MATH

MATH
ALGEBRA
REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

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ALGEBRA
Real Number System
Factors and Multiples
Real numbers (ℝ) represent quantities that can be found on the
Divisibility Rules number line. They include both rational and irrational numbers
Fractions and can be thought of as encompassing all possible magnitudes
Percent and measurements.
Ratio and Proportion
Rational Numbers (ℚ) are numbers that can be expressed as a
Algebraic Expressions
fraction a/b​, where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0.
Cartesian Coordinate System Any number that can be expressed as a fraction is a rational
Polynomial Equations number.
Quadratic Equations All integers are rational numbers.
Linear Equations All fractions are rational numbers.
All terminating decimals or decimals with an end are rational
Functions
numbers.
Radical Expressions All non-terminating but repeating decimals are rational
Law of Exponents and Logarithm numbers.
Series and Sequences Decimals that are non-terminating and non-repeating such as
pi and e are not rational numbers.

GEOMETRY
Integers (ℤ) include all whole numbers and their negatives. The
Undefined Terms set of whole numbers as well as counting numbers are a subset
Angles of the set of integers.
Polygons Whole Numbers (𝕎) include all natural numbers plus 0.
Triangles Natural Numbers (ℕ) are the counting numbers: 1,2,3,…

Quadrilaterals
Even and Odd Numbers: A number is even (intuitively) if the end
Circles digit is either 0, 2, 4, 5, or 8 (or if the number is divisible by 2).
Otherwise, it is odd.
TRIGONOMETRY
Six Trigonometric Functions Irrational Numbers (ℚ’) are numbers that cannot be written as a
simple fraction. Their decimal expansions are non-repeating and
Angles
non-terminating (never-ending). Examples: √2, e, π

STATISTIC Imaginary Numbers are the square root of a negative number.

Measures of Central Tendency The imaginary unit i is the square root of -1.
FCP and Probability
Complex Numbers (ℂ)
Say n ∈ ℂ. Then, n = ai + b, where i = √-1, and a, b ∈ ℝ
CALCULUS These numbers (a + bi) have a real part (a) and an imaginary
Limits part (bi).
Basic Differentiation
Integrals
MATH
Is Zero a Real or an Imaginary Number? FACTORS AND MULTIPLES
Zero is considered to be both a real and an imaginary number. As
we know, imaginary numbers are the square root of non-positive Factors
real numbers. And since 0 is also a non-positive number, Factors are the numbers we multiply to obtain another number
therefore it fulfils the criteria of the imaginary number. Whereas 0 We can classify whole numbers based on the number of factors
is also a rational number, which is defined in a number line and they have. They can be either a prime or composite number,
hence a real number. except for 0 and 1.

Properties of Real Numbers Prime numbers: A prime number is a whole number greater than 1
Commutative property that has only two positive factors: 1 and itself
Associative property Composite numbers: A composite number is a whole number
Distributive property greater than 1 that has more than 2 positive factors.
Identity property Factoring: Factoring is the process of rewriting a number as the
product of its factors. The resulting number is called its factored
Consider “m, n and r” are three real numbers. Then the above form.
properties can be described using m, n, and r as shown below: Prime Factorization: When the factored form is composed of only
prime numbers, this is called the prime factorization of the
Commutative Property number. The prime factorization of a number is unique.
If m and n are the numbers, then the general form will be m + n = n +
m for addition and m.n = n.m for multiplication.
Addition: m + n = n + m. For example, 5 + 3 = 3 + 5, 2 + 4 = 4 + 2.
Multiplication: m × n = n × m. For example, 5 × 3 = 3 × 5, 2 × 4 =
4 × 2.

Associative Property
If m, n and r are the numbers. The general form will be m + (n + r) =
(m + n) + r for addition(mn) r = m (nr) for multiplication.
Addition: The general form will be m + (n + r) = (m + n) + r. An
example of additive associative property is 10 + (3 + 2) = (10 + 3)
+ 2.
Multiplication: (mn) r = m (nr). An example of a multiplicative
associative property is (2 × 3) 4 = 2 (3 × 4).
Greatest common factor (GCF): The GCF is the largest common
Distributive Property factor of two given numbers. One of the common methods to
For three numbers m, n, and r, which are real in nature, the determine the GCF of two numbers is by listing their factors and
distributive property is represented as: determining the largest common factor from the list.
m (n + r) = mn + mr and (m + n) r = mr + nr.
Example of distributive property is: 5(2 + 3) = 5 × 2 + 5 × 3. Here, Example: GCF of 48 and 60
both sides will yield 25. Factors of 48: 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,16,24,48
Factors of 60: 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30,60
Identity Property Common factors of 48 and 60: 1,2,3,4,6,12
There are additive and multiplicative identities. The largest common factor is 12.
For addition: m + 0 = m. (0 is the additive identity)
For multiplication: m × 1 = 1 × m = m. (1 is the multiplicative Multiple
identity) A multiple is a result when we multiply a number by an integer.
Least Common Multiple (LCM): The LCM is the smallest whole
PEMDAS number multiple of two or more numbers.
If there are more than one mathematical operation involved in your
calculation, you must follow Parentheses-Exponent-Multiplication- Example: LCM of 12 and 18
Division-Addition-Subtraction (PEMDAS). Multiples of 12: 12,24,36,48,60,72,…
Perform the operation inside the parenthesis or grouping symbol. Multiples of 18: 18,36,54,72,90,…
Simplify any number with exponents. Common multiples of 12 and 18: 36,72,…
Perform multiplication or division from left to right. The smallest common multiple is 36.
Perform addition or subtraction from left to right.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
The Real Number Line
The real number line is a visual representation of real numbers. A number, say x, is divisible by n when there is no remainder when x
Each point on the line corresponds to a unique real number, and is divided by n. X is divisible by n when x is a multiple of n.
each real number corresponds to a unique point.
The line extends infinitely in both directions, representing the Divisibility Rule of 1
concept of infinity in mathematics. Every number is divisible by 1. Divisibility rule for 1 doesn’t have any
condition. Any number divided by 1 will give the number itself,
irrespective of how large the number is.

