Identity Law: A + 0 = A, A • 1 = A
• Null Law: A + A' = 1, A • A' = 0
• Complement Law: A + A' = 1, A • A' = 0
• Idempotent Law: A + A = A, A • A = A
• Distributive Law: A • (B + C) = (A • B) + (A • C)
By applying these laws, complex Boolean expressions can be
reduced to simpler forms, reducing the complexity of digital
circuits.
c) Truth Tables
A truth table is a tabular representation of all possible
combinations of inputs and their corresponding output for a
Boolean expression or logic gate. It is an essential tool for
understanding how Boolean functions work and for designing
digital circuits.
• For example, a simple AND gate truth table will show:
o Input 1: 0, Input 2: 0 → Output: 0
o Input 1: 1, Input 2: 0 → Output: 0
o Input 1: 1, Input 2: 1 → Output: 1
Truth tables are fundamental for validating logic gate
behaviour and for creating logical circuits.
2. Digital Circuits
Digital circuits are the foundation of any digital system,
including computers, phones, and other electronic devices.
Digital circuits are made up of various logic gates and can be
classified into combinational circuits and sequential circuits.
a) Logic Gates
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital circuits,
performing logical operations based on Boolean algebra. The
primary types of logic gates are:
• AND Gate: Outputs 1 only if both inputs are 1.

• OR Gate: Outputs 1 if at least one input is 1.

• NOT Gate: Inverts the input (outputs 1 if input is 0 and
vice versa).

• NAND Gate: Outputs 0 only if both inputs are 1 (the

inverse of AND).
• NOR Gate: Outputs 1 only when both inputs are 0 (the
inverse of OR).

• XOR Gate: Outputs 1 if the inputs are different (exclusive

OR).
 • XNOR Gate: Outputs 1 if the inputs are the same
(exclusive NOR).

These gates can be combined in various ways to form more

complex circuits.
b) Combinational Circuits
Combinational circuits are circuits whose output depends
solely on the current inputs. The output does not depend on
the history of inputs or past outputs. Combinational circuits
are used in arithmetic operations, encoders, decoders,
multiplexers, etc.
Common examples of combinational circuits:
• Adder: Adds two binary numbers.
• Subtractor: Subtracts one binary number from another.
• Multiplexer (MUX): Selects one of many inputs based on
control signals.
• Decoder: Decodes encoded inputs.

c) Sequential Circuits
Sequential circuits are a type of digital circuit where the
output depends on both current inputs and previous inputs
(history). They have memory elements, such as flip-flops or
registers, which store information from previous states.
• Flip-Flops: The basic unit of sequential circuits. A flip-
flop stores one bit of information.
• Registers: A collection of flip-flops that can store
multiple bits of data.
Sequential circuits are used in applications like counters,
memory systems, and finite state machines.
3. Number Systems
Number systems are a way of representing numbers in
different formats. In digital logic, computers primarily use
binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems to represent
data and instructions.
a) Binary System
The binary system (base-2) uses two digits: 0 and 1. Every
number in the binary system is represented as a combination
of these two digits. The binary system is fundamental for
computers because they operate on binary data (electricity
and no electricity, represented by 1 and 0, respectively).
b) Octal System
The octal system (base-8) uses eight digits: 0 to 7. It’s often
used as a shorthand representation of binary numbers, as
each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits (bits).
c) Hexadecimal System
The hexadecimal system (base-16) uses sixteen digits: 0 to 9
and A to F (where A represents 10, B represents 11, and so on
up to F which represents 15). Hexadecimal is widely used in
computing because it provides a more compact way of
representing binary data (four bits per hex digit).
d) Conversion Methods
Conversion between number systems is essential in digital
logic. Students must understand how to convert between
binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. These conversions
allow programmers and engineers to work with numbers in a
more human-readable format without changing the
underlying data.
• Binary to Decimal: Add up the powers of 2 for each bit
that is 1.
• Hexadecimal to Binary: Convert each hexadecimal digit
into its 4-bit binary equivalent.
• Octal to Binary: Convert each octal digit into its 3-bit
binary equivalent.
4. Binary Arithmetic
Binary arithmetic deals with performing mathematical
operations—such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division—on binary numbers. The arithmetic operations in
the binary system follow the same basic rules as in the
decimal system, but with only two digits (0 and 1).
a) Addition
Binary addition is similar to decimal addition but follows
simpler rules. The sum of two binary digits can result in either
a 0 or 1, and carries are handled similarly to decimal addition:
• 0+0=0
• 0+1=1
• 1 + 1 = 10 (carry the 1)
b) Subtraction
Binary subtraction is also similar to decimal subtraction, but
borrowing occurs between bits instead of across columns.
When subtracting 1 from 0, a borrow is made from the next
higher bit.
c) Multiplication
Binary multiplication is straightforward, similar to decimal
multiplication. The process involves multiplying each bit by
the other and summing the partial products.
d) Division
Binary division is similar to long division in decimal, where
the binary number is repeatedly divided by 2. The quotient
and remainder are calculated at each step.
e) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a critical component of the
CPU that performs arithmetic and logical operations on
binary numbers. It can carry out operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.
The ALU is essential for carrying out instructions that involve
numeric data and decision-making processes within the
computer.
Conclusion
The concepts in Digital Logic and Arithmetic are critical for
understanding how computers process data and execute
instructions. From Boolean algebra to digital circuits and
number systems, each topic forms the foundation for the
operation of computers. By mastering these fundamental
topics, BCA students can better appreciate how computers
perform complex tasks efficiently.