MECE 227

Sensors and Actuators

Chapter 5

Optical Sensors

Dr. Amir Nobahar

ATILIM University
2023-2024 Fall Semester
 Chapter 5: Optical Sensors

We’ll study optical sensors and related underlying principles utilized

• Electromagnetic radiation
• Photodetectors (Photoconductive, Photovoltaic, Photodiodes, Photoemissive)
• Pyrometry
• Applications
 Light
Light is a form of energy which is suitable for nonlocal noncontact sensing of many
phenomena such as distance, motion, temperature, and many others. Light may be
considered a propagation of either quanta of energy (packets of energy known as
photons) or electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is
always in motion, it propagates through space.
An object that releases, or emits, such radiation
loses energy, and one that absorbs radiation gains
energy.

Visible light and IR light

are mainly considered
in this chapter
 Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
Nature of EM radiation is defined using following definitions and relations.
Speed of propagation: EM radiation propagates through vacuum at a constant speed
according to

The frequency EM radiation is the oscillation per second as the radiation passes some
fixed point in space.
The wavelength is the spatial distance between two successive maxima or minima of the
wave in the direction of propagation (SI unit is meters and Angstrom is also common, 1
Angstrom=10-10m)
 Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
When EM radiation moves through nonvacuum environment, the propagation speed is
reduced to a value less than c. In general, the new velocity is indicated by the index of
refraction of the medium. The index of refraction is a ratio defined by

The index of refraction often varies with the radiation wavelength for some sample of
material.
 Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
Visible Light: The small band of radiation between approximately 400 nm and 760 nm
represents visible light. This radiation band covers those wavelengths to which human
eyes are sensitive.
Infrared (IR) Light: The radiation band that extends from the limit of human eye
sensitivity at 0.76 m to approximately 100 m is called infrared (IR) radiation.
Photon: EM radiation at a particular frequency can propagate only in discrete quantities
of energy. Thus, if a source is emitting radiation of one frequency, then in fact it is
emitting this energy as a large number of discrete units or quanta. These quanta are
called photons. The actual energy of one photon is related to the frequency by,
Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
 Electromagnetic Radiation
The energy carried by a single photon at various wavelengths
is shown here. This energy is expressed in electron volts
where its unit is conventionally (1 eV = 1.602 * 10-19 J).
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Spectrum: is the spectral content of the radiation. A source such as a laser beam, which
delivers light of a single wavelength (or very nearly), is called a monochromatic source.
A source such as an incandescent bulb may deliver a broad spectrum of radiation and is
referred to as a polychromatic source.

Coherency: Considering oscillations in time and space, when all points along some
cross-section of a radiation beam are in phase, the beam has spatial coherence, when
the radiation in a line along the beam has a fixed-phase relation, the beam has
temporal coherence. In general, conventional sources of light, such as incandescent and
fluorescent light bulbs, produce beams with no coherence. A laser is the only
convenient source of coherent radiation available.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
In general, the spectrum of a source is described by a curve showing how the power is
distributed as a function of wavelength (or frequency) of the radiation
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Photometry: Human eye responds not only to the intensity of light but also to its spectral
content, and human eye is most sensitive to the light in the visible band of
electromagnetic radiation. Photometry is the science of the measurement of light, in
terms of its perceived brightness to the human eye.
In view of human-related design problems, the most basic unit is the SI candela (cd). A 1-
cd source is defined as one that emits monochromatic radiation at 540 x1012 Hz at such an
intensity that there is 1/683 W passing through one steradian of solid angle. This radiation
is roughly in the middle of the visible spectrum.
 Photodetectors
An important part of any application of light to an instrumentation problem is how to
measure or detect radiation. In most process-control-related applications, the radiation
lies in the range from IR through visible and sometimes UV bands. The measurement
sensors generally used are called photodetectors to distinguish them from other spectral
ranges of radiation, such as RF detectors in radio frequency (RF) applications.

We study:
✓ Photoconductive detectors
✓ Photovoltaic detectors
✓ Photodiodes detectors
✓ Photoemissive detectors
 Photoconductive detectors
One of the most common photodetectors is based on the change in conductivity of a
semiconductor material with radiation intensity. The change in conductivity appears as a
change in resistance, so that these devices also are called
photoresistive cells. Because resistance is the parameter
used as the transduced variable, we describe the
device from the point of view of resistance
changes versus light intensity.

The characteristics of photoconductive detectors vary considerably when different

semiconductor materials are used as the active element.
 Photoconductive detectors
The variation with radiation intensity is usually nonlinear, with resistance decreasing as
the radiation intensity increases.

Signal Conditioning
Like the thermistor, a photoconductive cell
exhibits a resistance that decreases
nonlinearly with the dynamic variable,
in this case, radiation intensity.
Various op-amp circuits using the photoconductor as a circuit element are used to
convert the resistance change to a current or voltage change.
Photoconductive detectors
 Photovoltaic detectors
Another important class of photodetectors generates a voltage that is proportional to
incident EM radiation intensity. These devices are called photovoltaic cells because of
their voltage generating characteristics.

Signal Conditioning
Since the short-circuit current, , is linearly related to the
radiation intensity, it is preferable to measure this current when using the cell in
measurement and instrumentation.
The output voltage is given by
Photovoltaic detectors
 Photodiodes detectors
The p-n junction of a diode is sensitive to EM radiation, the photovoltaic effect, which
gives rise to photodiodes as sensors.

