4.

Buoyancy and Flotation

4.1. ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of buoyancy and flotation was first discovered and stated by Archimedes over 2200 years ago. Archimedes'
principle may be stated as follows: A body floating or submerged in a fluid is buoyed (lifted) upward by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid that would be in the volume displaced by the fluid. This force is known as the buoyant force. It follows, then,
that a floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats. Stated another way, a floating body displaces a
sufficient volume of fluid to just balance its own weight. The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of
buoyancy; it is located at the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.

By applying Archimedes' principle, volumes of irregular solids can be found by determining the apparent loss of weight when a
body is wholly immersed in a liquid of known specific gravity. Specific gravities of liquids can be determined by observing the
depth of flotation of a hydrometer. Further applications include problems of general flotation and of naval architectural design.

4.2. STABILITY OF SUBMERGED AND FLOATING BODIES

For stability of a submerged body, the body's center of gravity must lie directly below the center of buoyancy (gravity) of the
displaced liquid. If the two points coincide, the submerged body is in neutral equilibrium for all positions.

For stability of a floating cylinder or sphere, the body's center of gravity must lie below the center of buoyancy.

Stability of other floating objects will depend upon whether a righting or overturning moment is developed when the center of
gravity and center of buoyancy move out of vertical alignment due to shifting of position of the center of buoyancy. The center
of buoyancy will shift if the floating object tips, because the shape of the displaced liquid changes and hence its center of
gravity shifts.

Figure 4-1 (a) shows a floating body in equilibrium, with its center of gravity (CG) located directly above the center of buoyancy
(CB). If the CG is to the right of the line of action of the buoyant force when the body is rotated slightly counterclockwise as in
Fig. 4-1(b), the floating body is stable. If instead the CG is to the left of the line of action of the buoyant force as inFig. 4-l(c), the
floating body is unstable. This differentiation between stability and nonstability can also be made by referring to the point of
intersection of the vertical axis (A-A) and the line of action of the buoyant force (B-B). This point of intersection is known as the
metacenter(me). It is clear from observing Figs. 4-1(b) and (c) that a floating body is stable if its CG is below the me and
unstable if its CG is above the me.

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 Figure 4-1

The determination as to whether the CG is below or above the me (and therefore stable or unstable, respectively) can be made
more quantitatively by using the following equation to determine the distance from the CB to the mc:

¯¯
M¯¯¯B
¯¯ = I/Vd

(1)

where

¯¯
M¯¯¯B
¯¯ = distance from the CB to the mc [seeFig. 4 − 1 (d)]
I = moment of interia of a horizontal section of the body taken at the surface of the fluid when the
floating body is on an even keel
Vd = volume of fluid displaced

¯¯¯¯B
Once distance M ¯¯¯ is determined, the body can be judged to be stable if the me is above the body's CG or unstable if it is
below the CG.

4.2.1. Solved Problems

4.1. A stone weighs 90 N in air, and when immersed in water it weighs 50 N. Compute the volume of the stone and

its specific gravity.

Solution:

Many problems in engineering work can best be analyzed using free-body diagrams. Reference toFig. 4-2 indicates the total
weight of 90 N acting downward, tension in the cord attached to the scales of 50 N upward, and net buoyant force FB acting
upward. From

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 ΣY = 0

we have

90 − 50 − FB = 0, and FB = 40 N

Since

buoyant force = the weight of the displaced fluid

40 N = 9790 N/m3 × v and v = 0.00409 m3
weight of the stone 90 N
specific gravity = = = 2.25
weight of an equal volume of water 40 N

Figure 4-2

4.2. A prismatic object 8 in thick by 8 in wide by 16 in long is weighed in water at a depth of 20 in and found to

weigh 11.0 lb. What is its weight in air and its specific gravity?

Solution:

Referring to the free-body diagram in Fig. 4-3, ΣY = 0; then

W − FB − 11.0 = 0 or (A) W = 11.0 + FB

and

buoyant force FB = weight of displaced liquid

= (62.4) (8 × 8 × 16) /1728 = 37.0 lb

Therefore, from (A), W = 11+37 = 48 lb and sp gr = 48/37 = 1.30.