Divisibility Rule of 2
If a number is even or a number whose last digit is an even number.
MATH
Divisibility Rule of 3
Divisibility rule for 3 states that a number is completely divisible by 3
FRACTIONS
if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Example: 102. 1+0+2 = 3, 3 is Fractions are a way of representing numbers that are not whole.
divisible by 3, therefore 102 is divisible by 3. They are used to express parts of a whole or a division of quantities.
A fraction consists of two numbers:
Divisibility Rule of 4 Numerator: The top part, which indicates how many parts are
If the last two digits of a number are divisible by 4, then that number taken.
is a multiple of 4 and is divisible by 4 completely. Example: 1032. The Denominator: The bottom part, which indicates how many equal
last two digit number is 32. 32 is divisible by 4, therefore 1032 is parts the whole is divided into.
divisible by 4.

Numerator
Divisibility Rule of 5
Numbers, which last with digits, 0 or 5 are always divisible by 5. Denominator

Divisibility Rule of 6 Types of Fractions

Numbers which are divisible by both 2 and 3 are divisible by 6. That Proper Fractions: The numerator is less than the denominator.
is, if the last digit of the given number is even and the sum of its (3/4, 5/6, 1/5, 4/9)
digits is a multiple of 3, then the given number is also a multiple of 6. Improper Fractions: The numerator is greater than or equal to the
Example: 534. The number is an even number, so it is divisible by 2. denominator. (7/5, 9/2, 8/3)
5+3+4 = 12, 12 is divisible 3. Since 534 is both divisible by 2 and 3, Mixed Numbers: A combination of a whole number and a proper
therefore it is divisible by 6. fraction. (1 1/2, 8 4/9, 9 3/4)
Equivalent Fractions: Different fractions that represent the same
Divisibility Rule of 7 value. (5/20 = 1/4)
The divisibility rule of 7 is complicated. First, remove the last number
in the given, double it, and subtract that number to the remaining Simplifying Fractions
number. Repeat the process until the number is divisible by 7. To simplify a fraction, divide the numerator and the denominator by
Example: 462. The last digit is 2. Multiply 2 to 2 = 4. We are left with their greatest common divisor (GCD).
46. Subtract 4 from 46, we get 42. We know that 42 is divisible by 7,
therefore 462 is divisible by 7. Example:
The GCD of 8 and 12 is 4.
Divisibility Rule of 8
If the last three digits of a number are divisible by 8, then the number Operations with Fractions
is completely divisible by 8.
Addition and Subtraction
Divisibility Rule of 9 Similar Fractions: Fractions that have the same denominator.
The rule for divisibility by 9 is similar to divisibility rule for 3. That is, if Dissimilar Fractions: fractions that have different denominator.
the sum of digits of the number is divisible by 9, then the number If the two fractions are similar, simply add their numerator and
itself is divisible by 9. copy their denominator. If the two fractions are dissimilar, find
their GCD to make their denominator the same and simply add
Divisibility Rule of 10 their numerator.
Divisibility rule for 10 states that any number whose last digit is 0, is
divisible by 10. Example:

Divisibility Rules for 11

If the difference of the sum of alternative digits of a number is GCD: 12
divisible by 11, then that number is divisible by 11 completely. Sum of
digits in odd places – Sum of digits in even places = 0 or a multiple of Multiplication: Multiply the numerators together and the
11. Example: 4983. First, group 4 and 8, then 9 and 3. Get their sum, denominators together.
4+8 = 12 and 9+3 = 12. Subtract their sums, 12 - 12 = 0. Since the
result is 0, therefore 4983 is divisible by 11. Example:

Divisibility Rule of 12
If the number is divisible by both 3 and 4, then the number is divisible Division: Multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction you are dividing by.
by 12 exactly.
Example:
Divisibility Rules for 13
For any given number, to check if it is divisible by 13, we have to add
four times of the last digit of the number to the remaining number and
repeat the process until you get a two-digit number. Now check if Converting Between Mixed Numbers and Improper Fractions
that two-digit number is divisible by 13 or not. If it is divisible, then
the given number is divisible by 13. Example: 1157. 115 + 7(4) = 115 + Mixed Number to Improper Fraction: Multiply the whole number
28 = 143 ... 14 + 3(4) = 14 + 12 = 26. 26 is divisible by 13, therefore by the denominator, add the numerator, and place over the
1157 is also divisible by 13. original denominator.

Example:
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Improper Fraction to Mixed Number: Divide the numerator by the Percent to Decimal: Divide the percent by 100.
denominator to get the whole number part, and the remainder
becomes the new numerator. Example:
Whole number
Example: Percentage
Percentage is the part of a whole expressed in hundredths.
The percentage is the result when you multiply a number by a
Numerator percent.

Denominator Base and Rate

The base is the amount you are taking a percent of.
DECIMAL TO FRACTION CONVERSION Meanwhile, the rate is the percent you are calculating

Terminating decimal: The denominator is a power of 10 but it

based on the place value (PV) of the decimal. If the decimal is on
the tenths place, the denominator is 10. If the decimal is on the Techan’s Triangle
hundredths place, the denominator is 100, and so on. P = Percentage
B = Base
R = Rate

Example: Suppose a store is selling a jacket that was originally priced at

$80. The jacket is now on sale for $60. We want to find out the discount
percentage.

Steps to Calculate the Discount Percentage

1. Determine the Original Price: Original Price (OP) = $80
2. Determine the Sale Price: Sale Price (SP) = $60
3. Calculate the Discount Amount: Discount Amount (DA) = Original
Example:
Price - Sale Price ... DA = $80 - $60 = $20
4. Calculate the Discount Percentage:

Repeating Decimals: Use algebraic methods to convert repeating

decimals to fractions. (What you’ll add also depends on its PV)

Example: Convert to fraction. Principal (P): amount of money (or sum) borrowed or given on loan.
Let Rate of Interest (r%): amount of money paid for the use of money
Add 9 to both sides of the equation. borrowed.
Subtract
Amount (A): sum of interest and principal.
Result Time (t): duration of the loan
Divide both sides by 9 and simplify

RATIO AND PROPORTION

PERCENT
A percent is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100. It is
denoted using the percent symbol (%). Percentages are commonly
used to compare proportions, describe changes, and represent
probabilities.
A percent represents parts per hundred.
For example, 50% means 50 out of 100. 50/100 = 1/2

Converting Between Fractions, Decimals, and Percents

Fraction to Percent: Multiply the fraction by 100 and add the

percent symbol.