The photodiode effect refers to the fact that photons impinging

on the p-n junction also alter the reverse current-versus-voltage
characteristic of the diode.

One of the primary advantages of the photodiode is its fast time response, which can be
in the nanosecond range.
Spectral response of photodiodes is typically peaked in the infrared, but with usable
response in the visible band.
 Photodiodes detectors
Phototransistor: An extension of the photodiode concept is the phototransistor. In this
sensor, the intensity of EM radiation impinging on the collector-base junction of the
transistor acts much like a base current in producing an amplified collector-emitter
current. The phototransistor is not as fast as the photodiode, but still offers response
times in microseconds.

A phototransistor does not need base

current because it is effectively supplied
by incoming light intensity.
 Photoemissive detectors
This type of photodetector was developed many years ago, but it is still one of the most
sensitive types. A wide variety of spectral ranges and sensitivities can be selected from
the many types of photoemissive detectors available.

We have a current that depends on the

intensity of light striking the cathode.

Signal Conditioning The signal conditioning is usually a high-voltage negative supply

directly connected to the photocathode.
 Pyrometry
Pyrometry: noncontact measurement of temperature that rely on EM radiation.
These methods depend on a direct relation between an object’s temperature and the
EM radiation emitted.

Thermal Radiation: All objects having a finite absolute temperature emit EM radiation.
The total emitted radiation energy per second for all wavelengths increases with the
fourth power of the temperature:

Monochromatic radiation It is also clear from Figure

that the radiation energy emitted at any particular
wavelength increases as a function of temperature.
Thus, the J/s per area at some given wavelength
increases with temperature. This is manifested
by the object getting brighter at the (same)
wavelength as its temperature increases.
 Pyrometry
✓ Broadband Pyrometers
Broadband pyrometers often have a readout directly in temperature, either analog or
digital. Generally, the switchable range is 0° to 1000°C with an accuracy of ±5°C to ±0.5°C,
depending on cost.
Applications:
Metal Production Facilities
Glass Industry
Semiconductor Ptocesses
Power Electric

✓ Narrowband Pyrometers
These devices often are called optical pyrometers because they generally involve
wavelengths only in the visible part of the spectrum.
The range is determined in the low end
at the point where an object becomes
visible in the red (≈500K) and is virtually
limited by the melting point of platinum
at the upper end (≈3000K) .
Accuracy is typically ±5K to ±10K
 Applications: Ranging
Ranging: Distances can be measured by measuring the time of flight of light pulses
scattered off a distant object. Thus, if a pulse of light is directed at a distant object and
the reflection is detected a time T later, then the distance is
 Applications:
Optical Encoders
Optical Encoders: are non-contact electromechanical devices which are used for digital
linear or angular position/velocity measurement.
They are used to translate rotary or linear motion into a digital signal. Usually this is for
the purpose of monitoring or controlling motion parameters such as speed, rate,
direction, distance or position.
 Applications:
Optical Encoders
Encoder Working Principle
The Optical Encoders typically consist of a rotating and a stationary electronic circuit. The
rotor is usually a metal, glass, or a plastic disc mounted on the encoder shaft. The disc
has some kind of optical pattern, which is electronically decoded to generate position
information.

The rotor disc in absolute optical encoder uses opaque and transparent segments
arranged in a gray-code pattern. The stator has corresponding pairs of LEDs and photo-
transistors arranged so that the LED light shines through the transparent sections of the
rotor disc and received by photo-transistors on the other side. After the electronic
signals are amplified and converted, they are then available for the evaluation of the
position.
 Applications:
Optical Encoders
How can the disc angle rotation be measured?
With this encoder, the displacement is obtained by counting the number of times that
transitions occur between logical values “0” and “1”. This allows the transformation of
physical quantities by converting the angular displacement variations into electrical type
signal output that is translated into logical values by suitable electronics.
The counting of the number of transitions that occur in the disc sectors is related to the
concept of resolution.
The resolution may be defined as the smallest change in a quantity under measurement
that causes a noticeable change in the corresponding outcome. In this case, the
resolution of the disc corresponds to its minimum angular variation that causes a
transition at the logical output level.
 Applications:
Optical Encoders
There are mainly two types of encoders:
1. Incremental encoders: measures changes in position from some reference position.
Incremental information is obtained by simply counting the pulses. Therefore, it
depends on the previous state and the value of the transition.

Its biggest drawback consists in the need for

defining a starting position reference: this
information is lost whenever the system
is powered down or is turned off.
 Applications:
Optical Encoders
There are mainly two types of encoders:
2. Absolute encoders: measures the actual position. Each position is properly referenced
with a unique code. So, the position is always known and it is not necessary to define a
reference if the system is powered down or is turned off.
 Applications:
Optical Encoders
Example: Consider optical encoder wheel (code-wheel) illustrated below that can be used to build a shaft encoder
by using a reflective-optical sensor (i.e. CNY70) in front of the patterns and attaching the code-wheel to a rotating
wheel or shaft. Assume that only black-to-white passages can be detected by the optical sensor. If the optical sensor
detects 5 black-to-white passages, determine total angle of rotation of the wheel between these detections?
 Assignment
• Study Chapter-6 Optical Sensors from your textbook.