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 Figure 4-3

4.3. A hydrometer weighs 0.0216 N and has a stem at the upper end that is cylindrical and 2.8 mm in diameter.

How much deeper will it float in oil of sp gr 0.780 than in alcohol of sp gr 0.821?

Solution:

For position 1 in Fig. 4-4 in the alcohol.

weight of hydrometer = weight of displaced liquid

0.0216 = 0.821 × 9790 × v1

from which v1 = 2.69 × 10-6 m3 (in alcohol).

For position 2,

0.0216 = 0.780 × (9790) (v1 + Ah)

= 0.780 × 9790 [(2.69 × 10−6) + ( 14 π) (2.8/1000)2h]

from which h = 0.0225 m = 22.5 mm.

Figure 4-4

4.4. A piece of wood of sp gr 0.651 is 80 mm square and 1.5 m long. How many newtons of lead weighing 110 kN/m3
must be fastened at one end of the stick so that it will float upright with 0.3 m out of water?

Solution:

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 total weight of wood and lead = weight of displaced water
[0.651 × 9.79 × (1.5) (80/1000)2] + 100v = (9.79) [(80/1000)2 × 1.2 + v]

from which υ = 0.000140 m3 and weight of lead = 110υ = × 0.000140 = 0.0154 kN = 15.4 N.

4.5. What fraction of the volume of a solid piece of metal of sp gr 7.25 floats above the surface of a container of mercury
of sp gr 13.57?

Solution:

The free-body diagram in Fig. 4-5 indicates that, from Σ 7 = 0, W – FB = 0 or

weight of body = buoyant force (weight of displaced mercury)

7.25 × 62.4v = 13.57 × 62.4v′

and the ratio of the volumes is thus υ′/υ = 7.25/13.57 = 0.534.

Hence the fraction of the volume above the mercury = 1 –0.534 = 0.466.

Figure 4-5

4.6. A rectangular open box, 7.6 m by 3 m in plan and 3.7 m deep, weighs 350 kN and is launched in fresh water, (a) How
deep will it sink? (b) If the water is 3.7 m deep, what weight of stone placed in the box will cause it to rest on the bottom?

Solution:

a.

weight of box = weight of displaced water

350 = (9.79) (7.6 × 3 × Y ) Y = 1.57 m submerged

b.

weight of box plus stone = weight of displaced water

350 + WS = (9.79) (7.6 × 3 × 3.7) WS = 476 kN stone

4.7. A block of wood floats in water with 50 mm projecting above the water surface. When placed in glycerin of sp gr 1.35,
the block projects 76 mm above the surface of that liquid. Determine the sp gr of the wood.

Solution:

Total weight of block is (a) W = sp gr × (9.79)(A × h), and weights of displaced water and glycerin, respectively, are (b) Ww =
(9.79A)(h – 50)/1000 and (c) WG = 1.35 × (9J9A)(h - 76)/1000.

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 G
Since the weight of each displaced liquid equals the total weight of the block, b
( ) = (c), or

(9.79A) (h − 50) /1000 = 1.35 × (9.79A) (h − 76) /1000 h = 150 mm

Since (a) = (b), sp gr × 9.79A × (150/1000) =9.79× A(150–50)/1000 sp gr = 0.667

4.8. To what depth will an 8-ft-diameter log 15 ft long and of sp gr 0.425 sink in fresh water?

Solution:

Figure 4-6 is drawn with center O of the log above the water surface because its specific gravity is less than 0.500. Had the
sp gr been 0.500, then the log would be half-submerged.

total weight of log = weight of displaced liquid sector − 2 triangles

2θ 1
0.425 × 62.4 × π42 × 15 = 62.4 × 15 ( 16π − 2 × × 4 sin θ × 4 cos θ)
360 2

Simplifying and substituting 1 sin 2θ for sin θ cos θ.

2

1
0.425π = θπ/180 − sin 2θ
2

Solving by successive trials:

Try θ = 85° :
? 1
1.335 = 85π/180 − (0.1736)
2
1.335 ≠ 1.397
Try θ = 83° :
? 1
1.335 = 1.449 − (0.242)
2
1.335 ≠ 1.328

The trial values have straddled the answer.

Try θ = 83°10′ :
? 1
1.335 = 1.451 − (0.236) = 1.333 (close check)
2
The depth of flotation
DC = r − O D = 4.00 − 4.00 cos 83°10′
= (4.00) (1 − 0.119) = 3.52 ft.