Example:

Decimal to Percent: Multiply the decimal by 100 and add the

percent symbol.
Ratio: A ratio is a comparison of two quantities. It expresses how
many times one quantity is equal to another. We often use ratios to
Example:
compare two things.
Percent to Fraction: Divide the percent by 100 and simplify if
Proportion: A proportion is an equality of two ratios. It states that
necessary.
two given ratios are equivalent to each other. We write proportions to
establish equivalent ratios and solve for unknown quantities.
Example:
MATH
Example:
3:4 is a ratio
3:4 = 6:8 is a proportion

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Operation Phrase Example Mathematically

plus A number plus ten x + 10

more than seven more than a number 7+x

the sum of the sum of a number and twelve x + 12

Addition (+)
increased by a number increased by nine x+9

added to two is added to a number 2+x

the total of the total of eight and a number 8+x

subtracted from nine is subtracted from a number x-9

less than eight less than a number x-4

minus two minus a number 2-x

Subtraction (-)
decreased by a number is decreased by thirteen x - 13

less five less a number 5-x

the difference of the difference of ten and a number 10 - x

of half of a number 1/2(x)

multiplied by four multiplied by a number 4x

Multiplication (x) product of the product of ten and a number 10x

twice; double twice a number; double a number 2x

times three times a number 3x

divided by seven divided by a number 7/x

Division (÷) ratio of the ratio of a number to three x/3

quoteint of the quotient of a number and four x/4

CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

The rectangular coordinate system consists of two real
number lines that intersect at a right angle. The horizontal
number line is called the x-axis, and the vertical number line
is called the y-axis. These two number lines define a flat
surface called a plane, and each point on this plane is
associated with an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y).
Ordered pair or coordinates is a pair of numbers that locate
a point in the coordinate plane. The first number of an
ordered pair corresponds to a number on the x-axis called
the abscissa or x-coordinate. The second number of the
ordered pair corresponds to a number on the y-axis called
they-coordinate or ordinate. The intersection of the two
axes is known as the origin, which corresponds to the point
(0, 0).
MATH
Linear Polynomial Function: A linear polynomial function has
a degree 1. It is of the form f(x) = ax + b.
Quadratic Polynomial Function: A quadratic polynomial
function has a degree 2. It is of the form f(x) = ax² + bx + c.
Cubic Polynomial Function: A cubic polynomial function has
a degree 3. It is of the form f(x) = ax³ + bx² + cx + d.

How to determine a Polynomial Equation?

No variable in the denominator
No fractional exponents.
No negative exponents.
No variable inside a radical.

Factoring Polynomials

1. Factoring Out the Greatest Common Factor (GCF)

Find the highest common factor of all terms and factor it out.
Example:
GCF:
An ordered pair (x, y) represents the position of a point relative Factored Form:
to the origin. The x-coordinate represents a position to the right
of the origin if it is positive and to the left of the origin if it is 2. Factoring by Grouping
negative. The y-coordinate represents a position above the Group terms to find common factors and factor them.
origin if it is positive and below the origin if it is negative. Using Example:
this system, every position (point) in the plane is uniquely
Group
identified. For example, the ordered pair (2, 3) denotes the
position relative to the origin as shown in the figure at the right. GCF

Factor out common binomial

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS Special Polynomials

A polynomial function is a function such as a quadratic, a cubic, a

quartic, and so on, involving only non-negative integer powers of
x. Polynomial is made up of two words, poly, and nomial. "Poly"
means many, and "nomial" means the term, and hence when they
are combined, we can say that polynomials are "algebraic
expressions with many terms".

This algebraic expression is called a polynomial function in

variable x.
Factoring Trinomials (a = 1) Example: x² - 4x - 21 Find the factors

Where, x² + bx + c = (x + m) (x + n)
x x -7 + 3 = -4
an, an-1, … a0 are real number constants wherein: m+n=b
factored form -21 + 1 = -20
an can’t be equal to zero and is called the leading coefficient mn = c (x - 7)(x + 3)
n is a non-negative integer
Each exponent of variable in polynomial function should be a
Factoring Trinomials (a ≠ 1)
whole number
ax² + bx + c = (mx + n) (px + q)
Types of Polynomial Equations/Functions wherein: a = mp
b = mq + np
Based on Number of Terms c = nq
Monomials are polynomials that contain only one term.
Binomials are polynomials that contain only two terms.
Example: 6x² - 5x - 6 find two numbers that when you multiply
Trinomials are polynomials that contain only three terms. results to -36 and adds up to -5.
ac = (6)(-6) = -36 1 and -36? (-36 and -35)
Based on the Degree b = -5 2 and -18? (-36 and -16)
Zero Polynomial Function: A zero polynomial function is of 3 and -12? (-36 and -9)
4 and -9? (-36 and -5)
the form f(x) = 0, yes, it just contains just 0 and no other term = 6x² - 9x + 4x - 6
or variable. Since f(x) = a constant here, it is a constant
Grouping: (6x² + 4x) - (9x - 6)
function.
= 2x (3x + 2) + (-3)(3x+2)
click for additional information = (2x - 3)(3x + 2)
MATH
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS Discriminant
If Δ > 0, there are 2 distinct roots
A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation that has 2 as the Δ = 0, there is 1 unique root, or 2 equal roots
highest degree / whose highest degree is 2. Also called 'Equation Δ < 0, there are no real roots
of Degree 2.' The word "Quadratic" is derived from the word
"Quad" which means "square". In other words, a quadratic Sum and Product of the Roots
function is a "polynomial function of degree 2".

Quadratic functions are represented by a parabola. Depending

on the coefficient of the highest degree, the direction of the
curve is decided. The standard form of a Quadratic Function is in
the form f(x) = ax² + bx + c, where a, b, and c are real numbers
with a ≠ 0. LINEAR EQUATIONS
A linear equation is an equation of the first degree, meaning it
Examples: involves only the first powers of the variables. The general form
f(x) = 2x² + 4x - 5; Here a = 2, b = 4, c = -5 of a linear equation in one variable is:
f(x) = 3x² - 9; Here a = 3, b = 0, c = 9
f(x) = x² - x; Here a = 1, b = -1, c = 0 where:
a and b are constants.
Quadratic Formula
x is the variable.

