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Wind Power Technology
THIRD EDITION
JOSHUA EARNEST
Dean
Planning and Monitoring
Professor of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research
(Under Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India)
Shamla Hills, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
STHUTHI RACHEL
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics Engineering
Ramrao Adik Institute of Technology
D.Y. Patil University, Nerul
Navi-Mumbai
Delhi-110092
2019
WIND POWER TECHNOLOGY, Third Edition
Joshua Earnest and Sthuthi Rachel
© 2019 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
Disclaimer
Every effort has been made to give the correct information and details obtained from various sources believed
to be reliable. However, any inadvertent error or discrepancy, which may have crept in, if brought to the author’s
notice is most welcome. This shall be taken into cognisance in future editions. However, the publisher and the
author are supplying the information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services
and thereby will not be responsible for any errors, omissions, damages or losses caused to anyone due to the use
of information from this book. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should
be sought.
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mudrak, D-61, Sector 63, Noida, U.P.-201301.
To
GOD
Who is Omniscient, Omnipresent and Omnipotent
and
Bindhu Joshua
Koshy Earnest
Mariamma Thomas
Late John A. Earnest
Late Achamma Earnest
Late Saramma Earnest
Late M.T. Thomas
Preface
HE let loose the East wind from the heavens and by HIS power made the South wind blow
—Psalms 78:26 (Bible)
The enthusiastic response to the earlier editions motivated us to bring forth the new
edition with improved and significant changes. The speciality of this edition is that
apart from the significant updation of the 1st chapter of this book, a new Chapter 15
has been added which will be of great interest as it deals with the Electronics
in Renewable Energy Systems. We are thankful to all those who encouraged us
by giving tremendous responses about the book. At the same time, the readers’
feedback and suggestions have been incorporated in several chapters and at the
same time retaining the systematic flow of contents, visuals and pagination of the
1st edition for the readers’ convenience. However, the readers can also note all the
other significant improvements made in the book while reading through the book.
One of the key features of this book is the lucidity of the diagrams and images,
which have been carefully chosen in order to develop a clear understanding of the
various concepts of wind power technology.
Today, wind energy is the world’s fastest growing source of renewable energy.
To abate the global climate change, commercialisation of the renewable energy
technologies and wind power in particular, are growing quite fast across the world.
More and more windy areas are being discovered and every year, grid connected wind
power is growing in leaps and bounds and India is one such happening place, where
the world is watching. Among the renewable energy sources, the cost of producing
one kilowatt hour (kWh) of electrical energy from the wind power is the cheapest.
It is competing almost at par with the other fossil fuel power plants. All this has
become possible because of the recent advancements in electrical, mechanical, power
electronics, digital electronics, materials and other branches of engineering, which
are used in renewable energy technologies.
v
vi l Preface
Although the earlier jointly authored book Wind Power Plants and Project
Development along with Tore Wizelius was written to cater to industrial need, it was
also well received by the academia and training organisations, as such information
was not available in other Indian books. Therefore, it dawned on the author that
there was a niche for an additional book on “wind” to fulfil the needs of the Indian
universities. It is in this backdrop that this book Wind Power Technology got
evolved and now revised to the third edition. Along with the former, this book has
been proved as a good additional resource material to satisfy the needs of various
curricula of different universities and also for those who are interested in developing
a deeper understanding of modern wind power plants.
With the race hotting up, China overtook the USA to occupy the top slot with
the largest capacity of installed wind power plants in the world, a position long held
by the USA for the last several decades. India is also not far behind and is in the
fourth position. In this changed industrial scenario of renewable energy, a number
of universities across India have revised their curricula to give a greater focus to
wind power and renewable energy courses and also to include exclusive wind power
courses in various short and long term engineering and training programmes.
As a result of research and development, the capacities of the large wind turbines
are continuously increasing, the largest one today being the 7.58 MW Enercon wind
turbine, they behave almost similar to the conventional power plants and therefore,
the term wind power plant (WPP) is more relevant. Since the modern WPP integrates
the technologies from various branches of engineering, all the chapters of this book
focus on the various technological principles of these branches that govern the
functioning of a typical modern wind turbine. The concepts and principles have
been written in such a manner that most of the students of the various branches
of engineering would be able to acquire the requisite knowledge to understand the
broad-based technology of the wind turbine.
