REVIEW ARTICLE

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea

tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and
their components
Gustavo Aparecido Martins1, Juliano Lemos Bicas1* 

1
Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos, Departamento de Ciência
de Alimentos e Nutrição, Campinas/SP - Brasil

*Corresponding Author: Juliano Lemos Bicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Faculdade de
Engenharia de Alimentos, Departamento de Ciência de Alimentos e Nutrição, Rua Monteiro Lobato, 80, CEP:
13083-862, Campinas/SP - Brasil, e-mail: [email protected]

Cite as: Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L. (2024). Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon,
and their components. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 27, e2023071. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123

Abstract
Phytopathogenic fungi are responsible for sizeable postharvest food losses. The traditional form of controlling these
fungi is related to synthetic antifungals. However, the emergence of resistant strains and their high cost, among
other problems, encourage the scientific community to seek alternatives in natural substances at a lower cost. In
this scenario, a group that stands out among these natural substances is essential oils. Essential oils are naturally
volatile and aromatic compounds derived from plants. These compounds have bactericidal, virucidal, insecticidal,
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antifungal properties. This review presents the essential oils of tea tree, oregano,
thyme, and cinnamon and their main components identified as responsible for their antifungal activity.

Keywords: natural; volatile; postharvest; GRAS; bioactive; pesticide; rot; aromatic; synthetic.

Highlights
• Interest in natural substances to replace conventional antifungals is growing
• Essential oils are potential substitutes for conventional antifungals
• Mechanism of action: perforate cell wall, disrupt hyphae, and liquefy cell membranes

1 Introduction
Food loss and waste are global problems throughout the production chain. Fruits and vegetables represent
40% to 50% of world losses, with 54% occurring during the production, postharvest, handling, and storage
stages. In Latin America, approximately 30% of fruits and vegetables are lost (Santos et al., 2020).
The loss of approximately 40% of the world's food production is caused by animals, weeds, and pathogens.
The most significant impact on horticultural losses is postharvest diseases caused by bacteria and fungi that
cause rot, seeing that the fruits are the group related to the greatest losses (Matrose et al., 2021).

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 1/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Phytopathogenic fungi are responsible for approximately 85% of postharvest diseases that affect fruits. Some
of the genera most commonly associated with fruit diseases are Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Colletotrichum,
Diplodia, Monilinia, Penicillium, Phomopsis, Rhizopus, and Mucor. Among these, the genus Botrytis stands out
for having already been recognized as the most disastrous for fresh fruits and vegetables (Matrose et al., 2021).
Botrytis cinerea causes gray rot, characterized by soft gray spots on leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits, such
as strawberries, grapes, apples, and cherries, among others (Matrose et al., 2021). The conidia of B. cinerea
attach to the surface of the host through weak hydrophobic interactions. After germination of the conidia, the
fungus attaches more strongly to the surface. B. cinerea can penetrate tissues and induce programmed cell
death due to the production of toxins, oxalic acid, and reactive oxygen species (Roca-Couso et al., 2021).
Green and blue rots are caused by the genus Penicillium, which mainly affects citrus fruits. Penicillium species
form conidia that invade fruits through wounds. The infection begins with the appearance of a soft area around the
wound and a white mycelium that produces conidia. The decomposition of the fruit occurs in a few days. In the final
phase, the fruit is covered with blue or green conidia, depending on the infecting species (Hammami et al., 2022).
In addition to postharvest diseases, fungi can also cause plant diseases, such as anthracnose, leading to loss
of crop productivity and quality (Jain et al., 2019). The genus Colletotrichum is famous for causing anthracnose.
This disease mainly affects fruits such as bananas, papayas, mangoes, avocados, and dragon fruit and infects
leaves, flowers, twigs, and branches. Infection occurs during the flowering and fruiting stages, the main
symptoms being dark lesions, which can merge with conidia on the fruit surface (Zakaria, 2021).
Witches' broom (caused by the fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa) is one of the primary diseases of cacao
(Lisboa et al., 2020). It has a tremendous economic and social impact due to the severe impacts on cocoa and
chocolate production (Andrade Silva et al., 2020). During the 1970s, it was responsible for losing more than
90% of cocoa production in Rondônia state in Brazil (Lisboa et al., 2020).
The control of phytopathogenic and spoilage fungi has traditionally been carried out using synthetic
antifungals (Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019). They are recognized for suppressing the development of diseases
in fruits and vegetables. However, the continuous use of these substances has caused significant problems,
such as the emergence of resistant postharvest pathogen strains (Matrose et al., 2021). Thus, the need for
tools to prevent the proliferation of undesirable fungi in the agro-food chain becomes evident.
Plants produce a wide diversity of molecules, especially secondary metabolites, such as essential oils.
These oils and their volatile components are critical for defending plants against pests and diseases and are
also crucial in plant-plant interactions and for attracting insects that disperse pollens and seeds
(Ebadollahi et al., 2020; Nazzaro et al., 2017; Raveau et al., 2020).
More than 3,000 essential oils have already been identified, consisting of a rich mixture of bioactive
compounds of different classes, mostly terpenes and terpenoids. Essential oils are recognized sources of
compounds presenting different biological properties, such as antibacterial, insecticidal, fungicidal, nematicidal,
herbicide, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities (Falleh et al., 2020; Raveau et al., 2020). They
commonly have GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status, making essential oils potential natural
preservatives and antifungals for application in the agri-food chain (Nazzaro et al., 2017; Pandey et al., 2017).
The following section presents a brief history of conventional antifungals, some classes, and disadvantages
associated with their application. In a second moment, this text addresses the potential use of some essential
oils and their main components as an alternative to synthetic antifungals.

2 Methodology
This literature review focused on the potential for replacing classic antifungals with essential oils. Thus, a
detailed search was conducted on several websites and databases such as Google Scholar, SciELO, Scopus,
and ScienceDirect, among others, thus priorizing studies from the last ten years. The main search terms were
antifungal, pesticide, essential oil, mechanism, history, postharvest, and components.

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 2/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

3 Conventional antifungal agents

3.1 History of conventional antifungal

Since ancient times, simple inorganic salts have been used as plant pesticides. In 1885, it was discovered that
copper sulfate and lime could control specific diseases, such as potato late blight. From that moment on, interest
in the chemical control of diseases emerged (Russell, 2005). Until around 1940, antifungals focused on diseases
that affect fruits, vegetables, and seeds, and antifungals were prepared by users based on essential recipes
(Morton & Staub, 2008). The use of synthetic compounds began in 1934 with dithiocarbamates (Thind, 2021).
Between 1940 and 1970, dithiocarbamates became the most widely used group of antifungals, as they
were more active, less phytotoxic, and more easily prepared by the user. During this period, new classes of
antifungals emerged, such as phthalimides, triazines, and dinitroanilines. Especially between the 1960s and
1970s, there was a rapid growth in research, development, and the market for antifungals, when mancozeb
and chlorothalonil, the most widely used protective antifungals, appeared, in addition to thiabendazole, and
the systemic treatment of carboxin seeds (Morton & Staub, 2008). In the 1960s, the first fungicides appeared
that inhibited a specific target site (Hirooka & Ishii, 2013).
From the 1970s onwards, most fungicides developed were systemic in nature, acting internally to eradicate
infections, having a specific site of action, and applied in smaller quantities. Between 1970 and 2000, the main
classes were organophosphates, phenylcarbamates, dicarboximides, and sterol inhibitor fungicides (Hahn, 2014).
In recent decades, to prevent fungi from developing resistance to pesticides, they have been created with two
modes of action, generally site-specific action and multisite inhibitors (Thind, 2021). Some classes of conventional
antifungals, such as triazoles, phenylpyrroles, strobilurins, benzimidazoles, and morpholines, are discussed below.