In two variables, a linear equation can be written as:

where:
a, b, and c are constants.
Vertex Form of Quadratic Function slope formula
x and y are variables.

Forms of Linear Equations

Slope-Intercept Form:
m is the slope of the line.
b is the y-intercept, the point where the line crosses the y-axis.

Point-Slope Form:
(x1​,y1​) is a point on the line.
m is the slope of the line.

Standard Form:
Vertex of Quadratic Function
A, B, and C are integers.
The vertex of a quadratic function (which is in U shape) is
A and B are not both zero.
where the function has a maximum value or a minimum value.
The axis of symmetry of the quadratic Function intersects the
Types of Solutions
function (parabola) at the vertex.

One Solution
The lines intersect at one point.
The system is consistent and independent.

No Solution
The lines are parallel and never intersect.
The system is inconsistent.

Infinite Solutions
The lines coincide (are the same line).
The system is consistent and dependent.
Standard form: f(x) = ax² + bx + c, where a ≠ 0
Vertex form: f(x) = a(x - h)² + k, where a ≠ 0 and (h, k) is the
Parallel Lines:
vertex of the parabola representing the quadratic function.
Intercept form: f(x) = a (x - p) (x - q), where a ≠ 0 and (p, 0)
Perpendicular Lines:
and (q, 0) are the x-intercepts of the parabola representing
the quadratic function.
MATH
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS Subtraction:

A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of Multiplication:

possible outputs, where each input is related to exactly one
output. If f is a function, we write f(x) to denote the output Division:
corresponding to the input x. A relation, on the other hand,
shows a relationship between two values. All functions are Composition of Function:
relations but not all relations are functions.
Example: Find the domain and range of the given function.

The function is defined at x ≥ 2

Since substituting x = 1 will result in a negative number and
we know that the square root of a negative number is always
imaginary. Therefore, the domain is [2, ∞) or {x∣x ≥ 2}.

The range of a function is the set of numbers that the function

can produce. In other words, it is the set of y-values that you get
when you plug all of the possible x-values into the function. Since
the lowest possible x-value we can plug-in the function to keep
the function defined is 2, by substituting 2 to the equation, you’ll
get 0. Therefore, the range is [0, ∞) or {y∣y ≥ 0}.

Midpoint
The midpoint formula is used to find the exact center point
between two defined points on a plane. ₁

Formally, a function f from a set A to a set B is a rule that assigns

Given two points A(x₁, y₁) and B(x₂, y₂), the midpoint M of the line
each element x in A exactly one element f(x)f in B. This is written
segment connecting these points is calculated as follows:
as: f : A → B

Properties of Functions

Domain and Range

Example: Find the midpoint between the points A(2, 3) and B(4, 7).
The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values
(x-values) for which the function is defined.
The range of a function is the set of all possible output values
(y-values).
So, the midpoint M is (3,5).
Injective (One-to-One) Functions
A function f is injective if different inputs produce different Distance Formula
outputs. The distance formula is used to determine the length of the
Formally, implies straight line segment connecting two points in a plane. Given two
points A(x₁, y₁) and B(x₂, y₂), the distance d between these points
Surjective (Onto) Functions is calculated as follows:
A function f is surjective if every element in the range B has a
preimage in the domain A.
Formally, for every y ∈ B, there exists x ∈ A such that f(x)=y.
This formula is derived from the Pythagorean theorem.
Bijective Functions
A function f is bijective if it is both injective and surjective, Example: Find the distance between the points A(2,3) and B(4,7).
meaning it has a one-to-one correspondence between
elements of the domain and elements of the range.

Inverse Functions
If f is a bijective function, its inverse f⁻¹ exists and satisfies
f(f⁻¹(y)) = y and f(f⁻¹(x)) = x.

Operations on Functions
So, the distance d between the points A and B is 2√5.
Addition:
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RADICAL EXPRESSIONS Steps to Simplify Radicands
1. Factor the Radicand: Break down the number inside the
Parts of a Radical radical into its prime factors.
2. Identify Perfect Powers: Look for factors that are perfect
squares (for square roots), perfect cubes (for cube roots),
etc.
3. Separate the Perfect Powers: Split the radical into the
product of two radicals, one containing the perfect power
and the other containing the remaining factors.
4. Simplify the Perfect Powers: Take the root of the perfect
power outside the radical.
5. Combine: Combine any coefficients with the simplified
Radical Symbol: Represents the root of a number. radical.
Radicand: The number or expression inside the radical
symbol. Example:
Index: Indicates the degree of the root.
Identify (Perfect Square)
Factor
perfect
Basic Properties of Radicals
powers (Not)
Product Property Quotient Property
Separate
the Perfect
Powers

Power of a Radical Radical of a Power Simplify

the Perfect
Powers

Rationalizing the Denominator

Rationalizing the denominator involves removing the radical from Multiply
the denominator by multiplying by a conjugate or an appropriate
form of 1.
Rationalizing a Binomial Denominator LAW OF EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS
Rationalizing a
Simple Radical

Operations with Radical Expressions

Addition and Subtraction

Combine like radicals by adding or subtracting their
coefficients (Do not add/subtract when the two expressions
do not have the same radicand). Ex.:

Multiplication
Multiply the coefficients and the radicands.
Example:

Division
Divide the coefficients and the radicands.
Example:

Adding/Subtracting Radical Expressions with Dissimilar

Radicands

Example:

Simplify each radical

Combine
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Fibonacci Sequence
Each term is the sum of the two preceding terms.
Example: 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,…

The nth term aₙ​can be expressed using:

with initial conditions a₁ = 0 and a₂ = 1.

Harmonic Sequence
A sequence of numbers derived from the reciprocals of an
arithmetic sequence.
A sequence {bₙ​} is called a harmonic sequence if its terms are
the reciprocals of the terms of an arithmetic sequence. That
is, if aₙ​​is an arithmetic sequence given by:
where a is the first term and d is the common difference, then
the corresponding harmonic sequence bₙ is:

Series: A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.