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 Figure 4-6

4.9.

a. Neglecting the thickness of the tank walls in Fig. 4-7(a), if the tank floats in the position shown, what is its weight?

b. If the tank is held so that the top is 10 ft below the surface of the water, what is the force on the inside top of the tank?

Figure 4-7

Solution:

a. Weight of tank = weight of displaced liquid = 62.4π22 (1) = 784 lb.

b. The space occupied by the air will be less at the new depth shown inFig. 4-7(b). Assuming that the temperature of the
air is constant, then for positions (a) and (b),

pAvA = pDvD (absolute pressure units must be used)

γ (34 + 1) (4 × area) = γ (34 + 10 + y) (y × area)

which yields y2 + 44y – 140 = 0, whose required positive root is y = 2.98 ft.

The pressure at D = 12.98 ft of water gage = pressure at E. Hence the force on the inside top of the cylinder is γhA =
62.4(12.98)(π22 ) = 10,200 lb.

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 4.10. A ship with vertical sides near the waterline weighs 4000 tons and draws 22 ft in salt water (γ = 64.0 lb/ft3 ).

Discharge of 200 tons of water ballast decreases the draft to 21 ft. What would be the draft d of the ship in fresh water?

Solution:

Because the shape of the underwater section of the ship is not known, it is best to solve the problem on the basis of
volumes displaced.

A 1 -ft decrease in draft was caused by a reduction in weight of 200 tons, or

200 × 2000 = γv = 64.0 (A × 1)

where ν represents the volume between drafts of 22 ft and 21 ft, and (A × 1) represents the waterline area × 1 ft, or the same
volume v. Then

v = A × 1 = (200) (2000) /64.0 = 6250 ft3/ft depth

Buoyant force FB = γ × volume of displaced liquid. Then FB/γ = volume of displaced liquid.

From Fig. 4-8, the vertically hatched volume is the difference in displaced fresh water and salt water.

Figure 4-8

3800 × 2000 3800 × 2000

This difference can be expressed as ( − ), and this volume is also equal to 6250y. Equating
62.4 64.0
these values, y = 0.49 ft.

The draft d = 21 + 0.49 = 21.49 ft.

4.11. A barrel containing water weighs 1.260 kN. What will be the reading on the scales if a 50 mm by 50 mm piece of
wood is held vertically in the water to a depth of 0.60 m?

Solution:

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 For every acting force there must be an equal and opposite reacting force. The buoyant force exerted by the water upward
against the bottom of the piece of wood is opposed by the 50 mm by 50 mm area of wood acting downward on the water
with equal magnitude. This force will measure the increase in scale reading.

FB = 9.79 × (50/1000) × (50/1000) × 0.60 = 0.015 kN. The scale reading = 1.260 + 0.015 = 1.275 kN.

4.12. A block of wood 6 ft by 8 ft by 10 ft floats on oil of sp gr 0.751. A clockwise couple holds the block in the position
shown in Fig. 4-9. Determine (a) the buoyant force acting on the block and its position, (b) the magnitude of the couple
acting on the block, and (c) the location of the metacenter for the tilted position.

Figure 4-9

Solution:

a.

weight of block = weight of triangular prism of oil (or the buoyant force)
1
W = F ′ B = (0.751 × 62.4) ( × 8 × 4.618 × 10) = 8656 lb
2

Then F′B = 8656 lb acting upward through the center of gravity O′ of the displaced oil. The center of gravity lies 5.333 ft
from A and 1.540 ft from D, as shown in Fig. 4-9.

AC = AR + RC = AR + LO′ = 5.333 cos 30° + 1.540 sin 30° = 5.389 ft

The buoyant force of 8656 lb acts upward through the center of gravity of the displaced oil, which is 5.39 ft to the right of
A.

b. One method of obtaining the magnitude of the righting couple (which must equal the magnitude of the external couple
for equilibrium) is to find the eccentricity e. This dimension is the distance between the two parallel, equal forcesW and
F′s that form the righting couple.

e = FC = AC − AF = 5.389 − AF = 5.389 − 4.963 = 0.426 ft

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 since

AF = AR + RF = 4.618 + (0.691) (sin 30°) = 4.963 ft

The couple We or F′BE = 8656 x 0.426 = 3687 ft-lb. Thus the moment or couple to hold the block in the position shown is
3687 ft-lb clockwise.

c. The point of intersection of the buoyant force and the axis of symmetryS S is called the metacenter (point mc in the
figure). If the metacenter is located above the center of gravity of a floating object, the weight of the object and the
buoyant force form a righting moment in tilted positions.