3.2 Classes and mechanism of action

Over the years, several antifungals were created and divided into several classes. Some of the main classes
of synthetic antifungals are triazoles, phenylpyrroles, and strobilurins (Baibakova et al., 2019).
Triazoles are the largest class of antifungals. The first commercially sold triazole was triadimefon,
launched by Bayer in 1973 (Morton & Staub, 2008). Other representatives of this class are tebuconazole,
prothioconazole, difenoconazole, cyproconazole and propiconazole. The mechanism of action of triazoles is
based on the inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and blocking of the P450-dependent enzyme (CYP 51)
(Matin et al., 2022), which are essential constituents of the plasma membrane that preserve its fluidity and
barrier function under different environmental conditions (Menon, 2018).
Antifungals of this class are used against fruit and vegetable pathogens. Some genera of fungi that can be
controlled with them are Botrytis, Ustilago, Cercospora, Tilletia Zymoseptoria, Fusarium, Cochliobolus,
Erysiphe, Altemaria, Puccinia, Septoria, Pythium, Drechslera, Pyrenophora, Rhynchosporium, and
Cladosporium (Baibakova et al., 2019). The disadvantage of triazoles is that their systematic use leads to the
emergence of resistant strains. Some mechanisms associated with resistance are mutations in the CYP51 gene
mutations in the promoter region leading, that is, to overexpression of CYP51. Some phytopathogens that
have already had resistance reported are Rhynchosporium commune, Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, Venturia
inaequalis, and Zymoseptoria tritici (Poloni et al., 2021).
The phenylpyrroles class has fludioxonil as the only representative in the United States of America (USA)
and European markets, having been introduced in 1993 and 2008, respectively (Apell et al., 2019). The use
of phenylpyrroles presents a low risk of the emergence of resistant strains, as it is a non-systemic molecule
that inhibits spore germination, germ-tube elongation, and mycelial growth. However, they may present
phytotoxicity, reducing CO2 assimilation, transpiration, and stomatal conductance (Baibakova et al., 2019;
Geetha, 2019). Some genera of fungi that can be controlled with its use are Botrytis, Fusarium, Magnaporthe,
Aspergillus, Monilinia, and Penicillium (Bersching & Jacob, 2021).

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 3/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

In 1996, strobilurins, effective and broad-spectrum antifungal agents suitable for various crops, were launched
and popularly used in cereals and are still widely used today to control pathogens in soybeans, rice, cereals,
vegetables, fruit trees, among other plants. In 2014, azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin were the best-selling
fungicides (Morton & Staub, 2008; Wang et al., 2021). Some representatives of this class are azoxystrobin,
pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, picoxystrobin, and kresoxim-methyl (Zhang et al., 2020).
Strobilurin’s mechanism of action consists of inhibiting mitochondrial respiration by connecting to the
external site of cytochrome bc1, preventing the exchange of electrons between cytochromes b and c. This
causes a cell energy deficit, resulting in stasis (Shcherbakova, 2019). They are used against Puccinia,
Septoria, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Botrytis, Rhynchosporium, Fusarium, and Rhizoctonia
(Baibakova et al., 2019). The emergence of resistant strains has already been reported. Resistance can occur
for two reasons: changes in the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b (CYTB), altering the peptide sequence,
which prevents the binding of fungicides, or it can be due to a deviation in mitochondrial electron transfer,
avoiding the inhibitory site in the cytochrome bc1 (Sánchez-Torres, 2021).
In addition to the already mentioned problem of the emergence of strains resistant to conventional antifungals,
other disadvantages associated with their use are toxic residues in plants and fruits, possible intoxication and
infertility associated with handling, persistence for many years in the environment without degrading, and high
cost, approximately 20% of the production cost is allocated to antifungals (Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2019).
Given this scenario, the scientific community's interest is directed toward searching for new substances
capable of controlling pathogenic diseases (Zhou et al., 2014). Considered relatively safe and
environmentally friendly, natural antimicrobial substances have proven to be potential substitutes for
synthetic antifungals. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms of action and
analyze their effectiveness (Moraes Bazioli et al., 2019).
Among these natural substances, a group that stands out is essential oils, which will be further discussed
in the next section. These essential oils can be extracted from various plants and have the potential as
substitutes for synthetic antifungal agents due to their ability to inhibit a variety of pathogens and, in addition,
are harmless to humans at the commonly used dosage (Kong et al., 2019; Park et al., 2009).

4 Essential oils
Essential oils are natural volatile oils, aromatic from plants, obtained from flowers, roots, seeds, leaves, and
bark. They are lipophilic secondary metabolites and important plant defense mechanisms (An et al., 2019). Its
composition is quite varied, resulting from the mixture of several chemical classes, such as monoterpenes,
sesquiterpenes, aliphatic alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, acids, and simple benzenoids (Nahar et al., 2021).
Essential oils can be obtained in several ways, with the characteristics and components of the oil being the
determining factor for choosing the extraction technique. These techniques can be divided into two groups,
classical methods, such as hydrodistillation, steam distillation, hydro diffusion, and liquid-liquid extraction,
and emerging methods, such as supercritical fluid extraction, subcritical liquid extraction, and solventless
microwave extraction. Emerging methods have demonstrated greater extraction efficiency in the time
required for oil isolation, energy dissipation, yield, and quality (Aziz et al., 2018).
In recent years, essential oils have aroused great interest in the most varied areas due to their bactericidal,
virucidal, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antifungal properties. The latter is mainly due to
its potential substitute for synthetic antifungals (Angane et al., 2022; Kong et al., 2019; Park et al., 2009).
The antifungal activity of essential oils is constantly associated with their volatile bioactive components,
their interaction with the plasma membrane, and their disruption of mitochondrial functions. They can break
the plasma membrane and make it more permeable (Mutlu-Ingok et al., 2020). This mechanism occurs
through a permeabilization process, where essential oils penetrate and break the membrane and cell wall of
fungi (Tariq et al., 2019).

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 4/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Furthermore, essential oils can interrupt ion transport processes, interact with membrane proteins, and affect
the functioning of enzymes by interacting with their active site (Mutlu-Ingok et al., 2020). In yeast, they damage
the cell wall by establishing a membrane potential and interrupting ATP production (Tariq et al., 2019).
The European Commission 2008 released a constantly updated list, including components of essential oils
with approved use in food as food additives. Among the registered compounds that do not pose a risk to human
health are carvone, eugenol, limonene, linalool, pinene, thymol, carvacrol, vanillin, citral, cinnamaldehyde and
menthol. Some of these compounds will be discussed in the next section. The United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) also recognizes these compounds as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS)
(Angane et al., 2022). Figure 1 presents the chemical structure of some of these components of essential oils.

Figure 1. Chemical structures of limonene (A), menthol (B), γ-terpineol (C), p-cymene (D), piperitone (E),
α-terpineol (F), thymol (G), carvacrol (H), terpinen-4-ol (I), linalool (J), 1,8-cineol (K), 3-carene (L), cinnamaldehyde
(M), eugenol (N). Source: Authors (2023).

However, it is worth mentioning that essential oils are not exempt from possible adverse effects. Some of
them can cause allergies, dermatitis, stomatitis, kidney irritation, and alterations in the intestinal mucosa.
These effects are directly related to the dose, mode of administration, the health status of the person, additives
in oils, and their composition (D’agostino et al., 2019).
Essential oils have been used as alternatives to conventional antifungals. Usually, the antifungal activity
results from the action of their major compounds (Perricone et al., 2015) (as discussed in section 5), although
minor components also play essential roles, such as facilitating oil penetration into the cell, through disruption
and/or membrane permeabilization (D’agostino et al., 2019; Perricone et al., 2015). In some instances, the
isolated components of the essential oil have even better antifungal activity than the oil (Hou et al., 2022),
while it has already been verified that synergism might occur between specific essential oil components in a
way that the activity of a mixture is more active than the individual activities (D’agostino et al., 2019).
Some examples of essential oils can be seen in Table 1. The following section will present some of the most
studied essential oils in recent years and what is known about some of the components of these oils, which can
also have antifungal action individually. Next, some of the most studied essential oils in recent years will be
presented, some of their characteristics, principal components, and results obtained in recent studies on their
action on some of the previously mentioned pathogenic fungi. In section 5, some of the main components of
these essential oils identified as responsible for their antifungal action will be further discussed. Table 2 shows
the components of the oils, which will be discussed, found in higher concentrations in different studies.