Types of Series

Arithmetic Series
The sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence.
The sum Sₙ of the first n terms of an arithmetic series can be
expressed as:

or

Geometric Series
SERIES AND SEQUENCES The sum of the terms of a geometric sequence.
The sum Sₙ of the first n terms of a geometric series can be
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers that follow a particular
expressed as:
pattern. Each number in the sequence is called a term.

Types of Sequences

Arithmetic Sequence
For an infinite geometric series where ∣r∣< 1, the sum S is:
The difference between consecutive terms is constant.
Example: 2,5,8,11,14,… (common difference d=3)

The n-th term aₙ of an arithmetic sequence can be expressed as:

Convergent and Divergent Series

where a₁​is the first term and d is the common difference.
Convergent Series
Geometric Sequence A series is convergent if the sum of its terms approaches a
Each term is found by multiplying the previous term by a specific value as you add more and more terms. This specific
constant ratio. value is called the limit of the series.
Example: 3,6,12,24,48,… (common ratio r=2).
Example: The infinite geometric series
The n-th term aₙ​of a geometric sequence can be expressed as: converges to 2.
The first term is 1.
The second term is 1/2​, so the sum of the first two terms is
1 + 1/2 = 1.5
where a₁​​is the first term and r is the common ratio. The third term is 1/4, so the sum of the first three terms is
1 + 1/2 + 1/4 = 1.75
The fourth term is 1/8​, so the sum of the first four terms is
1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 = 1.875
MATH
As you keep adding more terms, the total sum gets closer and Midpoint of a Segment
closer to 2, but it never actually exceeds 2. Therefore, this series It is the middle part of a segment.
converges to 2.
Betweenness
Divergent Series If a point is between two points (A and C), the length of a
A series is divergent if the sum of its terms does not approach a segment (AB) plus the length of the second segment (BC) will
specific value as you add more and more terms. be equal to the length of AC.

Example: The series 1+1+1+1+… diverges. 3 cm 8 cm

The first term is 1.
A B C
The second term is 1, so the sum of the first two terms is
1+1=2. AB + BC = AC
The third term is 1, so the sum of the first three terms is 3 cm + 8 cm = 11 cm
1+1+1=3.
The fourth term is 1, so the sum of the first four terms is
1+1+1+1=4.

As you keep adding more terms, the total sum keeps increasing
without bound. It does not approach any specific value.
Therefore, this series diverges.

GEOMETRY
UNDEFINED TERMS ANGLES
Point : A point is an exact location. It has no size, length,
width, or depth. It is represented by a single dot. It is named A figure formed by two rays with
by one point. Example: Point A. a common endpoint. The two
Line : It has no width and no thickness, but it has length. It rays are called the sides of the
can be extended Infinitely to both directions. It is named by angle. The common endpoint of
any two points. Example: Line AB. the sides of an angle is called
Plane : It has no thickness but has length and width. It can be the vertex. An angle is denoted
extended indefinitely in all directions. It is named by three using a number, vertex, or the
points. Example: Plane ABC. vertex and two points on each side of the angle. An angle divides
the plane into three parts: interior angle, exterior angle, and the
Point angle itself.
Tip of a ballpen
Dust Measure of an Angle
Line Refers to the opening made from one side of the angle to the
Corner of a paper
Intersection of a wall and ceiling other. An arrow from one side of the angle to the other usually
Mole
Ruler denotes the measure desired. The terminal side is the upper
Strand of hair side of the angle and the initial side is the lower side of the
Plane
Flat mirror angle.
Ceiling in a room
Classification of Angles
RELATIONSHIPS 1. Acute Angle : 0° < m < 90°
Ray – a portion of a line with one endpoint. A ray extends 2. Right Angle : m = 90°
indefinitely in one direction (either left or right). It can be 3. Obtuse Angle : 90° < m < 180°
named by two points. The number of rays can be solved by 4. Straight Angle : m = 180°
using the equation: n – 1, where n = number of points in the 5. Reflex Angle : 180° < m < 360°
given ray. 6. Complete Angle : m = 360°
Segment – a portion of a line having two endpoints.
Segments of a line is the part between two points. The
number of line segments can be solved by using the equation:
n(n – 1)/2, where n = number of points in the given line.

Congruent Segment
Two segments are congruent if they have equal measures.
Conversely, when two segments are congruent, we are
certain that these segments have equal measures.
MATH
Congruent Angle: Two Angles are congruent if they have TRIANGLES
equal measures. Theorem : All right angles are congruent. A three-sided polygon.
Angle Bisector : A line, ray, or segment that divides an angle
into two congruent angles. Types of Triangles
Vertical Angles : Are two angles in which the sides of one
angle are opposite rays to the sides of the other angles. According to angles
Adjacent Angles : Two angles with a common vertex and a Acute triangle - all angles are less than 90°
common side between them. Right triangle - one angle is 90°
Complementary Angles : Are two angles with the sum of Obtuse triangle - one angle is more than 90°
their measurements equal to 90°.
Supplementary Angles : Are two angles with the sum of their
measurements equal to 180°.

POLYGONS
A Polygon is a closed geometric figure composed of segments According to sides
which intersect only at their endpoints. Scalene - no sides are congruent
Isosceles - two sides are congruent
Convex : If each interior angle of a polygon is less than 180°. Equilateral - all sides are congruent
Concave : If one or more interior angle of a polygon are greater
than 180°.

Regular Polygon : An equilateral and Equiangular Polygon.

Equilateral : All sides have the same measurement.
Equiangular : All angles have the same measurements.

Diagonal : Segment joining an consecutive vertices. Congruent triangles - triangles whose corresponding angles
D = n (n – 3)/2 and sides are congruent
Sum of Interior Angles : (n – 2) 180° , n = number of sides Similar triangles - triangles whose corresponding angles are
Sum of Exterior Angles : 360 ÷ n congruent and the corresponding sides are proportional
Triangle Inequality Theorem
where n = number of sides.