RC 0.770
The metacentric distance = − 0.691 = − 0.691 = 0.849 ft.
sin 30° 0.5000

In naval architecture, an extreme angle of some 10° is taken as the limit of heel for which the metacentric distance can
be considered constant.

4.13. A barge with a flat bottom and square ends, as shown in Fig. 4-10(a), has a draft of 6.0 ft when fully loaded

and floating in an upright position. Is the barge stable? If the barge is stable, what is the righting moment in water when the
angle of heel is 12°?

Figure 4-10a

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 Figure 4-10b

Solution:

I (42) (25)3/12
¯¯¯¯
MB =¯¯¯ = = 8.68 ft
Vd (25) (42) (6)

The metacenter is located 8.68 ft above the center of buoyancy, as shown in Fig. 4-10(b), and 4.68 ft above the barge′s
center of gravity. Hence, the barge is stable.

The end view of the barge when the angle of heel is 12° is shown inFig. 4-10(c).

Figure 4-10c

Righting moment = FBx = [(62.4)(25 x 42 x 6)](4.68 sin 12°) = 383,000 lb-ft.

4.14. Would the solid wood cylinder in Fig. 4-11 (a) be stable if placed vertically in oil, as shown in the figure? The specific
gravity of the wood is 0.61.

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 Figure 4-11a

Figure 4-11b

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 Solution:

First, find the submerged depth of the cylinder [D in Fig. 4-11 (a)] when placed in the oil.

weight of cylinder in air = buoyant force

[(0.61) (9.79)][(1.300) (π) (0.666)2/4] = [(0.85) (9.79)][(D) (π) (0.666)2/4]
D = 0.933 m

The center of buoyancy is therefore located at a distance of 0.933/2 or 0.466 m from the bottom of the cylinder [seeFig. 4-
11(b)].

I (π) (0.666)4/64
¯¯¯¯
MB =¯¯¯ = = 0.030 m
Vd (0.933) [(π) (0.666)2/4]

The metacenter is located 0.030 m above the center of buoyancy, as shown in Fig. 4-11(b). This places the metacenter
0.154 m below the center of gravity; therefore, the wood cylinder is not stable.

4.2.2. Supplementary Problems

4.15. An object weighs 289 N in air and 187 N in water. Find its volume and specific gravity. Ans. 0.0104 m3 , 2.83

4.16. An object weighs 65 lb in air and 42 lb in oil of sp gr 0.75. Find its volume and specific gravity. Ans. 0.491 ft3 , 2.12

4.17. If aluminum weighs 25.9 kN/m3 , how much will a 305-mm-diameter sphere weigh when immersed in water? When
immersed in oil of sp gr 0.75? Ans. 238 N, 276 N

4.18. A 6-in cube of aluminum weighs 12.2 lb when immersed in water. What will be its apparent weight when immersed in
a liquid of sp gr 1.25? Ans. 10.25 lb

4.19. A stone weighs 600 N, and when it was lowered into a square tank 0.610 m on a side, the weight of the stone in
water was 323 N. How much did the water rise in the tank? Ans. 76 mm

4.20. A hollow cylinder 3 ft in diameter and 5 ft long weighs 860 lb. (a) How many pounds of lead weighing 700 lb/ft3
must be fastened to the outside bottom to make the cylinder float vertically with 3 ft submerged? (b) How many pounds if
placed inside the cylinder? Ans. 510 lb, 465 lb

Schaum's Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Problem 4-20: Buoyant Cylinder

This video illustrates the calculation of buoyancy forces.