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 5/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Table 1. Essential oils, main components with antifungal activity, and related fungi.
Essential oils Main components Fungus References
Cinnamon cinnamaldehyde Phytophthora colocasiae Hong et al. (2021)
cuminaldehyde, p-cymene, γ- Fusarium sp
Cumin Kedia et al. (2014)
terpinene 1,8-cineol Aspergillus sp
Alternaria brassicae
Clove 1,8-cineole, eugenol Diánez et al. (2018)
Fusarium oxysporum
Aspergillus niger
Eucalyptus p-cymene, 1,8-cineole Bardaweel et al. (2014)
Aspergillus flavus
Pepper mint linalool, menthol, piperitone Aspergillus niger Mahboubi & Haghi (2008)
α-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, Penicillium digitatum
Wild orange Trabelsi et al. (2016)
linalool, limonene Penicillium italicum
Botrytis cinerea
Daferera et al. (2003)
Fusarium sp
Oregano thymol, carvacrol Penicillium digitatum
Vitoratos et al. (2013)
Penicillium italicum
Aspergillus flavus Manso et al. (2011)
Botrytis cinerea
Penicillium italicum
Cheng & Shao (2011)
terpinen-4-ol, 3-carene, α- Penicillium digitatum
Tea tree
terpineol Colletotrichum acutatum
Aspergillus niger An et al. (2019)
Aspergillus ochraceus Kong et al. (2019)
Fusarium sp Daferera et al. (2003)
Aspergillus sp
Penicillium sp Segvić Klarić et al. (2007)
Cladosporum sp
Thyme thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene Botrytis cinerea Banani et al. (2018)
Alternaria brassicae
Diánez et al. (2018)
Fusarium oxysporum
Penicillium italicum
Vitoratos et al. (2013)
Penicillium digitatum

Table 2. Essential oils, main components, and relative content determined by Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry (CG-MS).
Essential oils Main components Relative content (%)
Kulkarni et al. (2012) Lee et al. (2013) Vázquez et al. (2023)
terpene-4-ol 48.70 47.31 38.42
Tea tree γ-terpinene 10.40 20.59 16.58
α-terpineol 2.00 3.020 4.66
Akkaoui et al. (2020) Petrakis et al. (2023) Xie et al. (2019)
carvacrol 32.36 77.33 58.13
Oregano p-cymene 16.25 9.64 17.85
timol 12.06 1.30 8.15
Cutillas et al. (2018) Hudaib et al. (2002) Khan et al. (2019)
timol 50.30 42.75 60.55
Thyme γ-terpinene 8.30 18.01 9.48
p-cymene 19.40 16.04 8.55
Ainane et al. (2019) Bisht et al. (2021) Yu et al. (2020)
cinnamaldehyde 89.31 40.60 73.35
Cinnamon linalool 1.60 10.20 10.61
cinnamyl acetate 2.44 19.60 8.58

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 6/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

4.1 Tea tree oil

Tea tree oil (TTO) is a clear/pale yellow oil with a pleasant odor obtained by distillation of the leaves and
terminal branches of Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel, a plant native to Australia that does not occur naturally
anywhere else in the world (Carson et al., 2006; Yue et al., 2020).
This oil has been widely used by the medicinal and cosmetic industries to treat inflammation, headaches,
colds, and coughs. It has even been suggested to prevent acne by reducing inflammation in the skin, and its
antitumor activity against breast cancer cells has also been reported in vitro tests (An et al., 2019). However,
it has also been reported that this oil can cause allergies and irritations, especially when deteriorated or poorly
preserved (D’agostino et al., 2019).
TTO is used as an antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer agent
(Carson et al., 2006; Yue et al., 2020). This oil has already shown a satisfactory inhibitory effect against
black mold, a postharvest disease caused by A. niger (An et al., 2019). In vivo tests also showed that TTO
can prevent rot caused by A. ochraceus in grapes (Kong et al., 2019).
In recent studies, the composition of TTO was determined using gas chromatography (GC) and gas
chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), through which the compounds present in this oil were
identified. Table 2 shows the components found in higher concentrations (An et al., 2019; Kong et al., 2019).
Among the main components of TTO, terpinen-4-ol and α-terpineol were identified as antifungal compounds
capable of inhibiting mycelium growth and spore germination, being the main contributors to the antifungal
activity of the oil (An et al., 2019; Kong et al., 2019). These components individually show a superior
destructive effect than TTO on the morphology of hyphae, spores, and plasma membrane (An et al., 2019).

4.2 Oregano essential oil

Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is a shrub native to southern Europe and western Asia. In Brazil, it is found
mainly in the South and Southeast regions. The essential oil of O. vulgare is characterized by having a high
content of phenolics and is also composed of monoterpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated
monoterpenes (Paulo et al., 2021). Essential oil extraction is traditionally performed by steam distillation of
leaves or buds but can also occur by hydrodistillation, CO2 extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction.
This oil is commonly used by the fragrance, pharmaceutical, food, and aroma industries (Bounar et al.,
2020) and is a recognized antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetes agent. Furthermore,
its effectiveness against food-deteriorating bacteria has been highlighted in many studies (D’agostino et al.,
2019). However, there are certain limitations regarding its use since it is degraded when exposed to high
temperatures, pressure, light, and oxygen during food processing and can alter sensory characteristics
depending on the concentration used (Paulo et al., 2021).
The antifungal activity of oregano essential oil has already been verified against the most varied
microorganisms, such as B. cinerea, Penicillium italicum, and P. digitatum (Vitoratos et al., 2013). Such activity
is related to specific components of this oil, such as carvacrol and thymol, that is their main active compounds
(Paulo et al., 2021). Table 2 shows the components found in greater quantities in O. vulgare oil in different studies.
This oil proved to be an effective fungicide against some Fusarium species, with a minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC) ranging from 0.156 to 0.078 μL/mL, the lowest of which was able to inhibit the
development of F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. avenaceum and F. moniliforme (Bounar et al., 2020).
Studies have evaluated the combined antifungal activity of oregano oil with other essential oils. The
combination with thyme essential oil, at a concentration of 0.078 μL/mL, completely inhibited the
germination of spores from different Fusarium species. In in vivo tests conducted on potatoes contaminated
with Fusarium species, the combination of these oils showed a more significant inhibitory effect than the
separate oils (Bounar et al., 2020). It was also reported that the combination of oregano extract, thyme
essential oil, and peppermint stimulated the growth of probiotic bacteria and positively affected the gut's
microbial composition (Angane et al., 2022).

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 7/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

4.3 Thyme essential oil

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) is a grass of the Lamiaceae family found worldwide, mainly in southern
Europe (Allahverdiyev et al., 2013; Jakiemiu et al., 2010). Its essential oil is obtained by steam distillation
of the aerial parts of the plant. It has a spicy aromatic odor, and color can vary from yellow to dark reddish-
brown (Evans & Evans, 2009).
Studies have already reported that this essential oil has antifungal, antibacterial, antiparasitic, and antiviral
activity, thus being widely used in traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, and
antiseptic agent (Kowalczyk et al., 2020). In the food industry, its use is related to its antibacterial, antifungal,
and antioxidant activity (Nieto, 2020).
Table 2 shows the components found in the highest concentration in thyme essential oil, determined by GC and
GC-MS, in different studies. The oil was obtained from thyme grown outdoors in the city of Ravenna, Italy. Some
of the main components of this oil are thymol, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, carvacrol, and linalool (Satyal et al., 2016),
with thymol and carvacrol being mainly responsible for its antifungal activity (Shabnum & Wagay, 2011).
The antifungal activity of thyme oil has been proven against various microorganisms. It reduced the diameter
of wounds caused by B. cinerea, the fungus responsible for gray mold, in experiments conducted on apples
(Banani et al., 2018). It presented an ED50 (dose that inhibits 50% of mycelial growth) of 677 μL/mL against
A. brassicae and 363 μL/mL against the pathogenic fungus F. oxysporum (Diánez et al., 2018).
In recent studies, thyme essential oil has been shown to be a potential substitute for nitrite as an antioxidant in
meat (Blanco-Lizarazo et al., 2017) and also as a preservative in hamburgers (Radünz et al., 2020). Adding thyme
oil also delayed the deterioration of minced pork during 15-day refrigerated storage (Boskovic et al., 2017).