A unique feature of this book is that along with every figure title, a brief
explanation that follows helps the reader to understand without referring to the
relevant paragraphs again and again. Another salient feature is that the learning
outcome expected to be developed in the student is provided on the title page of
every chapter, thereby helping the reader to focus better on how to learn. Moreover,
worked-out examples are given at relevant places and exercises are given at the
end of the chapters to cement the learning further.
To address some specific curricular needs, Chapter 1 of this book begins by
explaining the basic working principles of the various types of electricity generating
renewable energy technologies and the tremendous potential that they have in India
including the significance of wind power. Chapter 2 discusses the wind characteristics
that are necessary to be understood in the context of electricity generating WPPs.
The WPP being a classic example of a mechatronic machine, Chapter 3 describes
the functions of various components of this state-of-the-art electricity producing
WPP. Chapter 4 explains the working principles on the basis of which the WPPs
are designed to convert most efficiently the wind energy into useful electrical energy.
For safety and to maximise electricity production, Chapter 5 elaborates the
various strategies that can be adapted to aerodynamically control the WPP. Apart
Preface l vii
from the aerodynamic control, there are electrical and electronic control strategies
for additional control of the WPP that are explained in Chapter 6.
WPPs are broadly classified as constant speed and variable speed WPPs. With
considerable amount of research and development being undertaken across the world,
state-of-the-art wind power technologies are adapted for these different categories
of WPPs and explained lucidly using relevant visuals and diagrams in Chapter 7
and Chapter 8.
Chapter 9 discusses about the electrical power quality produced by the different
types of WPPs, while Chapter 10 explains how the different issues are resolved to
integrate this green power into the electrical grid network supported by worked-out
examples and some software simulations as well.
The rest of the chapters will also be of special interest to the students. Chapter 11
on Wind Resource Assessment Technologies describes the different types of wind
related sensors necessary to determine the wind potential at a particular site.
Chapter 12 discusses some of the major Design Considerations of WPPs supported
by some worked-out examples as well.
All those enthusiasts of small wind turbines will be very happy to read Chapter 13.
It explains in detail the essentials related to various types of small wind turbine
technologies hardly found in a single book. Wind Project Life Cycle a concept in the
curricula of some Indian universities is discussed in Chapter 14.
Chapter 15 on Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems is a new chapter in this
edition and will help all students interested in the electronics related to this area.
Finally, to solve the energy crisis, the authors wish that this book may serve
to advance in the greater use of renewable energy and wind power technology in
particular.
Best wishes for a smooth sailing through this book.
Joshua Earnest
Sthuthi Rachel
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, the authors would like to thank Jesus GOD and LORD, who
empowered them and taught them wind power technology, and spurred them to
write this, much needed book for the university students, a unique book of its kind.
The first author thanks to one of his mentors and friend Tore Wizelius, the ‘Guru
of Swedish Wind Power’ and co-author of his first book Wind Power Plants and
Project Development for the encouragement to write this book to cater to the needs
of the university system and for some unique ideas that are reflected in different
sections of this book.
The authors are grateful to all those wind power plant manufacturers, individuals
and other websites who have extended their cooperation directly or indirectly in
permitting them to use the pictures duly acknowledged under each visual and
thus, help in the cause of spreading the knowledge of this green and clean energy.
The authors also thank the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and
DOE—Subcontract Report NREL/SR-500-35524, entitled Northern Power Systems
WindPACT Drive Train Alternative Design Study Report; Period of Performance:
April 12, 2001 to January 31, 2005, by G. Bywaters, V. John, J. Lynch, P. Mattila,
G. Norton, J. Stowell, M. Salata, O. Labath, A. Chertok, and D. Hablanian for use
of their pictures.
The first author extends his thanks to the feedback of his students spread
over different continents of the globe who have attended his wind power training
programmes over the past several years, whom he taught in the face-to-face sessions,
conference rooms during the wind farm visits and also in the e-classroom of the
distance mode training programmes offered by National Institute of Technical
Teachers’ Training and Research (NITTTR) Bhopal.