Thom Adams, Ph.D., Professor, Mechanical Engineering, Rose-Hulman Institute of

Technology
2013

4.21. A hydrometer weighs 0.0250 lb, and its stem is 0.0250 in2 in cross-sectional area. What is the difference in depth of
flotation for liquids of sp gr 1.25 and 0.90? Ans. 8.62 in

4.22. What length of 76.2 mm by 304.8 mm timber, sp gr 0.50, will support a 445-N boy in salt water if he stands on the
timber? Ans. 3.72 m

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 4.23. An object that has a volume of 6 ft3 requires a force of 60 lb to keep it immersed in water. If a force of 36 lb is
required to keep it immersed in another liquid, what is the sp gr of that liquid? Ans. 0.937

4.24. A cube of steel 0.30 m on each side floats in mercury. Using specific gravities of steel and mercury of 7.8 and 13.6,
respectively, find the submerged depth of the cube. Ans. 0.172 m

4.25. A barge 10 ft deep has a trapezoidal cross section of 30 ft top width and 20 ft bottom width. The barge is 50 ft long,
and its ends are vertical. Determine (a) its weight if it draws 6 ft of water and (b) the draft if 84.5 tons of stone is placed in
the barge. Ans. 431,000 lb; 8 ft

4.26. A 1.22-m-diameter sphere floats half-submerged in salt water (γ = 10.05 kN/m3 ). What minimum weight of concrete
(γ = 23.56 kN/m3 ) used as an anchor will submerge the sphere completely? Ans. 8.34 kN

4.27. An iceberg weighing 57 lb/ft 3 floats in the ocean (64 lb/ft3 ) with a volume of 21,000 ft3 above the surface. What is
the total volume of the iceberg? Ans. 192,000 ft3

4.28. A hollow cube 1.0 m on each side weighs 2.4 kN. The cube is tied to a solid concrete block weighing 10.0 kN. Will
these two objects tied together float or sink in water? (Show all necessary calculations and explain.) The specific gravity of
the concrete is 2.40. Ans. float

4.29. An empty balloon and its equipment weigh 100 lb. When inflated with gas weighing 0.0345 lb/ft3 the balloon is
spherical and 20 ft in diameter. What is the maximum weight of cargo that the balloon can lift, assuming that air weighs
0.0765 lb/ft 3 ? Ans. 76 lb

4.30. A cubical float, 1.22 m on a side, weighs 1.78 kN and is anchored by means of a concrete block that weighs 6.67 kN
in air. If 229 mm of the float is submerged when the chain connected to the concrete is taut, what rise in water level will lift
the concrete off the bottom? Concrete weighs 23.56 kN/m3 . Ans. 161 mm

4.31. A rectangular barge with outside dimensions of 20 ft width, 60 ft length, and 10 ft height weighs 350,000 lb. It floats
in salt water (γ = 64.0 lb/ft3 ), and the center of gravity of the loaded barge is 4.50 ft from the top. Locate the center of
buoyancy (a) when floating on an even keel and (b) when the barge lists at 10°, and (c) locate the metacenter for the 10° list.
Ans. (a) 2.28 ft from bottom on centerline, (b) 11.28 ft to right, (c) 4.17 ft above CG

4.32. A concrete cube 0.5 m on each side is to be held in equilibrium under water by attaching a light foam buoy to it. What
is the minimum volume of the foam buoy? The unit weights of the concrete and the foam are 23.58 kN/m 3 and 0.79 kN/m3 ,
respectively. Ans. 0.192 m3

4.33. A cube 152 mm on a side is made of aluminum and suspended by a string. The cube is submerged, half of it being in
oil (sp gr = 0.80) and the other half being in water. Find the tension in the string if aluminum weighs 25.9 kN/m3 . Ans. 60.4 N

4.34. If the cube in the preceding problem were half in air and half in oil, what would be the tension in the string?Ans. 77.8
N

4.35. Figure 4-12 shows the cross section of a boat, the hull of which is solid. Is the boat stable? If the boat is stable,
compute the righting moment in the water when the angle of heel is 10°. Ans. stable; 12,480 lb-ft

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 Figure 4-12

Schaum's Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Problem 4-35: Stability of a Boat

Hull

This video explores stability issues encountered with floating objects.

Thom Adams, Ph.D., Professor, Mechanical Engineering, Rose-Hulman Institute of

Technology
2013

4.36. A solid wood cylinder has a diameter of 2.0 ft and a height of 4.0 ft. The specific gravity of the wood is 0.60. If the
cylinder is placed vertically in oil (sp gr = 0.85), will it be stable? Ans. no

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