4.4 Cinnamon essential oil

Cinnamon is a spice obtained from trees in the Lauraceae family. It is mainly found in Southeast Asia,
with China being the world's largest producer of cinnamon. Its oil is industrially obtained by steam distillation
(Yu et al., 2020). It has a yellowish color, cinnamon odor, and spicy burnt taste (Burdock, 2010).
Cinnamon essential oil is used as a food additive, condiment, and flavor due to its antioxidant and preservative
properties. It is also used medicinally in certain countries, such as China and India (Yu et al., 2020). Cinnamaldehyde
is one of the most active components of this oil that contributes to its biological activities (Shreaz et al., 2016) and
can be used to prevent food spoilage and is a potential substitute for synthetic preservatives (Sun et al., 2020).
Cinnamaldehyde will be discussed further in section 5.5. Table 2 shows the components found in the highest
concentration of cinnamon essential oil, determined by GC-MS, in different studies.
Cinnamon essential oil significantly inhibited mycelial growth, spore viability, and germination of P. colocasiae
in yam leaves and shoots. At a concentration of 0.625 mg/mL, the maximum inhibition of mycelial growth (100%),
zoospore germination (100%), and fungus sporulation (85.26%) was achieved (Hong et al., 2021).

5 Main components of essential oils are responsible for their antifungal action
In this section, some of the main components of the essential oils presented in section 4, identified as
responsible for their antifungal action, will be presented. These components are α-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol,
carvacrol, thymol, and cinnamaldehyde.

5.1 α-TERPINEOL
The α-terpineol (Figure 1F) is a cyclic monoterpene (C10H18O, MM = 154.25 g/mol), which has two enantiomers,
the R-(+)-α-terpineol, which has a floral aroma and is widely found in nature and S-(-)-α-terpineol, which has an
aroma reminiscent of pine and is rarer than other aromas (Boelens & van Gemert, 1993; Sales et al., 2020).
Even though it is found in various plants, this compound is obtained mainly through chemical synthesis.
The most classic method consists of hydrating crude oil with α-pinene or turpentine, but other methods with

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 8/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

3-carene, limonene, pinene, and pentane tricarboxylic acid are also used. α-terpineol can still be obtained by
biochemical methods through the biotransformation of limonene, α- and β-pinene (Sales et al., 2020).
This monoterpene is used as a fragrance in the cosmetics industry (perfumes, body lotions) and as an
aroma (beverages, confectionery, and condiments) by the food industry. In addition, it has excellent potential
for application due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antimicrobial, anticancer,
antifungal, and antihypertensive properties and because it is considered a potent inhibitor of superoxide
production (Khaleel et al., 2018; Sales et al., 2020).
The antifungal activity of α-terpineol has already been reported in several studies, such as, for example,
in the fight against sour rot, according to the study of Zhou et al. (2014) which determined the MIC and CFM
values of a-terpineol to be 2.00 and 4.00 μL/mL, respectively, and the mycelial growth of Geotrichum citri-
aurantii was wholly inhibited at a concentration of 2.00 μL/mL. However, at 0.25 and 0.50 μL/mL
concentrations, the mycelial growth of G. citri-aurantii was slightly stimulated.
The study suggests that α-terpineol can act on the cell membrane structure of G. citri-aurantii and
compromise its integrity. This occurs because the tests carried out with α-terpineol showed a more excellent
extracellular conductivity, lower extracellular pH, and a decrease in the total lipid content of the cells
compared to the control. These results indicated irreversible damage to the cytoplasmic membranes of G.
citri-aurantii because the lower pH and the decrease in lipid content indicate the extravasation of protons and
intracellular components. Furthermore, it was observed that the hyphae were shrunken and distorted after
exposure to α-terpineol (Zhou et al., 2014).
In another study, α-terpineol was pointed out as the main component of M. alternifolia oil responsible for
the inhibition of A. ochraceus, being the one that causes the most significant suppression of mycelial growth,
spore germination, and membrane destruction. At a concentration of 0.4 μL/mL, α-terpineol showed a rate of
inhibition of mycelial growth of 50.4% and a rate of inhibition of spore germination of 49.0%. At concentrations
of 0.8 and 1.6 μL/mL, it blocked hyphal growth and spore germination for 7 days. Furthermore, it inhibited the
growth of A. ochraceus in grapes incubated at 25 °C for 7 days (Kong et al., 2019).
Kong et al. (2019) observed that A. ochraceus undergoes a series of changes when exposed to α-terpineol.
Their hyphae become rough and fractured, which leads to leakage of their contents and inhibition of mycelial
growth. Cytoplasms became irregular and degenerated, with large empty holes. These changes were
attributed to blocking the synthesis of the cell wall, cytomembrane, cytoplasm, and organelles, thus affecting
the growth and morphology of fungi and spores.
In the study by An et al. (2019), the antifungal activity of α-terpineol was also related to damage to cell walls,
membranes, and cytoplasm. In that study, a higher electrical conductivity was also reported in the group treated
with α-terpineol than in the control group. All mycelium exposed to α-terpineol became twisted, broken,
wrinkled, coarse, and with reduced cytoplasmic content. The sporangia were also affected, being badly broken.
In in vivo tests, it completely inhibited the growth of A. niger in grapes incubated at 25 °C for 7 days.

5.2 Terpinen-4-ol

Terpinen-4-ol (Figure 1I), like α-terpineol, is a monoterpene that has two stereoisomers, R-( −)-terpinen-
4-ol and S-( +)-terpinen-4-ol. Its aroma is spicy and clayey, with a woody touch (Carneiro Neto et al., 2022).
In their study, Kong et al. (2019) identified terpinen-4-ol as the second principal component of M.
alternifolia oil responsible for inhibiting A. ochraceus. The study caused morphological changes in hyphae
and deformed A. ochraceus spores, inhibiting their mycelial growth.
Seven days after treatment, using a concentration of 0.8 μL/mL, its mycelial growth inhibition rate was
69.6%, and the spore germination inhibition rate was 68.0%. At a 1.6 μL/mL concentration, there was an
almost complete blockage of mycelial growth and spore germination. In grapes treated with terpinen-4-ol,
the incidence of the disease was 45% (Kong et al., 2019).

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 9/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Exposure to terpinen-4-ol caused a series of alterations in A. ochraceus, such as a reduction in electrical

conductivity, disruption and thinning of hyphae, and irregular and degenerated cytoplasm. These changes
were attributed to blocking the synthesis of the cell wall, cytomembrane, cytoplasm, and organelles, thus
affecting the growth and morphology of fungi and spores (Kong et al., 2019).
Similar results were obtained in a study conducted with A. niger. In this study, the antifungal activity of
terpinen-4-ol was associated with its ability to disrupt cell walls, membranes, and cytoplasm. Its application
reduced the incidence of black mold in grapes to 27% compared to the control (An et al., 2019).
In this study, once again, terpinen-4-ol showed higher electrical conductivity than the control group,
suggesting its effectiveness in destroying the membrane permeability of A. niger. Furthermore, it also
seriously fractured the hyphae, which led to leakage of contents, damaged cell walls, and made the sporangia
small and ruptured (An et al., 2019).