Number of sides Polygon Name Right Triangle : Pythagorean Theorem

3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral Pythagorean Triples
3, 4, 5
5 Pentagon
5, 12, 13
6 Hexagon 7, 24, 25
7 Heptagon 9, 40, 41
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon
10 Decagon
11 Undecagon
12 Dodecagon
QUADRILATERALS
13 Triskaidecagon
QUADRILATERALS
14 Tetradecagon
In geometry, a quadrilateral is a closed shape figure that is
15 Pentadecagon formed by joining four points among which any three points are
16 Hexadecagon non-collinear. A quadrilateral has 4 sides, 4 angles, and 4
17 Hexadecagon vertices.

18 Octadecagon
Quadra = Four
19 Nonadecagon Latus = Sides
20 Icosagon
MATH
Pyramid = ⅓bh
Properties of Quadrilateral
Cone = ⅓ × πr²h
Each of the quadrilateral has its own properties. Though there
Sphere = 4/3πr³
are some properties that are common to all quadrilaterals. They
are as follows:
The Surface Area of a three-dimensional object is the total area
Four sides
of all of its surfaces. Surface Area is important to show situations
Four vertices
where we want to wrap something, paint something, and
Two diagonals
eventually while building things to get the best possible design. It
Sum of interior angles is 360°
is the total area occupied by the surfaces of an object. It is
classified into two categories; curved surface area or lateral
Types of Quadrilaterals
surface area (LSA) and total surface area (TSA).
Square
Rectangle
3D Object TSA LSA
Parallelogram
Trapezium Cube 6s² 4a²
Rhombus 2 (lw) + 2 (lh) + 2
Cuboid 2h (l + b)
Kite (wh)
Cone πr (l × r) πrl
Theorems (always, sometimes, never)
• A square is always a rectangle. LSA + 2 (area of one Perimeter of base ×
Prism
• A rhombus is sometimes a square. end) height
• A parallelogram is sometimes a rectangle. Cylinder 2πr (h + r) 2πrh
• A parallelogram sometimes has congruent diagonals. ½ × perimeter of
• A parallelogram is always a quadrilateral. Pyramid LSA + Area of base
base × slant height
• A rhombus sometimes has congruent diagonals.
Hemisphere 3πr² 2πr²
• A trapezoid will never have opposite sides parallel.
• A trapezoid has sometimes legs congruent. Sphere 4πr² 4πr²
• A rectangle sometimes has perpendicular diagonals.

CIRCLE
PERIMETER, AREA, VOLUME
A circle is a closed, two-dimensional shape with a curving side
The perimeter of a shape is defined as the total distance around that joins at the ends to create a round form. It is made up of all
the shape. It is the length of any shape that can be expanded in a points in a plane that are separated from the center by a
linear form. particular distance. The Latin word "circulus," which meaning a
little ring, is where the term "circle" originates.
Formulas:
Square = 4s Parts of a Circle
Rectangle = 2 (l + w)
Triangle = (a + b + c) A segment of a circle is the portion
Quadrilateral = (a + b + c + d) enclosed by the circle's chord and
Circle = 2πr arc. A segment is the term used to
describe each component of
The area of a polygon is defined as the area that is enclosed by something that is separated into
the boundary of the polygon. In other words, we say that the sections.
region that is occupied by any polygon gives its area.

Formulas:
Triangle = ½ × b × h OR √ s(s – a) (s – b) (s – c).
A sector is created when two radii
Equilateral Triangle = √3 / 4 × side²
of the circle and a part of its
Isosceles Triangle = ¼b √4a²–b²
circumference, or arc, meet at
Square = a²
both of the arc's endpoints.
Rectangle = l × w
Circle = πr²

The Volume is the measure of capacity that an object holds. It

can also be defined as the amount of space occupied by a 3-
Types of Arcs
dimensional object. The volume of a solid like a cube or cuboid is
A circle's arc is the portion or segment that makes up its
measured by counting the number of unit cubes it contains.
circumference.
There are three types of arc:
Formulas:
Minor Arc (Angle < 180)
Rectangular Prism = l × w × h
Semicircle (Angle = 180)
Cube = a³
Major Arc (Angle > 180)
Cylinder = πr²h
MATH
Area of a Sector Area of a Segment

TERMS RELATED TO CIRCLES

Circle Relationships

CENTRAL AND INSCRIBED ANGLES

Central Angle: The angle with two arms and a vertex in the
center of a circle is called a central angle. The two arms
intersect the circle's arc at two distinct points to generate the
circle's two radii. The central angle is equal to the intercepted
arc.
Inscribed Angle: An angle in a circle produced by two chords
meeting at the common endpoints is referred to as an
inscribed angle, and the angle's vertex is the common
endpoint. The angle inscribed inside a circle is always half the
measure of the central angle or the intercepted arc that
shares the endpoints of the sides of the inscribed angle,
according to the inscribed angle theorem.

Circle Theorems:
An angle inscribed in a semicircle is always 90 degrees.

Center is the set of all points in the plane that are at a fixed INTERSECTING CHORDS ANGLE
distance from another fixed point is called a circle, or the THEOREM
locus of all points. The "center" of the circle refers to the If two chords intersect inside a
fixed point. circle, then the measure of the
The radius of a circle is the distance between any point on its angle formed is half the sum of
circumference and the circle's center. The diameter's length the measure of the arcs
is half that of the radius. intercepted by the angle and its
Diameter is the segment that travels through the center of vertical angle.
the circle and ends up meeting the circumference at each
end. Its length is double that of the circle's radius and splits
the circle in half.
Chord is the line segment connecting any two locations on
CHORD INTERSECTED BY A
the circle's circumference is known as the chord of a circle.
PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR
The diameter is the longest chord in a circle.
The perpendicular bisector of a
The secant of a circle is a line that intersects it exactly at two
chord is a line passing through
distinct points. A secant line is always extended outside of
the center of the circle such that
the circle and contains the chord.
it divides the chord into two
A tangent is a line that exactly intersects the circle once on
equal parts and meets the chord
its circumference and never goes inside the circle. They align
at a right angle.
with the radius perpendicularly.

