SUMMARY-NOTES-IN-GENERAL-BIOLOGY-1

SUMMARY NOTES IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 1- Quarter 2
CELL MEMBRANE AND ITS STRUCTURE

 The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-permeable membrane
that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.
 Its function is to protect the cell's interior by selectively allowing some
substances in while keeping others out.
 It serves as an attachment point for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the
cell wall in others
Serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.
 Regulate cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.N
 In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell membrane as
substances are internalized.
 In exocytosis, vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell
membrane increasing cell size.
 Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and fungal cells have plasma
membranes. Internal organelles are also encased by membranes.
 The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids.
Depending on the membrane’s location and role in the body, lipids can make up
anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being
proteins.
 Lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain
the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the
membrane.
Cell Membrane Lipids
1. Phospholipids - a major component of cell membranes.
 Hydrophilic (water-attracting) head regions naturally orient towards the aqueous
cytosol and extracellular fluid, while their hydrophobic (water-repelling) tail
regions turn away from both the cytosol and extracellular fluid.Hydrophilic
(water-attracting) heads face the aqueous cytosol and extracellular fluid, while
hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails point away from them.
 The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse
across the membrane.
2. Cholesterol - lipid component of animal cell membranes.
 selectively dispersed between membrane phospholipids.
 helps to keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by preventing phospholipids
from being too closely packed together.
 is not found in the membranes of plant cells.
3. Glycolipids - located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohydrate sugar
chain attached to them.
 They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.
Membrane Proteins
1. Peripheral membrane proteins are exterior to and connected to the membrane
through interactions with other proteins.
 inserted into the membrane and most pass through the membrane.
 Portions of these transmembrane proteins are exposed on both sides of the
membrane.
 Cell membrane proteins have some different functions.
2. Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.
3. Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with their external
environment through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling
molecules.
4. Transport proteins, globular proteins, transport molecules across cell membranes
through facilitated diffusion.
5. Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They are embedded
in the cell membrane and help in cell-to-cell communications and molecule transport
across the membrane.
Cell transport
 refers to the movement of substances across the cell membrane.
 most important feature of a cell's phospholipid membranes is that they are
selectively permeable.
TYPES
1.Passive Transport
 involves the movement of material along a concentration gradient (high
concentration to low ) and does not require the expenditure of energy.
Types:
a.Simple diffusion – movement of small or lipophilic molecules through the
membrane. (e.g. O2, CO2, etc.)
b.Osmosis – movement of water molecules through the membrane. (dependent on
solute concentrations)
c.Facilitated diffusion – the movement of large or charged molecules via channel
proteins that facilitate the transport (e.g. ions, sucrose, etc.).
2. Active Transport
 involves the movement of materials against a concentration
gradient (low concentration to high concentration)
 it requires the expenditure of energy (e.g. ATP hydrolysis).
Types:
a. Carrier Proteins or Protein Pumps
 An important membrane adaption for active transport is the presence of specific
carrier proteins or pumps to facilitate active transport.
b.Bulk transport
 The movement of macromolecules such as proteins or polysaccharides into or
out of the cell.
 There are two types of bulk transport, exocytosis, and endocytosis, and both
require the expenditure of energy (ATP).
There are two main types of bulk transport:
A. Endocytosis
 cellular mechanism where a cell internalizes substances from the external
environment. They include: Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis and Receptor-
mediated endocytosis.
B. Exocytosis
 process that is used to transport materials from inside the cell to the external
part of the cell using energy.
 uses special vesicles filled with the particles of interest to transport
 a special vesicle bound to the cell membrane, containing the cellular particles
will expel the cell content to the external part of the cell
3 Types of Transport Proteins

1.Channel protein is a type of transport protein, acts like a pore in the membrane
that lets water molecules or small ions through quickly.
 Water channel proteins (aquaporins) allow water to diffuse across the
membrane at a very fast rate.
 Ion channel proteins allow ions to diffuse across the membrane.
2. A gated channel protein is a transport protein that opens a "gate," allowing a
molecule to pass through the membrane.
3. A carrier protein is a transport protein that is specific for an ion, molecule, or
group of substances.
Enzymes
biological catalysts or assistants.
It consists of various types of proteins that work to drive the chemical reaction
required for a specific action or nutrient.
It can either launch a reaction or speed it up.
Enzymes can be divided into two general structural classes: simple enzymes and
conjugated enzymes.
1. Simple enzymes are composed only of proteins or amino acid
chains. Other than amino acid residues, they contain no chemical groups. Pepsin,
trypsin and steapsin are such enzymes.
2. Conjugated enzymes are composed of both a protein part called apoenzyme
and a non- protein part called cofactor.
 Neither of the individual parts of conjugated enzymes exhibit catalytic
properties, however, a combination of the apoenzyme and the cofactor
produces a biochemically active enzyme, called a holoenzyme.
 Enzymes are specific as only one enzyme acts on only one substrate.
 A substrate is the chemical that the enzyme acts on. The enzyme and the
substrate shape match each other exactly like a puzzle in a jigsaw.
 If the substrate is not acted upon by an enzyme it is generally referred as a
reactant. The active site of an enzyme is where the chemical reaction occurs
andis said to be “complementary” to the substrate.
 The chemical reaction results in the production of the end chemical called
product.
The Lock and Key Theory was postulated by Emil Fischer in 1894. This theory
provides a basic overview about the action of enzymes on the substrate.
The other theory is the Induced-fit Theory. Accordingly, the shape of the active site
is not rigid, it is flexible, and it changes, as the substrate comes into contact with the
enzyme.
(ATP), the energy currency of the cell which is utilized to power up different cellular
activities and functions. This process of energy transformation is done through cellular
respiration.One of the metabolic processes that is involved in cellular respiration is the
oxidation- reduction reactions or
REDOX reactions which involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to
another.
 As electrons move, they “carry energy” with them and this energy is harvested
to make ATP. When electrons are transferred from one molecule to another, the
molecule that loses is said to be oxidized, on the other hand, the one that
gains is said to be reduced. So, we have the phrase Oxidation Involves
Losing and Reduction Involves Gaining (OIL RIG)

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SUMMARY NOTES IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 1- Quarter 2

CELL MEMBRANE AND ITS STRUCTURE

3 Types of Transport Proteins

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