5.3 Carvacrol
Carvacrol (2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)phenol, (Figure 1H) is a phenolic monoterpene (C10H14O), which
has an isomer, thymol. Its odor is spicy and reminiscent of oregano (Lima et al., 2017). It is considered non-
toxic to humans and is commonly used as a flavoring agent (Chaillot et al., 2015).
Carvacrol can be obtained by extracting it directly from plants such as oregano (O. vulgare), thyme (T.
vulgaris), pepper (Lepidium flavum Torr.), and black cumin (Nigella sativa L.). However, it can also be
synthesized chemically and biochemically. It is recognized for its antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-
inflammatory, and antioxidant activity (Bayir et al., 2019).
Over the years, several mechanisms of action have been suggested to explain the antifungal activity of carvacrol.
It has already been pointed out that this monoterpene disrupts and depolarizes the plasma membrane, thus targeting
membrane proteins. In a study with Candida albicans, it demonstrated the ability to fragment the endoplasmic
reticulum, causing disruption of its organization and unfolding of the protein response, by activating genes
involved in proteolysis, amino acid metabolism, and phospholipid translocation (D’agostino et al., 2019).

5.4 Thymol
Thymol (5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl)phenol, (Figure 1G) is a phenolic monoterpene (C10H14O) isomer of
carvacrol. It has a white crystalline color and a characteristic pleasant odor. It has good solubility in organic
solvents but is poorly soluble in water (Lima et al., 2017). Several studies have proven its antifungal activity,
although its mechanisms are still not entirely clear (D’agostino et al., 2019).
In a study with F. graminearum, thymol decreased the production and germination of conidia, damaged
the plasma membrane, causing electrolyte leakage, and mainly affected the hyphae, which is a high
concentration collapsed and broke, reaching a wholly inhibited growth (Gao et al., 2016).
Synergistic effects between thymol and other fungicides have been previously reported. Together with
fluconazole, thymol showed a synergistic effect against Trichophyton rubrum and A. fumigatus. In a study
with C. albicans, C. krusei, and C. glabrata, a synergistic effect was also reported when combined with
fluconazole. Other synergistic interactions were observed when combined with itraconazole against Pythium
insidiosum and nystatin against Candida spp. (D’agostino et al., 2019).

5.5 Cinnamaldehyde
Cinnamaldehyde (3-phenylprop-2-enal, (Figure 1M) is a yellowish liquid with a strong cinnamon odor and
insoluble in water and miscible in vegetable oils and ethanol. It is found in cinnamon and its leaf, leaf from
cassia, and lemon balm. It can be obtained both by extraction and by chemical synthesis. The latter occurs by
condensing benzaldehyde with acetaldehyde in the presence of sodium or calcium hydroxide (Burdock, 2010).
In in vitro tests, cinnamaldehyde has already been shown to be effective against A. niger, with its antifungal
effect directly linked to the dose and form of treatment. In doses greater than 150 μg/mL, the growth of A.

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 10/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

niger was insignificant, and the liquid treatment was the most effective. Its antifungal activity has been
associated with its ability to alter the morphology and ultrastructure of hyphae, loss of cytoplasm, and
destruction of organelles (Sun et al., 2020).
Against G. citri-aurantii, cinnamaldehyde made the hyphae distorted, shriveled, and crushed and caused
a structural disorder of the cytoplasm. Its antifungal activity was not associated with damage to the plasma
membrane but to the cell wall, something supported by the reduction in chitin content and increased activity
of AKP, an enzyme produced in the cytoplasm that is released by fungal cells that have damage to their wall
cell (OuYang et al., 2019).

6 Final considerations
Phytopathogenic fungi constitute a significant challenge for agriculture, being responsible for nutritional,
color, texture, physiological, and biochemical changes in various foods, causing significant economic losses
and losses of food products.
Since the 1930s, several synthetic antifungals have been developed aiming to control these fungi, such as
triazoles, phenylpyrroles, strobilurins, benzimidazoles, and morpholines, among others. However, concern
has been growing regarding using these synthetic antifungals due to the emergence of resistant strains, toxic
residues in food, and long-term persistence in the environment without being degraded, among others.
In this scenario, there is growing interest in research into natural substances with antifungal activity, such
as extracts, essential oils, or active plant compounds. Recent studies demonstrated that essential oils are
potential substitutes due to their ability to pierce the cell wall, break hyphae, liquefy cell membranes, and
affect the functioning of enzymes, preventing the development of fungi.
The major challenge associated with the applicability of essential oils is the volatility of specific
compounds, making it difficult to verify the effects of a volatile compound in a matrix due to the short
interaction time between them. A potential solution to this problem is using encapsulation techniques, such
as microencapsulation and nanoemulsions. They significantly reduce volatility, increase stability, shelf life,
and preserve biological activity.
Essential oils are an interesting alternative to conventional antifungals. It is expected that scientific and
technological development in this sector will allow the large-scale replacement of conventional antifungals
with formulations containing essential oils. However, until this scenario becomes a reality, research on this
topic must be encouraged, aiming to discover the main components of these oils responsible for their
antifungal activity, understand the mechanisms of action and develop techniques to enable the interaction
between them and the matrix.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support from the São Paulo Research Foundation (Fundação de
Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - FAPESP) (grant number 2020/06814-3), the Coordination for
the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
Superior - CAPES) (finance code 001) and The Good Food Institute. J.L. Bicas acknowledges Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) for the scholarship (303033/2021-5).

References
Ainane, T., Khammour, F., Merghoub, N., Elabboubi, M., Charaf, S., Ainane, A., Elkouali, M. H., Talbi, M., Abba, E. H., &
Cherroud, S. (2019). Cosmetic bio-product based on cinnamon essential oil “Cinnamomum verum” for the treatment of
mycoses: Preparation, chemical analysis and antimicrobial activity. MOJ Toxicology, 5(1), 5-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/mojt.2019.05.00144
Akkaoui, S., Johansson, A., Yagoubi, M., Haubek, D., El Hamidi, A., Rida, S., Claesson, R., & Ennibi, O. (2020). Chemical
composition, antimicrobial activity, in vitro cytotoxicity and leukotoxin neutralization of essential oil from Origanum vulgare against
Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. Pathogens, 9(3), 192. PMid:32151045. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9030192