INTERSECTING SECANTS
ANGLE THEOREM
If two secants intersect outside
a circle , then the measure of an
angle formed by the two
secants is one half the positive
difference of the measures of
the intercepted arcs.
MATH
POWER THEOREMS
INTERSECTING TANGENTS
ANGLE THEOREM
The measure of the angle formed
CHORD-CHORD
by two tangents that intersect at
POWER THEOREM
a point outside a circle is equal to
If two chords intersect
one-half the positive difference
in a circle, then the
of the measures of the
products of the lengths
intercepted arcs.
of the chords segments
are equal.

ANGLE FORMED BY A SECANT-SECANT POWER

TANGENT AND RADIUS THEOREM
The radius and tangent of a If two secants are drawn from an
circle intersecting at a point of external point to a circle, then
tangency are always the product of the measures of
perpendicular to each other. one secant's external part and
that entire secant is equal to the
product of the measures of the
other secant's external part and
that entire secant.
INTERSECTING SECANT-
TANGENT ANGLE THEOREM
If an angle is formed by a secant
and a tangent that intersect in SECANT-TANGENT POWER
the exterior of a circle, then the THEOREM
measure of the angle is one-half If a tangent and a secant
the positive difference of the intersect in the exterior of a
measures of its intercepted arcs. circle, then the square of the
measure of the tangent is
equal to the product of the
measures of the secant and
SECANT AND TANGENT
its external secant segment.
INTERSECTING AT THE POINT
OF TANGENCY
If a tangent and a secant (or a TANGENT THEOREMS
chord) intersect on a circle at
the point of tangency, then the
measure of the angle formed is
INTERSECTING TANGENTS
half the measure of its
Two tangents intersecting at
intercepted arc.
the exterior of a circle is
always equal in length.

ANGLES FORMED BY A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL

A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral which has all its four
vertices lying on a circle. It is also sometimes called inscribed
quadrilateral. In a cyclic quadrilateral, the sum of each pair of
INTERNALLY TANGENT
opposite angles is 180 degrees.
CIRCLES
Two circles in the same plane
are internally tangent if they
intersect in exactly one point
and the intersection of their
interiors is not empty.

EXTERNALLY TANGENT
CIRCLES
Two circles in the same plane
are externally tangent if they
intersect in exactly one point
and their intersection of their
interiors is empty.
MATH

COMMON INTERNAL
TANGENTS
A common internal tangent
of two circles is a tangent of
both circles that intersects
the segment joining the
centers of two circles.

COMMON EXTERNAL
TANGENTS Trigonometric Identities
A common external tangent
is a line that is tangent to
two different circles and it
does not cross the line
segment that connects the
centers of the circles.

TRIGONOMETRY
SIX TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
Trigonometry
It is one of the important branches in the history of
mathematics.
It deals with the study of the relationship between the sides
and angles of a right-angled triangle.
It helps find the missing or unknown angles or sides of a right
triangle using the trigonometric formulas.
Triangle Inequality Theorem
Right Triangles According to the triangle inequality theorem, for any given
A right triangle is a triangle that contains one interior right angle triangle, the sum of two sides of a triangle is always greater
and two remaining interior angles which are acute. than the third side
The longest side of this triangle is called the hypotenuse, while
the shorter sides are called the legs.
ANGLES
Pythagorean Theorem
Angles in Standard Position
The Pythagorean theorem is a fundamental relation in Euclidean
Degrees and Radians
geometry between the three sides of a right triangle.
The entire circle has a degree measurement of 360 degrees,
It states that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
There is another way to measure arcs and angles aside from
of the squares of both of the legs.
using degrees. This is by using radians
Six Trigonometric Ratios
The trigonometric ratios are calculated using the table that
follows. It is necessary to get knowledge about the sides of the
right triangle because it defined the set of important
trigonometric functions.

Angles in the Coordinate Plane

The given angle is placed in the coordinate plane with initial
and terminal sides.
Its initial side is the ray that touches the positive x-axis while
the other is the terminal side.
The measurement of the angles depends on the amount of
rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.
If the rotation is counter clockwise, the measurement of the
angle is positive. Otherwise, negative
MATH

Half a whole rotation is 180 degrees of pi radians.

A full rotation is 360 degrees or 2pi radians

Unit Circle

Reference Angles
A reference angle is the smallest possible angle made by the
terminal side of the given angle with the x-axis.
It is always an acute angle

STATISTICS
Quadrantal Angles MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
The quadrantal angles are 0, 90, 180, 270, and 360 degrees.
Measures of central tendency are statistical metrics used to
In radians, the quadrantal angles are 0, π, π/2, 3π/2, and 2π
describe the center of a data set. They provide a summary
radians. (any multiples of 90)
measure that represents the typical value or central point of a
These are angles whose terminal side touches the coordinate
distribution. The three main measures of central tendency are the
axis.
mean, median, and mode.
Coterminal Angles
If two angles in the standard 1. Mean - The mean (or average) is the sum of all data values
position have the same divided by the number of data values.
terminal side, then the
angles are called coterminal Sum of data set
Mean = ___________________
angles. Total no. of data
Let θ be an angle in
standard position. Example: For the data set [2,4,6,8,10]
In degrees, in looking for the
coterminal angles, you just
need to add or subtract
multiples of 360 to θ. 2. Median - The median is the middle value in a data set when the
In radians, in looking for the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. If there is
coterminal angles, you just an even number of observations, the median is the average of the
need to add or subtract two middle values.
multiples of 2π to θ.
 MATH
Steps to find the Median: Tree diagram of tossing three coins.
1. Arrange the data in ascending order.
2. If n (number of observations) is odd, the median is the middle
value.
3. If n is even, the median is the average of the two middle
values.

Example 1: For the data set [2,4,6,8,10]

Odd number of observations
The middle value is 6.

Example 2: For the data set [2,4,6,8]

Even number of observations
Median: 6+4 = 10/2 = 5. The middle value is 5.

3. Mode - The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a

data set. A data set may have one mode, more than one mode, or
no mode at all.
Example: Two balls are to be selected without replacement from
a bag that contains one red, one blue, one green and one orange
Example: For the data set [2,3,4,4,5]
ball.
The mode is 4 because it appears most frequently.