Here, the authors would like to admit that the concepts, ideas and discussions
contained in this book are also the result of the interactions with various wind
power plant manufacturers, their brochures, Websites, wind farm developers and
ix
x l Acknowledgements
authors of wind related books. They are also thankful to the authors of various
journal papers, research reports, conference proceedings, and monographs which
they have referred to extensively and duly acknowledged them in the bibliography.
The first author is also grateful to Thomas Ackerman, author of Wind Electric
Systems and founder, Energynautics GmbH, Germany as well as to his close friend
Sven Ruin, CEO of Teroc, Sweden, who has given him valuable feedback regarding
the earlier wind power book. He also owes his sincere thanks to his friend Henk
Polinder of Delft University, The Netherlands, whose numerous papers, articles and
discussions have considerably educated him about wind power. His thanks also go
to his close friends Lars Hallen, Founder & Chairman, LIFE Academy, Sweden and
Bo Gillgren for their encouragement. Special thanks are due to his friends of the
Union of Evangelical students of India, whose encouragement and prayers spurred
him on in this endeavour. He would also like to thank his colleagues Ms. Susan
S. Mathew, A.S. Walkey, Shashikant Gupta, N.P. Patidar and other friends and
well-wishers who have directly or indirectly supported him in this book writing
project. He also grateful to Aditya Patil, PRDC, Bangalore, and Dr. Vinod Kumar of
Maharana Pratap Univesity, Udaipur, Rajasthan for their valuable academic inputs.
The authors would also like to thank Dr. C. Thangaraj, Director of National
Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training Institute, Bhopal, India, for his constant
support to academics, writing and publishing.
The authors appreciate the work of Ms. Shivani Garg, Ms. Babita Mishra,
Ms. Lakshmi, Mr. Suman Kumar and Mr. Ajai Kumar Lal Das of PHI Learning
for their meticulous work in meeting the publishing deadline.
Last, but most important, the authors thank to the unstinting support of
Mrs. Bindhu Joshua, who has greatly sacrificed many of her precious hours and
encouraged them in completing this book during these long years. They would like
to express their deep gratitude to her from the bottom of their hearts.
Joshua Earnest
Sthuthi Rachel
Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements ix
List of Symbols/Notations xix
Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii
Bibliography 455–462
Index 463–468
List of Symbols/Notations
xix
xx l List of Symbols/Notations
m Micro (10–6) —
n Number of wind turbine rotor blades —
N Revolutions per minute —
Nm (N) newton meter (unit of force in SI units) —
Ns Synchronous speed of generator —
P Active power (kW) —
p Number of poles of an electrical generator Air pressure
p.u. Per unit —
Pe Electrical power delivered by the generator —
Pkin Kinetic power in wind or energy/second (W or J/s) —
Pm Mechanical power produced by the wind turbine rotor —
Q Reactive power kVAr —
R Radius of rotor Resistance
RA Armature resistance —
Rk Reactance of grid —
Re Reynolds number —
s Second Slip of induction generator
Ss Speed of sound
Ssc Short circuit power —
T Torque Time (s); period of rotation
of rotor; tera (1012), and
tesla
Taero Aerodynamic torque of wind turbine rotor shaft —
Tgen Torque of electrical generator rotor shaft —
U Potential energy of wind turbine shaft —
V volt —
VG Generating voltage —
VS Transmission (or sending end) voltage —
v Wind velocity (m/s) —
vd Downstream wind velocity after energy is extracted
and passing through the blades of the rotor —
vh Number of hourly wind speed values during the month —
vmean Mean wind speed —
vo Undisturbed wind velocity before impinging on wind
turbine rotor —
vtip Wind velocity at blade tip —
W watt —
X Reactance —
Xk Reactance of grid —
Xs Synchronous reactance —
Z Impedance —
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AC Alternating Current
AD Accelerated Depreciation
ADC Analogue to Digital Converter
AEP Annual Energy Production
AF-PMSG Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
agl Above ground level
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASC Active-Stall Control
AWEA American Wind Energy Association
BDIG Brushless Doubly-fed Induction Generators
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
BWEA British Wind Energy Association
CCT Critical fault Clearing Time
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CEA Central Electricity Authority
CER Certified Emission reduction Receipt
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polyester
CHB Cascaded H-Bridge
CMS Condition Monitoring System