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 11/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Allahverdiyev, A. M., Bagirova, M., Yaman, S., Koc, R. C., Abamor, E. S., Ates, S. C., Baydar, S. Y., Elcicek, S., & Oztel, O. N.
(2013). Development of New antiherpetic drugs based on plant compounds. In M. K. Rai & K. V. Kon (Eds.), Fighting multidrug
resistance with herbal extracts, essential oils and their components (pp. 245-259). Amsterdam: Academic Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-398539-2.00017-3
An, P., Yang, X., Yu, J., Qi, J., Ren, X., & Kong, Q. (2019). α-terpineol and terpene-4-ol, the critical components of tea tree oil,
exert antifungal activities in vitro and in vivo against Aspergillus niger in grapes by inducing morphous damage and metabolic
changes of fungus. Food Control, 98, 42-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.11.013
Andrade Silva, E. M., Reis, S. P. M., Argolo, C. S., Gomes, D. S., Barbosa, C. S., Gramacho, K. P., Ribeiro, L. F., Silva, R. J. S., &
Micheli, F. (2020). Moniliophthora perniciosa development: Key genes involved in stress-mediated cell wall organization and autophagy.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 154, 1022-1035. PMid:32194118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.125
Angane, M., Swift, S., Huang, K., Butts, C. A., & Quek, S. Y. (2022). Essential oils and their major components: An updated
review on antimicrobial activities, mechanism of action and their potential application in the food industry. Foods, 11(3), 464.
PMid:35159614. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods11030464
Apell, J. N., Pflug, N. C., & McNeill, K. (2019). Photodegradation of fludioxonil and other pyrroles: The importance of indirect
photodegradation for understanding environmental fate and photoproduct formation. Environmental Science & Technology,
53(19), 11240-11250. PMid:31486641. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b03948
Aziz, Z. A. A., Ahmad, A., Setapar, S. H. M., Karakucuk, A., Azim, M. M., Lokhat, D., Rafatullah, M., Ganash, M., Kamal, M. A.,
& Ashraf, G. M. (2018). Essential oils: Extraction techniques, pharmaceutical and therapeutic potential. A review. Current Drug
Metabolism, 19(13), 1100-1110. PMid:30039757. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389200219666180723144850
Baibakova, E. V., Nefedjeva, E. E., Suska-Malawska, M., Wilk, M., Sevriukova, G. A., & Zheltobriukhov, V. F. (2019). Modern
fungicides: Mechanisms of action, fungal resistance and phytotoxic effects. Annual Research & Review in Biology, 32(3), 1-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/arrb/2019/v32i330083
Banani, H., Olivieri, L., Santoro, K., Garibaldi, A., Gullino, M., & Spadaro, D. (2018). Thyme and savory essential oil efficacy and
induction of resistance against Botrytis cinerea through priming of defense responses in apple. Foods, 7(2), 11. PMid:29360731.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods7020011
Bardaweel, S., Hudaib, M., & Tawaha, K. (2014). Evaluation of antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activities of essential oils from
six species of Eucalyptus. Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants, 17(6), 1165-1174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2014.963169
Bayir, A. G., Kiziltan, H. S., & Kocyigit, A. (2019). Plant family, carvacrol, and putative protection in gastric cancer. In R. R.
Watson & V. R. Preedy (Eds.), Dietary interventions in gastrointestinal diseases: Foods, nutrients, and dietary supplements (pp.
3-18). London: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814468-8.00001-6
Bersching, K., & Jacob, S. (2021). The molecular mechanism of fludioxonil action is different to osmotic stress sensing. Journal
of Fungi, 7(5), 393. PMid:34067802. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7050393
Bisht, D., Saroj, A., Durgapal, A., Chanotiya, C. S., & Samad, A. (2021). Inhibitory effect of cinnamon (Cinnamomum tamala
(Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm.) essential oil and its aldehyde constituents on growth and spore germination of phytopathogenic
fungi. Trends in Phytochemical Research, 5(2), 62-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.30495/tpr.2021.1914085.1184
Blanco-Lizarazo, C. M., Betancourt-Cortés, R., Lombana, A., Carrillo-Castro, K., & Sotelo-Díaz, I. (2017). Listeria monocytogenes
behaviour and quality attributes during sausage storage affected by sodium nitrite, sodium lactate and thyme essential oil. Food
Science & Technology International, 23(3), 277-288. PMid:28068841. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1082013216686464
Boelens, M. H., & van Gemert, L. (1993). Sensory properties of optical isomers. Perfumer and Flavorist, 18, 1-16.
Boskovic, M., Djordjevic, J., Ivanovic, J., Janjic, J., Zdravkovic, N., Glisic, M., Glamoclija, N., Baltic, B., Djordjevic, V., & Baltic,
M. (2017). Inhibition of Salmonella by thyme essential oil and its effect on microbiological and sensory properties of minced pork
meat packaged under vacuum and modified atmosphere. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 258, 58-67.
PMid:28759796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.07.011
Bounar, R., Krimat, S., Boureghda, H., & Dob, T. (2020). Chemical analyses, antioxidant and antifungal effects of oregano and
thyme essential oils alone or in combination against selected Fusarium species. International Food Research Journal, 27(1), 66-77.
Burdock, G. A. (2010). Flavor ingredients (6th ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Carneiro Neto, J. N., Sorbo, J. M., Arcaro Filho, C. A., Sabino, T. F. M., Ribeiro, D. A., Brunetti, I. L., & Andrade, C. R. (2022). Negative
terpinen-4-ol modulate potentially malignant and malignant lingual lesions induced by 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide in rat model. Naunyn-
Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology, 395(11), 1387-1403. PMid:35943514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00210-022-02275-7
Carson, C. F., Hammer, K. A., & Riley, T. V. (2006). Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil: A review of antimicrobial and other
medicinal properties. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 19(1), 50-62. PMid:16418522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006
Chaillot, J., Tebbji, F., Remmal, A., Boone, C., Brown, G. W., Bellaoui, M., & Sellam, A. (2015). The monoterpene carvacrol
Generates endoplasmic reticulum stress in the pathogenic fungus Candida albicans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy,
59(8), 4584-4592. PMid:26014932. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00551-15
Cheng, S., & Shao, X. (2011). In vivo antifungal activities of the tea tree oil vapor against Botrytis cinerea. In 2011 International Conference
on New Technology of Agricultural (pp. 949-951), Zibo, China. New York: IEEE. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICAE.2011.5943945
Cutillas, A. B., Carrasco, A., Martinez-Gutierrez, R., Tomas, V., & Tudela, J. (2018). Thyme essential oils from Spain: Aromatic
profile ascertained by GC–MS, and their antioxidant, anti-lipoxygenase and antimicrobial activities. Journal of Food and Drug
Analysis, 26(2), 529-544. PMid:29567222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2017.05.004
D’agostino, M., Tesse, N., Frippiat, J. P., Machouart, M., & Debourgogne, A. (2019). Essential oils and their natural active compounds
presenting antifungal properties. Molecules, 24(20), 3713. PMid:31619024. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24203713