A. Use the Counting Principle to determine the number of possible

Measures of Variability
outcomes in the sample space.
Range: Difference between the maximum and minimum
values. Range = Max - Min
The first experiment is selecting a ball from the bag that has 4
Variance: Average of the squared differences from the Mean.
balls. The second experiment is selecting a ball from the three
balls that are left in the bag after the first ball is removed. (the
word without replacement tells us that the ball was selected won’t
for a sample for a population be put back)

Standard Deviation: Square root of the variance.

for a sample for a population

FCP AND PROBABILITY Example: Joe has 7 shirts, 4 pairs of pants and 2 pairs of shoes.
He needs to make an outfit containing one of each item. How
Counting Principle: If there are m ways to do one thing and n
many different outfits are possible? (We assume that one
ways to do another, there are m×n ways to do both.
different item makes a different outfit)
Example: Use the counting principle to find the number of
This is a Counting Principle problem. It has three "experiments" as
possible outcomes of these two “experiments” done in this
opposed to 2. The Counting Principle can extended to any
specific order.
number of experiments.
Experiment 1: a coin is tossed and the side that is face up is
recorded
Experiment 1: select a shirt (7 possible outcomes)
Experiment 2: a die is rolled and the number that is face up is
Experiment 2: select a pair of pants (4 possible outcomes)
recorded.
Experiment 3: select a pair of shoes (2 possible outcomes)
Tossing a coin has two possible outcomes ( Head or Tail)
Answer: 7*4*2= 56 different outfits.
Rolliong a die has six possible outcomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Permutations
The Counting Principle tells us that the total number of outcomes A permutation is an arrangement of n objects with no repetitions
of Experiment 1 followed by Experiment 2 can be found by and the order is important.
multiplying the number of ways each experiment can happen.
Factorial Notation : n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) ... (2)(1)
The experiments together tossing a coin and rolling a die have 2 x 0! = 1
6 = 12 possible outcomes. 3! = (3)(2)(1) = 6
4! = (4)(3)(2)(1) = 24
A tree diagram is an effective way to find all of the elements in a
sample space. The experiment we are talking about has 12 The number of permutations n distinct objects taken n (or all) at a
possible outcomes when they are done in the order described. It time is n! Notation:
is often helpful to list all of the possible outcomes.
 MATH
It is read as “the limit of f of x, as x approaches c equals L”. The
Permutations Where Some Things are Alike
“lim” shows limit, and fact that function f(x) approaches the
Definition: If a set contains n things in which q different subsets
limit L as x approaches c is described by the right arrow.
have n₁, n₂, . . . ,nq elements of the same kind respectively, then
the number P of distinguishable permutations is

Example 1: How many distinguishable 6-digit numbers can be

formed from the digits of 747457?

Solution: If all the digits were different, we should be able to

form P(6,6) = 720.
Since we have three 7’s and two 4’s, we have to divide 720 by
12 for the repeated digits. That is 6!/3!2! = 60

Circular Permutations
an arrangement of objects in a circular manner

Consider arranging 3 people A, B, and C in a round table. How

many ways can this be done?
Properties of Limits

In a circular permutation, consider one object first in a fixed

position and arrange the remaining (n-1) objects in the remaining
(n-1) positions. The number of permutations of n distinct objects
arranged in a circle is (n – 1)!

Combinations
The number of ways to choose r items from n items without
regard to order.

Probability measures the likelihood of an event occurring, while

counting principles help determine the number of possible
outcomes in various scenarios.

Other techniques for solving limits

After direct substituting, when the value of the limit is equal to
0/0 then it is at an indeterminate form of limit.
For (0/0) indeterminacy, one can make use algebraic
manipulations
CALCULUS
LIMITS Limits involving infinity
Limits at infinity are used to describe the behavior of functions
Limits as the independent variable increases or decreases without
In Mathematics, a limit is defined as a value that a function bound.
approaches the output for the given input values. We say that f(x) has a horizontal asymptote at y=L
Consider a real-valued function “f” and the real number “c”,
the limit is normally defined as:
MATH
BASIC DIFFERENTIATION
The derivative of a function f(x) is its rate of change with
respect to x.
The derivative of the function tells how sensitive or fast y
changes with respect to the change of x.
The derivative of a function f(x) is also the slope function of
the tangent line at a certain point x.

One Sided Limits

We say that L is the left [right] limit of a function f(x) at a if we
can get f(x) as close to L as we want by taking x on the left
[right] side of a, and close to a but not equal to a.
We say that a two-sided limit only exists if and only if the
right-hand and the left hand limits are equal

Continuity
A function is said to be continuous in a given interval I if there
is no break in the graph of the function in the entire interval
range.
Assume that f be a real function on a subset of the real
numbers and x be a point in the domain of f. We say that f is
continuous at x if

In other words, if the left-hand limit, right-hand limit, and the

value of the function at x = c exists and are equal to each other.
i.e,

Then f is said to be continuous at x = c.

Types of Discontinuity
Jump Discontinuity - This is a discontinuity in which the left-
hand limit and right-hand limit for a function x = a exists, but
they are not equal to each other.

Infinity Discontinuity - In this discontinuity, the limit of the

function at point “x=a” on either left or right-hand limit is equal Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
to infinity.
Removable Discontinuity - In removable discontinuity, a
function which has well- defined two-sided limits at x = a, but
either f(a) is not defined or f(a) is not equal to its limits.
MATH
Chain Rule
The chain rule is used to find the derivatives of composite
functions like sin 2x, (x + 3)^5, tan(cos 3x).
The chain rule is also known as the outside-inside rule.

Definite Integrals
INTEGRALS The definite integral is defined to be exactly the limit and
summation that we looked at in the last section to find the net
Integration or antidifferentiation is the opposite of
area between a function and the x-axis. Also note that the
differentiation.
notation for the definite integral is very similar to the notation for
an indefinite integral. The reason for this will be apparent
eventually.

There is also a little bit of terminology that we should get out of

the way here. The number “a” that is at the bottom of the integral
sign is called the lower limit of the integral and the number “b” at
the top of the integral sign is called the upper limit of the integral.
Also, despite the fact that a and b were given as an interval the
lower limit does not necessarily need to be smaller than the upper
limit. Collectively we’ll often call a and b the interval of integration