CoE Cost of Energy
CRGO Cold Rolled Grain Oriented
CSI Current Source Inverter
CSP Concentrating Solar Power
CTU Central Transmission Utility
dB Decibel (measure of sound levels)
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
xxiii
xxiv l Acronyms and Abbreviations
DC Direct Current
DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (pesticide)
DFIG Doubly-Fed Induction Generator
DG Distributed Generation
DisCom Distribution Company
DMPPT Decentralised maximum power point tracker
DNES Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources
DNO Distribution Network Operator
DST Department of Science and Technology
DVR Dynamic Voltage Restorer
EIA Environment Impact Assessment
EMI Electro Magnetic Interference
EPF Energy Pattern Factor
EU European Union
EWEA European Wind Energy Association
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System
FRT Fault-Ride-Through (similar to LVRT)
GBI Generation-Based Incentive
GEDA Gujarat (and Goa) Energy Development Agency
GIS Geographical Information Systems
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GPRS General Packet Radio Service (used by GSM mobile phones)
GR Gearbox Ratio
GRP or GFRP Glass-fibre Reinforced Plastic
GSC Grid-Side Converter
GTO Gate Turn-On Thyristor
GWh Gigawatt hours
HF High Frequency
Hg Mercury
HWRT High Wind Ride Through
Hz hertz [i.e., electric power frequency (in cycles per second)]
IC Integrated Chips
IEA International Energy Agency
IEA 2003 Indian Electricity Act 2003
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IG Induction Generator
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor
IREDA Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
JNNSM Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
kVA kilovolt ampere
kVArH kilovolt ampere reactive hours
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt hours
Acronyms and Abbreviations l xxv
C h a p t e r H i g h l i g h t s
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Renewable energy sources bridging the
energy gap
1.3 Small hydel power plants
1.4 Geothermal power plants
1.5 Solar power plants
1.6 Biomass power plants
1.7 Ocean energy power plants
1.8 Wind power plants
1.9 Drivers and bottlenecks for wind power
development
1.10 Strengths and limitations of wind power
1
2 l Wind Power Technology
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and
continually replenished either at the same rate or faster than the rate at which
they are being used up by humans more or less indefinitely such as the sun, wind,
rain, tides, biomass and geothermal energy. Green energy, alternative energy and
sustainable energy are the other synonyms sometimes used to describe the renewable
energy that is converted into either electricity, heat or mechanical power for use
in homes or in industries by clean, harmless and non-polluting methods. But it is
important to understand the differences between the technologies used by each of
the different sources to make the right choice for any particular application.
The crude oil crisis which began in 1971 and the continuously increasing prices
for fossil fuels, has adversely affected the economic growth of developing countries.
This woke up the world to look for the alternative and sustainable energy solutions.
Therefore, energy security calls for using renewable energy resources. With rapid
economic growth, the demand for energy is increasing. Energy is by far the largest
industry in the world. It is worth about US $ 7 trillion per year while the world’s
total GDP is about US $ 55 trillion. Thus, the energy industry is worth more
than 10% of the entire world’s economy. As reported by Renewable Energy World
Magazine in their February 2, 2018 Issue, for the first time in history in 2017 in
the 28 nation European Union, the power from renewables generated jointly by
wind, solar and biomass was an all time high of 20.9% of all power, overtaking the
power generated by coal which was down to 20.6%.
Since 1980s, the government of India (and many other governments) has
introduced myriad of incentives for the use and promotion of renewable energy
sources. This chapter has been written to make the reader aware of the vast potential
of renewable energy and it also provides an overview of the various renewable
energy technologies. It is expected that this chapter will encourage and motivate
the reader to undertake further study and research with the ultimate aim to make
the concerned renewable energy technology efficient, reliable techno-economical and
commercially viable for the community at large. Table 1.1 shows a comparison of
renewable and conventional energy.
1. A versköltők.
2. A színpad.
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