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 12/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Daferera, D. J., Ziogas, B. N., & Polissiou, M. G. (2003). The effectiveness of plant essential oils on the growth of Botrytis
cinerea, Fusarium sp. and Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. Crop Protection, 22(1), 39-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(02)00095-9
Diánez, F., Santos, M., Parra, C., Navarro, M. J., Blanco, R., & Gea, F. J. (2018). Screening of antifungal activity of 12 essential
oils against eight pathogenic fungi of vegetables and mushroom. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 67(4), 400-410.
PMid:30022505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lam.13053
Ebadollahi, A., Ziaee, M., & Palla, F. (2020). Essential oils extracted from different species of the Lamiaceae plant family as
prospective bioagents against several detrimental pests. Molecules, 25(7), 1556. PMid:32231104.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071556
Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Volatile oils and resins. In W. C. Evans (Ed.), Trease and Evans’ pharmacognosy (pp. 263-
303). Edinburgh: Elsevier. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-2933-2.00022-8
Falleh, H., Ben Jemaa, M., Saada, M., & Ksouri, R. (2020). Essential oils: A promising eco-friendly food preservative. Food
Chemistry, 330, 127268. PMid:32540519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127268
Gao, T., Zhou, H., Zhou, W., Hu, L., Chen, J., & Shi, Z. (2016). The fungicidal activity of thymol against Fusarium graminearum
via inducing lipid peroxidation and disrupting ergosterol biosynthesis. Molecules, 21(6), 770. PMid:27322238.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules21060770
Geetha, A. (2019). Phytotoxicity due to fungicides and herbicides and its impact in crop physiological factors. In R. K. Naresh
(Ed.), Advances in agriculture sciences (pp. 29). Delhi: AkiNik Publications.
Hahn, M. (2014). The rising threat of fungicide resistance in plant pathogenic fungi: Botrytis as a case study. Journal of
Chemical Biology, 7(4), 133-141. PMid:25320647. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12154-014-0113-1
Hammami, R., Oueslati, M., Smiri, M., Nefzi, S., Ruissi, M., Comitini, F., Romanazzi, G., Cacciola, S. O., & Sadfi Zouaoui, N.
(2022). Epiphytic yeasts and bacteria as candidate biocontrol agents of green and blue molds of citrus fruits. Journal of Fungi,
8(8), 818. PMid:36012806. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof8080818
Hirooka, T., & Ishii, H. (2013). Chemical control of plant diseases. Journal of General Plant Pathology, 79(6), 390-401.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10327-013-0470-6
Hong, Z., Talib, K. M., Mujtaba, K. G., Dabin, H., Yahya, F., Congying, Z., & Fukai, W. (2021). Antifungal potential of cinnamon
essential oils against Phytophthora colocasiae causing taro leaf blight. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture,
8(1), 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40538-021-00238-3
Hou, T., Sana, S. S., Li, H., Xing, Y., Nanda, A., Netala, V. R., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Essential oils and its antibacterial, antifungal
and anti-oxidant activity applications: A review. Food Bioscience, 47, 101716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101716
Hudaib, M., Speroni, E., Di Pietra, A. M., & Cavrini, V. (2002). GC/MS evaluation of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) oil composition
and variations during the vegetative cycle. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 29(4), 691-700. PMid:12093498.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0731-7085(02)00119-X
Jain, A., Sarsaiya, S., Wu, Q., Lu, Y., & Shi, J. (2019). A review of plant leaf fungal diseases and its environment speciation.
Bioengineered, 10(1), 409-424. PMid:31502497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2019.1649520
Jakiemiu, E. A. R., Scheer, A. D. P., Oliveira, J. S., Côcco, L. C., Yamamoto, C. I., & Deschamps, C. (2010). Estudo da
composição e do rendimento do óleo essencial de tomilho (Thymus vulgaris L.). Semina: Ciências Agrárias, 31(3), 683.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2010v31n3p683
Jiménez-Reyes, M. F., Carrasco, H., Olea, A. F., & Silva-Moreno, E. (2019). Natural compounds: A sustainable alternative to
the phytopathogens control. Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society, 64(2), 4459-4465. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-
97072019000204459
Kedia, A., Prakash, B., Mishra, P. K., & Dubey, N. K. (2014). Antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic properties of Cuminum cyminum
(L.) seed essential oil and its efficacy as a preservative in stored commodities. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 168-
169, 1-7. PMid:24211773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.10.008
Khaleel, C., Tabanca, N., & Buchbauer, G. (2018). α-Terpineol, a natural monoterpene: A review of its biological properties.
Open Chemistry, 16(1), 349-361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/chem-2018-0040
Khan, A. A., Amjad, M. S., & Saboon. (2019). GC-MS analysis and biological activities of Thymus vulgaris and Mentha arvensis
essential oil. Türk Biyokimya Dergisi, 44(3), 388-396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/tjb-2018-0258
Kong, Q., Zhang, L., An, P., Qi, J., Yu, X., Lu, J., & Ren, X. (2019). Antifungal mechanisms of α-terpineol and terpene-4-alcohol
as the critical components of Melaleuca alternifolia oil in the inhibition of rot disease caused by Aspergillus ochraceus in
postharvest grapes. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 126(4), 1161-1174. PMid:30614164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jam.14193
Kowalczyk, A., Przychodna, M., Sopata, S., Bodalska, A., & Fecka, I. (2020). Selected therapeutic applications. Molecules,
25(18), 4125-4142. PMid:32917001.
Kulkarni, A., Jan, N., & Nimbarte, S. (2012). Monitoring of antimicrobial effect of GC-MS standardized Melaleuca alternifolia oil
(tea tree oil) on multidrug resistant uropathogens. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, 2(2), 6-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/3008-0220614
Lee, C. J., Chen, L. W., Chen, L. G., Chang, T. L., Huang, C. W., Huang, M. C., & Wang, C. C. (2013). Correlations of the
components of tea tree oil with its antibacterial effects and skin irritation. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 21(2), 169-176.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2013.05.007
Lima, D. S., Lima, J. C., Calvacanti, R. M. C. B., Santos, B. H. C., & Lima, I. O. (2017). Estudo da atividade antibacteriana dos
monoterpenos timol e carvacrol contra cepas de Escherichia coli produtoras de β -lactamases de amplo espectro. Revista Pan-

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 13/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Amazônica de Saúde, 8(1), 17-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5123/S2176-62232017000100003

Lisboa, D. O., Evans, H. C., Araújo, J. P. M., Elias, S. G., & Barreto, R. W. (2020). Moniliophthora perniciosa, the mushroom
causing witches’ broom disease of cacao: Insights into its taxonomy, ecology and host range in Brazil. Fungal Biology, 124(12),
983-1003. PMid:33213787. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2020.09.001
Mahboubi, M., & Haghi, G. (2008). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of Mentha pulegium L. essential oil. Journal
of Ethnopharmacology, 119(2), 325-327. PMid:18703127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.023
Manso, S., Nerín, C., & Gómez-lus, R. (2011). Antifungal activity of the essential oil of cinnamon (cinnamomum zeylanicum),
oregano (Origanum vulgare) and lauramide argine ethyl ester (LAE) against the mold aspergillus flavus CECT 2949. Italian
Journal of Food Science, 23(Suppl.), 151-156.
Matin, M. M., Matin, P., Rahman, M. R., Ben Hadda, T., Almalki, F. A., Mahmud, S., Ghoneim, M. M., Alruwaily, M., & Alshehri,
S. (2022). Triazoles and their derivatives: Chemistry, synthesis, and therapeutic applications. Frontiers in Molecular
Biosciences, 9, 864286. PMid:35547394. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2022.864286
Matrose, N. A., Obikeze, K., Belay, Z. A., & Caleb, O. J. (2021). Plant extracts and other natural compounds as alternatives for post-
harvest management of fruit fungal pathogens: A review. Food Bioscience, 41, 100840. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100840
Menon, A. K. (2018). Sterol gradients in cells. Current Opinion in Cell Biology, 53, 37-43. PMid:29783105.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceb.2018.04.012
Moraes Bazioli, J., Belinato, J. R., Costa, J. H., Akiyama, D. Y., Pontes, J. G. M., Kupper, K. C., Augusto, F., Carvalho, J. E., &
Fill, T. P. (2019). Biological control of citrus postharvest phytopathogens. Toxins, 11(8), 460. PMid:31390769.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11080460
Morton, V., & Staub, T. (2008). A short history of fungicides. APSnet Feature Articles, 1755, 1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/APSnetFeature-2008-0308
Mutlu-Ingok, A., Devecioglu, D., Dikmetas, D. N., Karbancioglu-Guler, F., & Capanoglu, E. (2020). Antibacterial, antifungal,
antimycotoxigenic, and antioxidant activities of essential oils: An updated review. Molecules, 25(20), 4711. PMid:33066611.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204711
Nahar, L., El-Seedi, H. R., Khalifa, S. A. M., Mohammadhosseini, M., & Sarker, S. D. (2021). Ruta essential oils: Composition
and bioactivities. Molecules, 26(16), 4766. PMid:34443352. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26164766
Nazzaro, F., Fratianni, F., Coppola, R., & Feo, V. (2017). Essential oils and antifungal activity. Pharmaceuticals, 10(4), 86.
PMid:29099084. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ph10040086
Nieto, G. (2020). A review on applications and uses of thymus in the food industry. Plants, 9(8), 1-29. PMid:32751488.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants9080961
OuYang, Q., Duan, X., Li, L., & Tao, N. (2019). Cinnamaldehyde exerts its antifungal activity by disrupting the cell wall integrity
of Geotrichum citri-aurantii. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, 55. PMid:30761105. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00055
Pandey, A. K., Kumar, P., Singh, P., Tripathi, N. N., & Bajpai, V. K. (2017). Essential oils: Sources of antimicrobials and food
preservatives. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 2161. PMid:28138324. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.02161
Park, M. J., Gwak, K. S., Yang, I., Kim, K. W., Jeung, E. B., Chang, J. W., & Choi, I. G. (2009). Effect of citral, eugenol, nerolidol
and α-terpineol on the ultrastructural changes of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Fitoterapia, 80(5), 290-296. PMid:19345255.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2009.03.007
Paulo, A. F. S., Balan, G. C., & Shirai, M. A. (2021). Óleo essencial de orégano (Origanum vulgare L.) na produção de filmes
ativos biodegradáveis. Avanços em Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 4, 430-443. http://dx.doi.org/10.37885/210203190
Perricone, M., Arace, E., Corbo, M. R., Sinigaglia, M., & Bevilacqua, A. (2015). Bioactivity of essential oils: A review on their
interaction with food components. Frontiers in Microbiology, 6, 76. PMid:25709605. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.00076
Petrakis, E. A., Mikropoulou, E. V., Mitakou, S., Halabalaki, M., & Kalpoutzakis, E. (2023). A GC–MS and LC–HRMS
perspective on the chemotaxonomic investigation of the natural hybrid Origanum × lirium and its parents, O. vulgare subsp.
hirtum and O. scabrum. Phytochemical Analysis, 34(3), 289-300. PMid:36698289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pca.3206
Poloni, N. M., Carvalho, G., Nunes Campos Vicentini, S., Francis Dorigan, A., Nunes Maciel, J. L., McDonald, B. A., Intra Moreira, S.,
Hawkins, N., Fraaije, B. A., Kelly, D. E., Kelly, S. L., & Ceresini, P. C. (2021). Widespread distribution of resistance to triazole fungicides
in Brazilian populations of the wheat blast pathogen. Plant Pathology, 70(2), 436-448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ppa.13288
Radünz, M., Hackbart, H. C. S., Camargo, T. M., Nunes, C. F. P., Barros, F. A. P., Dal Magro, J., Sanches Filho, P. J., Gandra,
E. A., Radünz, A. L., & Rosa Zavareze, E. (2020). Antimicrobial potential of spray drying encapsulated thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
essential oil on the conservation of hamburger-like meat products. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 330, 108696.
PMid:32502760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108696
Raveau, R., Fontaine, J., & Lounès-Hadj Sahraoui, A. (2020). Essential oils as potential alternative biocontrol products against
plant pathogens and weeds: A review. Foods, 9(3), 365. PMid:32245234. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods9030365
Roca-Couso, R., Flores-Félix, J. D., & Rivas, R. (2021). Mechanisms of action of microbial biocontrol agents against Botrytis
cinerea. Journal of Fungi, 7(12), 1045. PMid:34947027. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7121045
Russell, P. E. (2005). A century of fungicide evolution. Journal of Agricultural Science, 143(1), 11-25.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0021859605004971
Sales, A., Felipe, L. de O., & Bicas, J. L. (2020). Production, properties, and applications of α-Terpineol. Food and Bioprocess
Technology, 13(8), 1261-1279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02461-6
Sánchez-Torres, P. (2021). Molecular mechanisms underlying fungicide resistance in citrus postharvest green mold. Journal of

