MECE 227

Sensors and Actuators

Chapter 4

Thermal Sensors

Dr. Amir Nobahar

ATILIM University
2023-2024 Fall Semester
 Chapter 4: Thermal Sensors
We’ll study,
• Thermal energy and temperature measurement relationship
• Absolute and relative temperature scales
• Metal resistance versus temperature devices
• RTD, thermistor and thermocouple temperature sensors
 Temperature
Temperature is an indicator of the molecular motion of matter, and it is related to the
thermal energy content of the matter.
The four most common units for temperature are given in below table.

Kelvin and Rankine scales are absolute temperature scales, in which zero temperature is
assigned to a material that has no thermal energy. However, Celsius and Fahrenheit are
relative temperature scales and differ from the absolute scales only in a shift of the zero
axis. Thus, when the relative scales indicate a zero temperature, the thermal energy of
the sample is not zero.
 Metal Resistance versus Temperature
One of the primary methods for electrical measurement of temperature involves
changes in the electrical resistance of certain materials.
Resistance of a particular metal sample at a constant temperature (T) can be found
analytically, or by using graphs or tables or using linear or quadratic analytical
approximations.
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
An RTD is a temperature sensor which is based on the principle that metal resistance
increases with increasing temperature.
Construction: An RTD, is simply a length of wire (usually in coil form)
Response Time: 0.5 s to 5 s or more
Signal Conditioning: an RTD is usually used in a bridge circuit.

Range:
-100°C to 650°C (platinum)
-180°C to 300°C (nickel)

Sensitivity:
typical values of fractional change in resistance of RTD per °C are,
0.004/°C (platinum)
0.005 /°C (nickel)
Example:
Temperature change of 1°C will result 0.4  change of a 100  platinum RTD.
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Dissipation Constant: An RTD is a resistance, hence it’ll dissipate I2R power and self-
heating must be avoided, or this may induce error. Dissipation constant relates the
power required to raise the RTD temperature by one degree of temperature.
Self-heating temperature rise of an RTD can be found using:

Example:
Let PD=25 mW/°C , if P=I2R power loss of the RTD is 25 mW then it will be heated by 1°C
which is the temperature rise of the RTD.
 Resistance versus Temperature Approximations

(mİdpoint between T1 and T2)

Line L represents a linear approximation of

resistance versus temperature between T1
and T2.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
 THERMISTORS
A thermistor is a temperature sensor which is based on principles regarding
semiconductor resistance changes with temperature.

Transfer functions of PTC and NTC

thermistors as compared with an RTD.
(Handbook of Modern Sensors, J. Fraden)

NTC: Negative temperature coefficient, thermistor resistance decreases with increasing temperature
PTC: Positive temperature coefficient, thermistor resistance inccreases with increasing temperature
Although most thermistors are NTC devices, PTC devices can also be made from special materials.
 THERMISTORS
Construction: thermistor is a bulk semiconductor, it can be
fabricated in the form of discs, beads, rods in various sizes
from 1mm diameter to several cm.

Response Time: 0.5 s to 10 s

Signal Conditioning: many possible circuits exist, such as bridge circuits, voltage divider
circuits.

Range: -100°C to 300°C

Sensitivity: see the curve in Figure 5 (slope of the curve gives the sensitivity)

Dissipation Constant: PD=1 mW/°C to PD=10 mW/°C

THERMISTORS
 Thermocouples (TCs)
Two dissimilar metals in contact form a thermoelectric junction that produces a voltage
proportional to the temperature of the junction which is known as the Seebeck effect.

ThermoCouples (TC) are simply temperature sensors consisting of two dissimilar

metals joined together and the joints are kept at different temperatures so as to
generate a thermal electromotive force (emf) (voltage).
 Thermocouples
Seebeck emf (  )

Using an approximate
linear relationship

Note:
If the two metals are same then QA=QB then Seebeck emf = 0
If temperatures T1 = T2 then Seebeck emf = 0
Thermocouples
 Thermocouples
Peltier effect
A closed loop is formed using two different metals, A and B, and an external voltage is
applied to cause a current to flow in the circuit, as shown below. Due to different
electrothermal transport properties of the metals, one of the junctions will be heated
and the other cooled. This process is referred to as the Peltier effect.
 Thermocouples
Practical thermocouple circuits are of the form shown below,
Reference junctions are held at
a known temperature, TR the
reference junction temperature

Connection to
measuring device

Measurement junction TM, is

exposed to the environment
whose temperature is to be
measured.

In this arrangement, an open-circuit voltage is measured which is a function of only the

temperature difference (TM-TR) and the type of metals A and B.
 Thermocouples
Thermocouple Types: Certain standard configurations of TCs using specific metals (or
alloys of metals) are adopted and given letter designations; as shown in Table 2. Each
type has its particular features, such as range, linearity, inertness to hostile
environments, sensitivity, and so on, and is chosen for specific applications accordingly.

Note the footnote of Table 2, about polarity of the TC

materials with respect to each other.
 Thermocouples
Thermocouple Polarity: TC voltage produced is differential in the sense that it is
measured between the two metal wires. Note the footnote of Table 2, about polarity of
the TC materials. A type J TC is called iron-constantan. If TR < TM, then iron will be more
positive than the constantan. A type J TC with TR = 0°C and TM = 100°C will produce 5.27
mV, that is the iron is more positive than the constantan. For a measurement. If
TM = -100°C this TC will produce -4.63 mV, hence polarity changes that is the iron is less
positive than the constantan.

Temperature of the measuring junction, that is TM

Reference junction
temperature TR=0
 Thermocouples
Change of TC Graph or TC Table Reference Junction Temperature: TC graphs or tables
are prepared for a particular TR. However, it is possible to use these graphs or tables
with a TC that has a different TR by applying an appropriate shift in the graphs or table
values. Remember that the voltage is proportional to (TM-TR). Thus, if a new reference is
greater than the graph or table reference, all voltages of the graph or table will be less
for this TC. The amount less will be just the voltage of the new reference as found on
the graph or table.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples
 Other Thermal Sensors
In addition to RTD, thermistor and thermocouple temperature sensors there are various
thermal sensors:

• Bimetal Strips
• Gas Thermometers
• Vapor-Pressure Thermometers
• Liquid-Expansion Thermometers
• Solid-State Temperature Sensors
 Assignment
• Study Chapter-4 Thermal Sensors from your textbook.