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 14/15

Antifungal activity of essential oils of tea tree, oregano, thyme, and cinnamon, and their components
Martins, G. A., & Bicas, J. L.

Fungi, 7(9), 783. PMid:34575821. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7090783

Santos, S. F., Cardoso, R. C. V., Borges, I. M. P., Almeida, A. C. E., Andrade, E. S., Ferreira, I. O., & Ramos, L. D. C. (2020).
Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and
reduction strategies. Waste Management, 101, 161-170. PMid:31610477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.007
Satyal, P., Murray, B. L., McFeeters, R. L., & Setzer, W. N. (2016). Essential oil characterization of Thymus vulgaris from
various geographical locations. Foods, 5(4), 1-12. PMid:28231164. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods5040070
Segvić Klarić, M., Kosalec, I., Mastelić, J., Piecková, E., & Pepeljnak, S. (2007). Antifungal activity of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.)
essential oil and thymol against moulds from damp dwellings. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 44(1), 36-42. PMid:17209812.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.02032.x
Shabnum, S., & Wagay, M. G. (2011). Essential oil composition of Thymus vulgaris L. and their uses. Journal of Research and
Development, 11, 12.
Shcherbakova, L. A. (2019). Fungicide resistance of plant pathogenic fungi and their chemosensitization as a tool to increase
anti-disease effects of triazoles and strobilurines. Selskokhozyaistvennaya Biologiya, 54(5), 875-891.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2019.5.875eng
Shreaz, S., Wani, W. A., Behbehani, J. M., Raja, V., Irshad, M., Karched, M., Ali, I., Siddiqi, W. A., & Hun, L. T. (2016).
Cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives, a novel class of antifungal agents. Fitoterapia, 112, 116-131. PMid:27259370.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2016.05.016
Sun, Q., Li, J., Sun, Y., Chen, Q., Zhang, L., & Le, T. (2020). The antifungal effects of cinnamaldehyde against Aspergillus niger and its
application in bread preservation. Food Chemistry, 317, 126405. PMid:32078995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126405
Tariq, S., Wani, S., Rasool, W., Shafi, K., Bhat, M. A., Prabhakar, A., Shalla, A. H., & Rather, M. A. (2019). A comprehensive review
of the antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral potential of essential oils and their chemical constituents against drug-resistant microbial
pathogens. Microbial Pathogenesis, 134, 103580. PMid:31195112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103580
Thind, T. S. (2021). Changing trends in discovery of new fungicides: A perspective. Indian Phytopathology, 74(4), 875-883.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42360-021-00411-6
Trabelsi, D., Hamdane, A. M., Said, M. B., & Abdrrabba, M. (2016). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils
from flowers, leaves and peels of Tunisian Citrus aurantium against Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum. Journal of
Essential Oil-Bearing Plants, 19(7), 1660-1674. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2016.1141069
Vázquez, A., Tabanca, N., & Kendra, P. E. (2023). HPTLC analysis and chemical composition of selected Melaleuca essential
oils. Molecules, 28(9), 25-31. PMid:37175338. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules28093925
Vitoratos, A., Bilalis, D., Karkanis, A., & Efthimiadou, A. (2013). Antifungal activity of plant essential oils against Botrytis cinerea,
Penicillium italicum and Penicillium digitatum. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 41(1), 86-92.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15835/nbha4118931
Wang, X., Li, X., Wang, Y., Qin, Y., Yan, B., & Martyniuk, C. J. (2021). A comprehensive review of strobilurin fungicide toxicity in
aquatic species: Emphasis on mode of action from the zebrafish model. Environmental Pollution, 275, 116671. PMid:33582629.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116671
Xie, Y., Huang, Q., Rao, Y., Hong, L., & Zhang, D. (2019). Efficacy of Origanum vulgare essential oil and carvacrol against the
housefly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: muscidae). Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(23), 23824-
23831. PMid:31209751. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05671-4
Yu, T., Yao, H., Qi, S., & Wang, J. (2020). GC-MS analysis of volatiles in cinnamon essential oil extracted by different methods.
Grasas y Aceites, 71(3), 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/gya.0462191
Yue, Q., Shao, X., Wei, Y., Jiang, S., Xu, F., Wang, H., & Gao, H. (2020). Postharvest biology and technology optimized
preparation of tea tree oil complexation and their antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Postharvest Biology and
Technology, 162, 111114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2019.111114
Zakaria, L. (2021). Diversity of colletotrichum species associated with anthracnose disease in tropical fruit crops: A review.
Agriculture, 11(4), 297. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040297
Zhang, C., Zhou, T., Xu, Y., Du, Z., Li, B., Wang, J., Wang, J., & Zhu, L. (2020). Ecotoxicology of strobilurin fungicides. The
Science of the Total Environment, 742, 140611. PMid:32721740. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140611
Zhou, H., Tao, N., & Jia, L. (2014). Antifungal activity of citral, octanal and α-terpineol against Geotrichum citri-aurantii. Food
Control, 37(1), 277-283. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.057

Funding: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e

Tecnológico (303033/2021-5); Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Finance code
001); Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo
(2020/06814-3); Good Food Institute

Received: June 06, 2023; Accepted: Jan. 19, 2024

Associate Editor: José Humberto de Queiroz.

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 27, e2023071, 2024 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.07123 15/15